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Chapter SixChapter Six
Sediments & Sedimentary RocksSediments & Sedimentary Rocks
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Sediment• Sediment - loose, solid particles originating from:
– Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks
– Chemical precipitation from solution, including secretion by organisms in water
• Classified by particle size – Boulder - >256 mm
– Cobble - 64 to 256 mm
– Pebble - 2 to 64 mm
– Sand - 1/16 to 2 mm
– Silt - 1/256 to 1/16 mm
– Clay - <1/256 mm
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SEDIMENTATION AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
I. INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
i) 75% OF ROCKS EXPOSED AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE
ii) SOURCE OF FOSSIL FUELS, IRON AND ALUMINUM
ORES, ALUMINUM ORES, AND GROUNDWATER
iii) RECORD OF EARTH’S HISTORY
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TYPES OF SEDIMENT
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II ORIGIN OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
A. INTRODUCTION1. REVIEW OF WEATHERING PROCESSES:
2. CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTS a) DETRITAL SEDIMENT: PREEXISTING FRAGMENTS OF PREEXISTING
IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS b) CHEMICAL SEDIMENT: PRECIPITATED FROM WATER OR
EXTRACTED BY ORGANISMS AND DEPOSITED LATER B. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND TEXTURE
1. INTRODUCTION i) TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION OF CHEMICAL SEDIMENTS ii) TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION OF DETRITAL SEDIMENTS
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2. GRAIN SIZE – CONTROLLED BY: a) NATURE OF PARENT ROCKS
b) NATURE AND ENERGY LEVEL OF TRANSPORT MEDIUM
1) SORTING
WELL-SORTED: WIND MOST SELECTIVE
POORLY-SORTED: GLACIERS AND FLOODING RIVERS SORT
POORLY
2) CURRENT VELOCITY
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•3) GRAIN SHAPE - DEPENDS ON:
• a) TRANSPORT MEDIA: SWIFTLY FLOWING RIVERS BOUNCE PEBBLES • • AND SAND GRAINS AROUND VIGOROUSLY • • b) DISTANCE FROM PARENT ROCK (AT THE BASE IF A GLACIER MAY• • BE GROUND TO A ROCKY POWDER)• • c)MINERAL HARDNESS:
Grain size
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Sediment in a Stream
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C. SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES: 1. BEDDING (STRATIFICATION): ARRANGMENT OF SEDIMENT
PARTICLES INTO DISTINCT LAYERS
a) CHANGES IN SEDIMENT:
b) CHANGES IN TRANSPORT ENERGY
2. GRADED BEDDINGS: SEDIMENT LAYER (FORMED BY A SINGLE
DEPOSITONAL EVENT) IN WHICH PARTICLE SIZE VARIES
GRADUALLY WITH THE COARSEST PARTICLES ON THE BOTTOM
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Development of a bedding plane
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Develop. Bedding plane-contd.
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Develop. Bedding plane contd.
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Graded bedding of sediment
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Development of cross-bedding
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•4. CEMENTATION: PRECIPITATION OF DISSOLVED IONS IN THE PORE • • SPACE• a) CALCIUM CARBONATE•• b) SILICA•• c) IRON COMPOUNDS• •5.CLASTIC TEXTURE: FORMED BY COMPACTION AND CEMENTATION OF • • SEDIMENT PARTICLES HAS CLASTIC TEXTURE• •6.RECRYSTALLIZATION: RECRYSTALLIZATION OF CERTAIN UNSTABLE
• MINERALS INTO NEW, MORE STABLE MINERALS•
Cementation & Recrystallization
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III. CLASSICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
• MUDSTONES
• SANDSTONES
• CONGLOMERATES
• BRECCIAS
A. DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
1. INTRODUCTION: CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
PARTICLE SIZE
a) ALL DETRITAL ROCKS ARE CLASTIC
b) SAND AND SILT PREDOMINANTLY QUARTZ
c) FINER-SIZED PARTICLES OF CLAY MINERALS
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2. MUDSTONES
a) MORE THAN HALF OF ALL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
b) CONTAIN THE SMALLEST PARTICLES (0.004 mm IN DIAMETER)
c) ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION: LAKES, LAGOONS, DEEP OCEAN BASINS, RIVER FLOODPLAINS
d) COLOR VARIETY OF SHALE REPRESENTS MINERAL COMPOSITION
e) PRACTICAL USES OF SHALE: BRICKS, CERAMICS, CEMENT, AND OIL SHALE
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3.SANDSTONES:
a) 25% OF ALL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
b) SANDSTONE PARTICLES (1/16-2 MM IN DIAMETER)
c) PRACTICAL USES OF SANDSTONES: BUILDINGS AND RESERVOIR FOR FOSSIL FUELS AND GROUNDWATER 4.CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS
a) GRAINS LARGER THAN 2 MM
b) CONGLOMERATES HAVE ROUNDED GRAINS
c) BRECCIAS HAVE ANGULAR GRAINS
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B. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
a) LIMESTONE (INORGANIC)
i) FORMATION
ii) OOLITIC LIMESTONE
iii) TUFA
iv) TRAVERTINE
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3. CROSS-BEDDING: SEDIMENTARY LAYERS DEPOSITED AT AN
ANGLE TO THE UNDERLYING SET OF BEDS 4. SURFACE SEDIMENTARY FEATURES
a) RIPPLE MARKS: SMALL SURFACE RIDGES PRODUCED WHEN
WATER OR WIND FLOWS OVER SEDIMENT AFTER IT IS
DEPOSITED b) MUDCRACKS: OCCUR ON THE TOP OF A SEDIMENT LAYER
WHEN MUDDY SEDIMENT DRIES AND CONTRACTS
Cross-bedding & mudcracks
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Origin of mud cracks
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Asymmetric and symmetric ripples
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D. LITHIFICATION: TURNING SEDIMENT INTO
SEDIMENTARY ROCK • 1. DEFINITION OF DIAGENESIS: CHANGES IN THE
SEDIMENT DUE TO INCRESED HEAT, PRESSURE, AND CIRCULATING GROUNDWATER
• 2. DEFINITION OF LITHIFICATION: END RESULT OF DIAGENESIS
•
• 3. COMPACTION: DIAGENETIC PROCESS BY WHICH THE WEIGHT OF OVERLYING MATERIALS REDUCES THE VOLUME OF SEDIMENTARY BODY
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Lithification of sediment
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Initial deposits of flat/tabular clay
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Formation of ooliths
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Locations of subsurface evaporite
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Formation of coal from swamp deposits
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Formation of coal –contd.
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Common geological environment
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Geology at a glance
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Marine sedimentary environment
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Sedimentary facies formation
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Sedi. Facies formation – contd.
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Landword Migration
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Chapter Summary• % of sedimentary rocks in outer 10 miles• Basic classification of sedimentary rocks• Most sedi. Rocks – Chemical or detrital• Definition of sedimentary rocks• Sorting by wind, glaciers (well sorted vs poor sorting)• Degree of sedimentary particle rounding• Bedding plane, sedimentary structure, occurrence• Diagenesis, Lithification, Cementation• Composition of detrital sedimentary rocks• Environment – deposition of shale• Breccia and Conglomerate• Oolitic Limestone• Definition of Sedimentary Facies – Characteristics that distinguish
one from another