Download - Chemistry
![Page 1: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chemistry
Macromolecules
![Page 2: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Macromolecules
• Small molecules linked together to create large molecules
– Have shape created by hydrogen bonding, sulfhydryl bonding, polarity, etc.
• FORM FITS FUNCTION
– Ex. Proteins do ‘everything’
![Page 3: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Protein
![Page 4: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Stanley Miller Linus Pauling
![Page 5: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Carbon bonds 4 times in multiple ways
Creates great variety
![Page 6: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Hydrocarbons
![Page 7: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
ISOMER
![Page 8: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Isomers = molecules
with the same formula but
different structural
formulae; not isotope
![Page 9: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
AMP
ATP
GTP
![Page 10: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Differences in functional groups
What is a functional group?
![Page 11: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
![Page 12: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Ethane
Ethanol
Functional group
![Page 13: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Functional groups -Create the necessary variety of shapes of macromolecules for life to exist
![Page 14: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Dehydration synthesis =
enzymatically controlled
formation of large molecules by
removal of water
![Page 15: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Macromolecules
• Monomers + monomers + monomers = polymers
• Produced by DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
• Hydrolysis – breakdown of macromolecules by the addition of water
• Enzymes
![Page 16: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Macromolecules• What do you need to know for each
macromolecule important to life:
– Structure
– Monomers
– Function in organisms
![Page 17: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Macromolecules
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
![Page 18: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Carbohydrates
• Carbon + water (hydrate)
• Basic formula: CH2O(n)
• Monomers = monosaccharide (‘one sugar’)
• End in ‘ose’
![Page 19: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Monosaccharides
• Glucose C6H12O6
• Many monomers form rings in aqueous solutions to become more stable
• Monomers may be functional:
– Glucose is primary source of energy for organisms
![Page 20: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Carbohydrates• Monomer + monomer = dimer• Monosaccharide + monosaccharide = disaccharide • Glucose + glucose = maltose• Glucose + fructose = sucrose• Glucose + galactose = lactose
![Page 21: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
![Page 22: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Polysaccharides
• Polymers of monosaccharides
• Type of monosaccharide and arrangement creates variation in polysaccharides
• Starch (Amylose, amylopectin) = plants
• Glycogen = energy storage for animals
• Cellulose = plant cell walls
• Chitin = exoskeleton of arthropods, some fungi
![Page 23: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
![Page 24: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Carbohydrates: Function
• Energy; stored energy (which?)
• Structure – (which?)
• Cell-to-cell communication, identification (glycoproteins, glycolipids)
– Antigens /antibodies
![Page 25: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Lipids • InsolubleInsoluble in water; (long, nonpolar
hydrocarbon chains) • Basic formula: C50H70O6
• Three types:– Fats, oils, waxes– Phospholipids – Steroids
![Page 26: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Lipids: Fats
• Macromolecules of glycerol + 3 fatty acids
• Glycerol = glyc = ‘sugar’ C3H8O3
• Fatty acids = hydrocarbon chain (16-18 carbons)– Hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic
![Page 27: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Lipids: Fats
• Fats = triglycerides (3 fatty acids)
• Structure of the fatty acid chains creates variety in types of fats
– Saturated – full of hydrogen atoms; no double bonds
– Unsaturated – not full; double bond(s)
![Page 28: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
![Page 29: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Types of Fats
• Saturated
• No double bonds• Saturated• Solids @ (200)• Animal fats• Bacon grease, lard,
butter
• Unsaturated • Double bond(s)• Unsaturated• Liquids @ (200)• Plant fats (oil)• Corn, peanut, olive
oils
![Page 30: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Link between an acid and a sugar
![Page 31: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Triglycerides
• Important to diet
• Limit amount of saturated fats
• Hydrocarbon chains are high in energy
• More difficult to breakdown
• Link to triglycerides and arteriosclerosis
![Page 32: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Lipids: Phospholipids
• Glycerol + 2 fatty acids • 3rd position on the glycerol is taken by a phosphate
group (PO4)
![Page 33: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Phospholipids
• Major component of cell membrane
• ‘head’ end (glycerol) is polar (term?)• Hydrophilic = “water loving”• ‘tail’ end is non-polar (term?)• Hydrophobic = “water fearing”
![Page 34: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
![Page 35: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Phospholipids• Phospholipids in water form a micelle
• First prokaryotes evolved when phospholipids formed micelles in water (?)
• Abiogenesis
![Page 36: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Steroids
• 4 fused carbon rings + functional group
• Insoluble in water
• Ex. Cholesterol
– Between fatty acids tails of phospholipids
– Help to moderate the effects of extreme temperatures
![Page 37: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
![Page 38: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Steroids
• Precursors of sex hormones
• Too much causes atherosclerosis (?)
![Page 39: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Importance
• Energy (?)• Padding (?)• Insulation (?)• Structure (?)• Hormones (?)
![Page 40: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Proteins
• Many shapes = many functions
• ‘first place’
• Polymers of AMINO ACIDS
• Linked by PEPTIDE BONDS
• POLYPEPTIDES
• Proteins = folded, shaped polypeptides
![Page 41: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
![Page 42: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Proteins: Amino Acids
• 2 carbon skeleton
– Amino group
– Carboxyl group
– H atom
• Side group (R group)
![Page 43: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Proteins: Amino Acids
• R group determines properties of the aa– Some are polar, some are nonpolar– Polar may be acidic or alkaline
• 20 different amino acids• Essential = body cannot produce on its own
![Page 44: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
![Page 45: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Proteins
• Peptide bonds are the result of dehydration synthesis
• Amino group reacts with carboxyl group of adjacent amino acid
• Polypeptide - string of polypeptide bonds
![Page 46: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Proteins• Function depends upon shape
• Conformation – 3d shape caused by H-bonds
– Fold and twist the amino acids
• Globular
– Insulin, enzymes
• Fibrous = ‘stringy’
– Silk, muscle
![Page 47: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
![Page 48: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Proteins
• Four levels of protein structure that give a protein its unique shape:
– Primary
– Secondary
– Tertiary
– Quaternary
![Page 49: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Proteins: Primary Structure
• Sequence of amino acids
– Determined by genetic code
– ‘goof’ in sequence can have harmful or lethal effects
![Page 50: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Secondary Structure
• Folds or twists created by H-bonding in the carbon backbone; NOT the R group
• 2 types: both may be in a protein – Alpha - helix – Beta - pleated sheet
![Page 51: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Tertiary Structure• Irregular contortions caused
by bonding of R groups:– Ionic, hydrogen, disulfide
bridges (covalent)• Hydrophobic interaction -
nonpolar portions tend to line up in core of the protein
![Page 52: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Quaternary Structure
• Multiple polypeptides in one giant protein
– Hemoglobin (heme + globin)
![Page 53: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Protein Shape
• Primary – (?)• Secondary – (?)• Tertiary – (?) • Quaternary – (?)
![Page 54: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
![Page 55: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Denaturation
• Alteration of conformational shape
• Caused by:
– pH, salinity, organic solvents (alcohols, carbon tetrachloride, acetone, etc.), heat, inorganic chemicals that dissolve bonds (HCl)
• Some change shape to function
– Receptor, contractile
![Page 56: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Denatured proteins are the cause of….
![Page 57: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Polypeptide to Protein
• Polypeptides are NOT proteins– Need to be folded into conformational
shape• Chaperonins = proteins that aid in the
folding into conformational shape• Knowledge of protein folding helps to
manufacture proteins
![Page 58: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
![Page 59: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Determining the Structure of Molecules
• X-ray diffraction
• Electron density map
• Computer
![Page 60: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
![Page 61: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
Rosalind Franklin: X-ray diffraction of
DNA
![Page 62: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Nucleic Acids
• DNA, RNA
• Polymers of nucleotides
• Nucleotide:
– Simple sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
– Nitrogenous base
– Phosphate group (PO3)
![Page 63: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
4 nitrogenous bases: Purines Pyrimidines
![Page 64: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Nucleic Acids
• Nitrogenous bases are complimentary
• A-T
• C-G
• Hydrogen bonds
• Sugar-phosphate backbone
![Page 65: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
![Page 66: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
![Page 67: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
H bonding
![Page 68: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
![Page 69: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Relationship between
nucleic acids and proteins
![Page 70: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
![Page 71: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
![Page 72: Chemistry](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062519/56814cfd550346895dba1fa9/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)