Robert J. Marzano John S. Kendall
Designing&AssessingEducational
ObjectivesApplying the New T New Taaxonomyxonomy
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Marzano, Robert J.Designing and assessing educational objectives : applying the new taxonomy/by Robert J. Marzanoand John S. Kendall.
p. cm.A joint publication with the American Association of School Administrators, the NationalAssociation of Elementary School Principals, and the National Association of Secondary SchoolPrincipals.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4129-4034-4 (cloth)ISBN 978-1-4129-4035-1 (pbk.)
1. Education—Aims and objectives—Evaluation. I. Kendall, John S. II. Title.
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Contents
About the Authors vii
1. A New Perspective on Educational Objectives 1
2. The New Taxonomy in Brief 9
3. Retrieval Objectives and Tasks 25
4. Comprehension Objectives and Tasks 43
5. Analysis Objectives and Tasks 55
6. Knowledge Utilization Objectives and Tasks 93
7. Metacognition Objectives and Tasks 117
8. Self-System Objectives and Tasks 143
9. The New Taxonomy as a Scale for Student Performance 167
Afterword 179
References 180
Index 181
About the Authors
Dr. Robert J. Marzano is President and founder ofMarzano & Associates in Centennial, Colorado, SeniorScholar at Mid-continent Research for Education andLearning (McREL) in Aurora, Colorado, and AssociateProfessor at Cardinal Stritch University in Milwaukee,Wisconsin. He is the author of 30 books, 150 articles andchapters in books, and 100 sets of curriculum materials forteachers and students in Grades K–12. His works include
The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, What Works in Schools:Translating Research Into Action, School Leadership That Works, BuildingBackground Knowledge for Academic Achievement, Classroom Management ThatWorks, Classroom Instruction That Works, Classroom Assessment and GradingThat Work, and The Art and Science of Teaching.
During his forty years in public education, Marzano has worked multipletimes in every state as well as in a host of countries in Europe and Asia. Thecentral theme in his work has been translating research and theory into practicalprograms and tools for K–12 teachers and administrators.
vii
John S. Kendall is a Senior Director in research atMcREL. There he directs a technical assistance unitthat develops and provides standards-related servicesfor schools, districts, states, and other organizations.Clients have included Achieve, Inc., The College Board,and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Lab. He has been with McRELseventeen years as Research Assistant, Program Associate,and Senior Director.
An internationally recognized expert in the development and improvement ofstandards for education, Kendall has consulted for more than fifty school districtsand fourteen state departments of education as well as education agencies in theU.S. territories and abroad. Senior author of Content Knowledge: A Compendium
of Standards and Benchmarks for K–12 Education, he has authored or coauthoredsix books and more than thirty monographs, technical studies, and articles. Hereceived his undergraduate and master’s degrees from the University of Coloradoat Boulder.
Kendall’s current research and technical assistance efforts include working withclients to establish performance standards for the classroom, developing standardsfor principals, and identifying the knowledge and skills that help students learn.
viii Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
CH A P T E R ON E
A New Perspective on Educational Objectives
ObjectivesThis handbook is a guide to the design and assessment of educational objec-
tives. It is a practical application of The New Taxonomy of Educational(Marzano & Kendall, 2007). While the New Taxonomy has a number
of potential uses, here we focus on designing and assessing educational objectives.As indicated by its title, The New Taxonomy is designed as a replacement forBloom et al.’s taxonomy, published in 1956 (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, &Krathwohl, 1956) Although that work was powerful and enduring, it had someflaws and inconsistencies that can now be reconciled, given the sixty-plus years ofresearch and theory since its publication (for a detailed discussion, see Marzano &Kendall, 2007).
Bloom’s taxonomy made a major contribution to the science of designing edu-cational objectives. Indeed, prior to its publication, there was not much agreementas to the nature of objectives. Bloom adopted Ralph Tyler’s (Airasian, 1994)notion that an educational objective should contain a clear reference to a specifictype of knowledge as well as the behaviors that would signal understanding orskill related to that knowledge.
Like Bloom’s taxonomy and others based on it (e.g., Anderson et al., 2001),the New Taxonomy has a specific syntax for educational objectives. We use thefollowing stem for all objectives: The student (or students) will be able to . . . plusa verb phrase and an object. The verb phrase states the mental process that is to beemployed while completing the objective, and the object is the knowledge that isthe focus of the objective.
The New Taxonomy can be represented as depicted in Figure 1.1. The rowson the left-hand side of Figure 1.1 represent three systems of thought and inthe case of the cognitive system, four subcomponents of that system. The columnson the right-hand side of Figure 1.1 depict three different types or domains of
1
2 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 1.1 The New Taxonomy
Level 6
Self-System
Level 5
Metacognitive System
Level 4
Knowledge Utilization (Cognitive System)
Level 3
Analysis (Cognitive System)
Information
Mental P
rocedures
Psychom
otor Procedures
Level 2
Comprehension (Cognitive System)
Level 1
Retrieval (Cognitive System)
Domain
s of K
nowledge
Levels of Processing
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
knowledge: information, mental procedures, and psychomotor procedures. Ineffect, the New Taxonomy is two-dimensional. One dimension addresses threedomains of knowledge; the other addresses levels of mental processing.
One of the defining differences between Bloom’s taxonomy and the NewTaxonomy is that the New Taxonomy separates various types of knowledge fromthe mental processes that operate on them. This is depicted in Figure 1.2.
As shown in Figure 1.2, Bloom included knowledge as a component of histaxonomy. About this, Bloom and his colleagues (1956) noted,
By knowledge, we mean that the student can give evidence that heremembers either by recalling or by recognizing some idea or phenome-non with which he has had experience in the educational process. For ourtaxonomy purposes, we are defining knowledge as little more than theremembering of the idea or phenomenon in a form very close to that inwhich it was originally encountered. (pp. 28–29)
On the other hand, Bloom identified specific types of knowledge within theknowledge category. These included
Terminology
Specific facts
Conventions
Trends or sequences
Classifications and categories
Criteria
Methodology
Principles and generalizations
Theories and structures
Thus within his knowledge category, Bloom included various forms of knowl-edge as well as the ability to recall and recognize that knowledge. This mixing oftypes of knowledge with the various mental operations that act on knowledge isone of the major weaknesses of Bloom’s Taxonomy since it confuses the object ofan action with the action itself. The New Taxonomy avoids this confusion by pos-tulating three domains of knowledge that are operated on by the three systems ofthought and their component elements. It is the systems of thought that have thehierarchical structure that constitutes the New Taxonomy.
We consider the specifics of the New Taxonomy in Chapter 2. Here we brieflyintroduce the framework to demonstrate the nature and format of the educationalobjectives that can be designed and assessed using it. To illustrate, consider Figure 1.3.
A New Perspective on Educational Objectives 3
Figure 1.2 Knowledge as Addressed in the Two Taxonomies
Self-SystemEvaluation
Metacognitive SystemSynthesis Cognitive System
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
KnowledgeKnowledge
Bloom’s Taxonomy New Taxonomy
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
4 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 1.3 General Form of Educational Objectives for Each Level of the New
Taxonomy
New TaxonomyLevel Operation General Form of Objectives
Level 6: Examining The student will be able to identify how importantSelf-System Importance the information, mental procedure, or psychomotorThinking procedure is to him or her and the reasoning underlying
this perception.
Examining The student will be able to identify beliefs about his orEfficacy her ability to improve competence or understanding
relative to the information, mental procedure, orpsychomotor procedure and the reasoning underlyingthis perception.
Examining The student will be able to identify his or her emotionalEmotional responses to the information, mental procedure, orResponse psychomotor procedure and the reasons for these
responses.
Examining The student will be able to identify his or her overall levelMotivation of motivation to improve competence or understanding
relative to the information, mental procedure, orpsychomotor procedure and the reasons for this levelof motivation.
Level 5: Specifying The student will be able to establish a goal relative toMetacognition Goals the information, mental procedure, or psychomotor
procedure and a plan for accomplishing that goal.
Process The student will be able to monitor progress toward theMonitoring accomplishment of a specific goal relative to the
information, mental procedure, or psychomotor procedure.
Monitoring The student will be able to determine the extent to whichClarity he or she has clarity about the information, mental
procedure, or psychomotor procedure.
Monitoring The student will be able to determine the extent to whichAccuracy he or she is accurate about the information, mental
procedure, or psychomotor procedure.
Level 4: Decision Making The student will be able to use the information, mentalKnowledge procedure, or psychomotor procedure to make decisionsUtilization in general or make decisions about the use of the
information, mental procedure, or psychomotor procedure.
Problem Solving The student will be able to use the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure to solve problems ingeneral or solve problems about the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure.
Experimenting The student will be able to use the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure to generateand test hypotheses in general or generate and testhypotheses about the information, mental procedure,or psychomotor procedure.
A New Perspective on Educational Objectives 5
New TaxonomyLevel Operation General Form of Objectives
Investigating The student will be able to use the information,mental procedure, or psychomotor procedure toconduct investigations in general or conductinvestigations about the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure.
Level 3: Analysis Matching The student will be able to identify importantsimilarities and differences relative to theinformation, mental procedure, or psychomotorprocedure.
Classifying The student will be able to identify superordinateand subordinate categories relative to theinformation, mental procedure, or psychomotorprocedure.
Analyzing Errors The student will be able to identify errors in thepresentation or use of the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure.
Generalizing The student will be able to construct newgeneralizations or principles based on theinformation, mental procedure, or psychomotorprocedure.
Specifying The student will be able to identify logicalconsequences of the information, mentalprocedure, or psychomotor procedure.
Level 2:Comprehension
Integrating The student will be able to identify the basicstructure of the information, mental procedure,or psychomotor procedure and the critical asopposed to noncritical characteristics.
Symbolizing The student will be able to construct an accuratesymbolic representation of the information,mental procedure, or psychomotor proceduredifferentiating critical and noncritical elements.
Level 1: Retrieval Recognizing The student will be able to validate correctstatements about features of information,but not necessarily understand the structureof the knowledge or differentiate critical andnoncritical components.
Recalling The student will be able to produce features ofinformation, but not necessarily understand thestructure of the knowledge or differentiate criticaland noncritical components.
Executing The student will be able to perform a procedurewithout significant error, but not necessarilyunderstand how and why the procedure works.
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
The rows of Figure 1.3 represent the various levels of the New Taxonomy. Thethird column of Figure 1.3 portrays a generic form of the objectives that might begenerated for each level of the New Taxonomy. Subsequent chapters provide spe-cific examples of educational objectives, along with tasks that might be used toassess those objectives, for each level of the New Taxonomy across the threedomains of knowledge. To obtain a sense of the objectives that might be generatedand assessed using the New Taxonomy it is useful to start with retrieval objectives—the bottom of the New Taxonomy.
Retrieval objectives involve the recognition, recall, and execution of basicinformation and procedures. These are very common in education and wereaddressed in Bloom’s “knowledge” level.
Comprehension objectives involve identifying and symbolizing the criticalfeatures of knowledge. These too are quite common among educational objec-tives. Comprehension in the New Taxonomy is similar to comprehension inBloom’s taxonomy; however, Bloom’s taxonomy does not contain a process akinto symbolizing knowledge.
Analysis objectives involve reasoned extensions of knowledge. They aresometimes referred to as higher order in that they require students to make infer-ences that go beyond what was directly taught. The New Taxonomy involves fivetypes of analysis processes: matching, classifying, analyzing errors, generating,and specifying. Matching in the New Taxonomy is similar to what Bloom refersto as analysis of relationships within Level 4.0 (analysis) of his taxonomy.Classifying in the New Taxonomy is similar to what Bloom refers to as identify-ing a set of abstract relations within Level 5.0 (synthesis) of his taxonomy.Analyzing errors in the New Taxonomy is similar to what is referred to as judginginternal evidence within Level 6.0 (evaluation) of Bloom’s taxonomy. It is alsosimilar to analysis of organizing principles within Level 4.0 (analysis) of Bloom’staxonomy. Generalizing and specifying in the New Taxonomy are embedded inmany components from Levels 4, 5, and 6 of Bloom’s taxonomy.
Knowledge utilization objectives are employed when knowledge is used toaccomplish a specific task. Such objectives are frequently a part of what someeducators refer to as authentic tasks. The New Taxonomy includes four knowledgeutilization processes: decision making, problem solving, experimenting, and inves-tigating. The overall category of knowledge utilization is most closely related tosynthesis (Level 5.0) in Bloom’s taxonomy.
Metacognitive objectives address setting and monitoring goals. Although theimportance of these behaviors is recognized by educators, it is rare that specificobjectives are written that involve metacognition. The New Taxonomy includesfour types of metacognitive processes: specifying goals, process monitoring, mon-itoring clarity, and monitoring accuracy. No obvious corollary can be found inBloom’s taxonomy.
6 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Self-system objectives address attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that controlmotivation. As is the case with metacognition, self-system processes seem to bevalued by educators but are rarely addressed in terms of explicit objectives. TheNew Taxonomy includes four types of self-system processes: examining impor-tance, examining efficacy, examining emotional response, and examining overallmotivation. No obvious corollary can be found in Bloom’s taxonomy.
CONCLUSIONS
As illustrated in very general terms in Figure 1.3, the New Taxonomy can be usedto generate and assess a wide range of objectives covering three domains ofknowledge (information, mental procedures, and psychomotor procedures) andthree categories of processes (cognitive, metacognitive, and self-system). This isnot to say that schools and districts should include objectives for all six levels ofthe New Taxonomy at all grade levels. As we demonstrate in Chapter 9, we recommend that metacognitive and self-system thinking be considered a comple-mentary and supportive curriculum to the first four levels of the New Taxonomy(retrieval, comprehension, analysis, and knowledge utilization), which are consid-ered more traditionally academic in nature.
A New Perspective on Educational Objectives 7
CH A P T E R TWO
The New Taxonomy in Brief
WThis chapter briefly describes the various components of the New Taxonomy
as a foundation for understanding the discussion in subsequent chapters.e strongly recommend that readers become familiar with the book The New
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Marzano & Kendall, 2007) to obtain a com-prehensive understanding of the research and theory supporting the model.Readers who are thoroughly familiar with The New Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives might wish to skip this chapter.
THE DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE DIMENSION
Knowledge can be organized into three broad domains: information, mental pro-cedures, and psychomotor procedures.
The Domain of Information
The domain of information, sometimes referred to as declarative knowledge,has a hierarchic structure in its own right. At the bottom of the informationalhierarchy are vocabulary terms. A vocabulary term is a word or phrase aboutwhich a student has an accurate, but not necessarily deep, level of understand-ing. For example, a student might have a general understanding of the termasteroids but know little of the nuances regarding its defining characteristics andits similarities and differences with comets and meteors. Whether or not a termis considered a vocabulary term within the New Taxonomy is totally a functionof instruction. To illustrate, consider the term habitat. Obviously it could be thetopic of an entire unit of instruction or even more. In this case, habitat would notbe considered a vocabulary term. Rather it would be an organizing concept witha variety of related generalization, principles, and facts. In contrast, if treated as
9
a vocabulary term, habitat would be addressed very briefly, and the expectationwould be that students have a surface level understanding only of some basiccharacteristic. Instructional focus and intent, then, are major determinantswhen classifying types of knowledge in the New Taxonomy. This is an impor-tant awareness to keep in mind when classifying any type of knowledge—information, mental procedures, or psychomotor procedures—as it relates to theNew Taxonomy.
At a level above vocabulary terms are facts. Facts present information aboutspecific persons, places, things, and events. To illustrate, “The Battle of Gettysburgwas pivotal to the outcome of the Civil War” is a fact. One characteristic of factsis that they commonly involve the definite article the with reference to theirsubject. Instruction again plays a critical role in determining whether specificinformational knowledge is considered a fact. To illustrate, consider the statement,“The human skeleton has characteristics similar to and different from the skeletonof a chimpanzee.” If the expectation is that students simply know this pieceof information without being able to elaborate on specific similarities and differ-ences, then it would be considered a simple fact. However, if the expectation isthat students can provide detailed examples of the similarities and differences,then the statement would be considered a generalization. Again, instructionalfocus and intent are the determiners of the precise classification for a knowledgecomponent.
At the top of the hierarchy are more general structures, such as generalizationsand principles. The statement “Specific battles sometimes disproportionatelyinfluence the outcome of a war” is a generalization. As mentioned previously, tobe considered a generalization, the expectation would be that students can providedetailed examples of this statement.
The various types of knowledge within the information domain are describedin more detail in Figure 2.1.
For the sake of clarity and ease of use, the New Taxonomy organizes the typesof information into two broad categories: details and organizing ideas. Detailsinclude vocabulary terms, facts, and time sequences; organizing ideas include gen-eralizations and principles.
Details• Vocabulary terms• Facts• Time sequences
Organizing ideas• Principles• Generalizations
10 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
The New Taxonomy in Brief 11
Figure 2.1 Types of Informational Knowledge
Vocabulary Terms
At the most specific level of informational knowledge are vocabulary terms. In this system, knowing avocabulary term means understanding the general meaning of a word. For example, when studentsunderstand declarative knowledge at the level of a vocabulary term, they have a general idea ofwhat the word means and no serious misconceptions about its meaning. To organize classroomcontent as vocabulary terms is to organize it as independent words.The expectation is that studentshave an accurate but somewhat surface-level understanding of the meaning of these terms.
Facts
Facts are a very specific type of informational content. Facts convey information about specificpersons, places, living and nonliving things, and events.They commonly articulate information suchas the following:
• The characteristics of a specific real or fictitious person (e.g., The fictitious character RobinHood first appeared in English literature in the early 1800s).
• The characteristics of a specific place (e.g., Denver is in the state of Colorado).• The characteristics of specific living and nonliving things (e.g., My dog, Tuffy, is a golden
retriever; the Empire State Building is over 100 stories high).• The characteristics of a specific event (e.g., Construction began on the Leaning Tower of
Pisa in 1174).
Time Sequences
Time sequences include important events that occurred between two points in time. For example,the events that occurred between President Kennedy’s assassination on November 22, 1963, andhis burial on November 25, 1963, are organized as a time sequence in most people’s memories.First one thing happened, then another, then another.
Generalizations
Generalizations are statements for which examples can be provided. For example, the statement“U.S. presidents often come from families that have great wealth or influence” is a generalization,for which examples can be provided. It is easy to confuse some generalizations with some facts.Facts identify characteristics of specific persons, places, living and nonliving things, and events,whereas generalizations identify characteristics about classes or categories of persons, places,living and nonliving things, and events. For example, the statement “My dog, Tuffy, is a goldenretriever” is a fact. However, the statement “Golden retrievers are good hunters” is a generalization.In addition, generalizations identify characteristics about abstractions. Specifically, informationabout abstractions is typically stated in the form of generalizations. With these distinctions noted, ifa generalization (or principle) is treated as an isolated piece of information with no supportingexamples or applications, then it should be classified as a fact. Instructional focus and intent aredetermining factors in the classification of information as generalizations versus facts. The followingare examples of the various types of generalizations:
• Characteristics of classes of persons (e.g., It takes at least two years of training to becomea fireman.)
• Characteristics of classes of places (e.g., Large cities have high crime rates.)• Characteristics of classes of living and nonliving things (e.g., Golden retrievers are good
hunting dogs; Firearms are the subject of great debate.)• Characteristics of classes of events (e.g., Super Bowls are premier sporting events in the
United States.)• Characteristics of abstractions (e.g., Love is one of the most powerful human emotions.)
(Continued)
12 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 2.1 (Continued)
Principles
Principles are specific types of generalizations that deal with relationships. In general, there are twotypes of principles found in school-related declarative knowledge: cause–effect principles andcorrelational principles.
Cause–effect principles. These principles articulate causal relationships. For example, thesentence “Tuberculosis is caused by the tubercle bacillus” is a cause–effect principle. Although notstated here, understanding a cause–effect principle includes knowledge of the specific elementswithin the cause–effect system and the exact relationships those elements have to one another. Tounderstand the cause–effect principle regarding tuberculosis and the bacterium, one would have tounderstand the sequence of events that occur, the elements involved, and the type and strength ofrelationships between those elements. In short, understanding a cause–effect principle involves agreat deal of information.
Correlational principles. Correlational principles describe relationships that are not necessarilycausal in nature but in which a change in one factor is associated with a change in another factor.For example, the following is a correlational principle: “The increase in lung cancer among womenis directly proportional to the increase in the number of women who smoke.”
Again, to understand this principle, a student would have to know the specific details about thisrelationship, such as the general pattern, that the number of women who have lung cancer changesat the same rate as the number of women who smoke changes.
These two types of principles are sometimes confused with cause–effect sequences. A cause–effect sequence applies to a specific situation, whereas a principle applies to many situations. Thecauses of the Civil War taken together represent a cause–effect sequence they apply to the CivilWar only. However, the cause–effect principle linking tuberculosis and the tubercle bacillus can beapplied to many different situations and many different people. Physicians use this principle tomake judgments about a variety of situations and a variety of people. The key distinction betweenprinciples and cause–effect sequences is that principles can be exemplified in a number ofsituations, whereas cause–effect sequences cannot—they apply to a single situation only.
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
The Domain of Mental Procedures
Mental procedures—sometimes referred to as procedural knowledge—are dif-ferent in form and function from information or declarative knowledge. Whereasdeclarative knowledge can be considered the “what” of human knowledge, proce-dural knowledge can be described as the “how-to.” One important characteristic ofprocedural knowledge is that it contains information. Information is embedded inthe domain of mental procedures and the domain of psychomotor procedures.
Procedural knowledge typically starts out as declarative knowledge. To illus-trate, consider the procedure for driving a car. In the initial stages, an individualcannot actually drive the car but knows information about driving, such as thelocation of the brake, the general flow of physical activity needed to turn in dif-ferent directions, the general flow of activity needed to slow down, speed up, andso on. The individual cannot perform the procedure but is aware of the require-ments to do so. With practice over time, the individual learns to execute the pro-cedure, sometimes with little conscious thought. At this point it is fully developedprocedural knowledge.
Driving a car is an example of a psychomotor procedure in that it involvesphysical action. An example of a mental procedure is editing a composition foroverall logic. Again, in the initial stages of learning how to edit for overall logic,an individual must know some basic information, such as the characteristics of alogical progression of ideas and the need to reread a composition a number oftimes to edit effectively. With practice over time, the individual actually learnshow to execute the steps involved in editing for overall logic with relative ease.
At the top of the hierarchy of mental procedures are highly robust processesthat have a diversity of possible products or outcomes and involve the execution ofmany interrelated subprocedures. Technically, such operations are referred to asmacroprocedures. The prefix macro indicates that the procedure is highly complex,having many subcomponents that require some form of management. For example,the procedure of writing fulfills the defining characteristics of a macroprocedure.
Somewhat in the middle of the hierarchy are mental procedures that do notgenerate the variety of products possible from macroprocedures and do not incor-porate the wide variety of subcomponents. These procedures are commonlyreferred to as tactics. For example, an individual may have a tactic for reading ahistogram. Tactics are made up of general rules with an overall flow of execution.For example, a tactic for reading a histogram might include rules that address(a) identifying the elements depicted in the legend, (b) determining what is reportedin each axis on the graph, and (c) determining the relationship between the ele-ments on the two axes. Although there is a general pattern in which these rules areexecuted, there is no rigid or set order. Again, instructional focus and intent aremajor determiners in classifying a mental procedure as a macroprocedure versusa tactic. To illustrate, consider the procedure of using a calculator. If approachedas a few basic operations, then it would be considered a tactic. However, ifapproached as a complex set of interacting functions that can be used in a varietyof situations, then it would be considered a macroprocedure.
Algorithms are mental procedures that normally do not vary in applicationonce learned. They have very specific outcomes and very specific steps. Multi-column addition and subtraction are illustrations of algorithms. Algorithms mustbe learned to the level of automaticity to be useful.
The simplest type of mental procedure is a single rule or a small set of ruleswith no accompanying steps. A single rule would consist of one IF–THEN rule—IF situation X occurs, THEN perform action Y. For example, a rule for capitaliz-ing the first word in a sentence is a single-rule procedure.
For the purpose of the New Taxonomy, it is useful to organize the domain ofmental procedures into two broad categories: those that, with practice, can beexecuted automatically or with little conscious thought and those that must becontrolled. Tactics, algorithms, and single rules can be learned to the level of auto-maticity or to the level of little conscious thought. Macroprocedures require con-trolled execution. As a set, tactics, algorithms, and single rules will be referred toas skills throughout the New Taxonomy; macroprocedures will be referred to
The New Taxonomy in Brief 13
simply as processes. Again the reader is cautioned that instructional focus andintent play major roles in determining whether a mental procedure is considered aprocess or a skill. Figure 2.2 depicts the two categories of mental procedureswithin the New Taxonomy.
14 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 2.2 Categories of Mental Procedures
Processes Macroprocedures
Tactics
Skills Algorithms
Single rules
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
The Domain of Psychomotor Procedures
As the name implies, the psychomotor domain is composed of physical pro-cedures. As is the case with the other two domains, the psychomotor domain canbe organized into a hierarchy. At the bottom of the psychomotor hierarchy arefoundational physical abilities upon which more complex procedures are devel-oped. These include overall body equilibrium, speed of limb movement, manualdexterity, and the like.
These foundational abilities are generally developed without formal instruc-tion. Indeed, human beings perform all these physical functions naturally with acertain degree of aplomb. However, this is not to say that these foundational skillscannot be improved with instruction and practice. For example, with instruction,a person’s manual dexterity can be improved. Therefore, it qualifies as a type ofknowledge in that it can be enhanced through instruction.
At a level up from basic foundational procedures are simple combination pro-cedures, such as shooting a free throw in basketball. As their name implies, simplecombination procedures involve sets of foundational procedures acting in parallel.Shooting a free throw in basketball is an example of a simple combination proce-dure that involves the interaction of a number of foundational procedures, such aswrist-finger speed, control precision, and arm-hand steadiness.
Finally, complex combination procedures use sets of simple combination pro-cedures. For example, the act of playing defense in basketball involves the com-bination skills of side-to-side movement with the body in a squatting position,hand waving, and so on. Once again, instructional focus and intent commonly
determine if a psychomotor procedure is classified as a simple combination pro-cedure or a complex combination procedure. Consider for example, the procedureof putting together a series of specific movements to create a dance segment. Thiscould be approached in a fairly simplistic manner (i.e., a simple combination pro-cedure) or a complex manner involving sophisticated and highly nuanced transi-tions (i.e., a complex combination procedure).
For the purposes of the New Taxonomy, it is useful to organize the proceduresin the psychomotor domain into two categories. This is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
The New Taxonomy in Brief 15
Figure 2.3 Categories of Psychomotor Procedures
Processes Complex combination procedures
Simple combination procedures
Skills
Foundational procedures
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
In summary, for the purposes of the New Taxonomy, the components in thethree domains of knowledge have been organized as depicted in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Components of the Three Knowledge Domains
Information 1. Organizing ideas PrinciplesGeneralizations
2. Details Time sequencesFactsVocabulary terms
Mental Procedures 1. Processes Macroprocedures
2. Skills TacticsAlgorithmsSingle rules
Psychomotor Procedures 1. Processes Complex combination procedures
2. Skills Simple combination proceduresFoundational procedures
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
THE LEVELS OF PROCESSING DIMENSION
The second dimension of the New Taxonomy deals with levels of mental process-ing that are applied to the three knowledge domains. There are three general sys-tems of mental processing that operate in a coordinated fashion: the self-system,the metacognitive system, and the cognitive system. This is depicted in Figure 2.5.
16 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 2.5 Six Levels of the New Taxonomy
Level 6 Self-System
Level 5 Metacognitive System
Level 4 Knowledge Utilization
Level 3 Analysis
Cognitive System
Level 2 Comprehension
Level 1 Retrieval
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
As shown in Figure 2.5, the cognitive system includes four subsystems thathave a hierarchic structure: retrieval, comprehension, analysis, and knowledge uti-lization. This makes for a six-level taxonomy.
Level 1: Retrieval (Cognitive System)
Retrieval involves transferring what we know but are currently not thinkingabout to a current state of attention. The process of retrieval differs somewhat,depending upon the type of knowledge involved and the degree of processingrequired. In the New Taxonomy, retrieval of information is either a matter ofrecognition or recall. Recognition can be described as determining whetherincoming information is accurate, inaccurate, or unknown. Recall, by contrast,requires not only some level of recognition, but in addition, the production ofrelated information. For example, a student who selects a synonym from among aset of words relies upon recognition. A student asked to define a word or produce
a synonym employs recall; in addition to recognizing the term, the student mustproduce an appropriate response. This distinction constitutes a hierarchy of diffi-culty within Level 1 of the New Taxonomy.
Although knowledge from the domain of information is only recognized orrecalled, knowledge from the domains of mental procedures and psychomotorprocedures can be executed as well. When the steps in a procedure are carried out,something occurs, and a product results. For example, consider the procedure formulticolumn subtraction; a quantity is computed when the steps are carried out.Thus we say that procedural knowledge is executed, whereas information is rec-ognized and recalled. However, it is also true that procedural knowledge can berecognized and recalled, because all procedures contain embedded information.(See previous discussion of mental procedures.)
Level 2: Comprehension (Cognitive System)
The process of comprehension within the cognitive system is responsible foridentifying the critical or defining attributes of knowledge. Comprehension, asdefined in the New Taxonomy, involves two related processes: integrating andsymbolizing.
Integrating
Integrating involves distilling knowledge down to its key characteristics orga-nized in a parsimonious, generalized form. Effective learners pare down incominginformation to its gist. This explains why individuals usually do not remember thespecific facts in an interesting story they have read but do tend to recall the gen-eral flow of information and events.
Symbolizing
Symbolizing is the comprehension process of creating a symbolic analog ofthe knowledge that has been produced via the process of integrating. The symbolicanalysis is typically in the form of images. A popular form of symbolizing inK–12 classrooms is graphic organizers, which combine language and symbols.Symbolizing can also take the form of graphs, pictures, and pictographs.
Level 3: Analysis (Cognitive System)
Analysis in the New Taxonomy involves the reasoned extension of knowl-edge. Analysis also goes beyond the identification of essential versus nonessentialcharacteristics that are a function of the process of comprehension. Analysis inthis context involves the generation of new information not already possessedby the individual. There are five analysis processes: (1) matching, (2) classifying,(3) analyzing errors, (4) generalizing and (5) specifying.
The New Taxonomy in Brief 17
Matching
Matching addresses the identification of similarities and differencesbetween knowledge components. The process of matching may be simpleor complex, depending on the demands of the task. At a simple level, matchinginvolves noticing basic similarities, like those between two dogs. At a morecomplex level, matching involves comparing the same two dogs on character-istics that are key features of their respective breeds and explaining how thesesimilarities and differences help that breed. It is the latter form of the task thatis referred to here as matching. Important components of the matching processinclude
• Specifying the attributes or characteristics on which items being matchedare to be analyzed
• Determining how they are alike and different• Stating similarities and differences as precisely as possible
Classifying
Classifying refers to organizing knowledge into meaningful categories. Likematching, it is basic to human thought. Although learners use the process of clas-sifying naturally, when used as an analytic tool, this process can be very challeng-ing. Classifying is distinct from matching in that it focuses on superordinate andsubordinate categories, whereas matching focuses on similarities and differences.Important components of the classifying process include
• Identifying the defining characteristics of the items to be classified• Identifying a superordinate category to which the item belongs and explain-
ing why it belongs in that category• Identifying one or more (if any) subordinate categories for the item and
explaining how they are related
Analyzing Errors
Analyzing errors addresses the reasonableness, logic, or accuracy of knowledge.The existence of this cognitive function implies that information must be consideredreasonable for an individual to accept it as valid. To perform this function well, astudent must have a basic (but not necessarily technical) understanding of the natureof evidence and well-formed arguments as well as various types of logical errors onecan make. Critical attributes of analyzing informational errors include
• Determining if information as presented appears reasonable• Analyzing the information for logical errors and inaccuracies
18 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
The foregoing discussion applies to error analysis involving information.When the focus is on mental or psychomotor processes, analyzing errors is a quitedifferent matter. Given that procedures commonly involve bugs, analyzing errorsfor mental and psychomotor procedures involves searching for and remediatingbugs. However, the process of analyzing errors must be guided by a conceptualunderstanding of the procedure. Operationally, this means that students examinethe impact of each aspect of a mental or psychomotor procedure from the perspec-tive of its contribution to the overall effectiveness of the procedures. Criticalattributes of analyzing errors for procedural knowledge include
• Identifying the impact each step or component of a procedure has on theoverall process
• Identifying and correcting a faulty or ineffective step or component
Generalizing
Generalizing, as defined in the New Taxonomy, is the process of constructingnew generalizations from information that is already known or observed. To illus-trate, a student is involved in the analytic process of generalizing when he or shedesigns a new generalization about “regions” from three generalizations that havealready been presented in class. Critical attributes of generalizing include
• Focusing on specific pieces of information or observations without makingassumptions
• Looking for patterns or connections in the information• Making a general statement that explains the patterns or connections
Specifying
Specifying is the process of generating new applications of a known general-ization or principle. To illustrate, a student is involved in the analytic process ofspecifying by identifying a new situation or new phenomenon that is governed byBernoulli’s principle (which is commonly taught in high school to explain the con-cept of lift). The student has taken known principles and identified a new applica-tion previously not known to the individual.
Critical attributes of specifying include
• Identifying the generalizations or principles that apply to a specific situation• Making sure that the specific situation meets the conditions that have to be
in place for the generalizations or principles to apply• If the generalizations or principles do apply, identifying what conclusions
can be drawn or what predictions can be made
The New Taxonomy in Brief 19
Level 4: Knowledge Utilization (Cognitive System)
As their name implies, knowledge utilization processes are those employedwhen an individual wishes to accomplish a specific task. For example, an engineermight use the knowledge of Bernoulli’s principle to solve a specific problemrelated to lift in the design of a new type of aircraft. Robust tasks are the venue inwhich knowledge is rendered useful to individuals. In the New Taxonomy, fourgeneral categories of knowledge utilization tasks have been identified: (1) deci-sion making, (2) problem solving, (3) experimenting, and (4) investigating.
Decision Making
The process of decision making is used when an individual must selectbetween two or more alternatives. Decision making might be described as theprocess by which an individual answers questions like “What is the best way to_____?” or “Which of these is most suitable?” For example, individuals areengaged in decision making when they use their knowledge of specific locationswithin a city to identify the best site for a new park. Key elements of the decision-making process include
• Identifying alternatives• Identifying the criteria that will be used to judge the value of each alternative• Selecting among alternatives based on a systematic application of criteria
Problem Solving
The process of problem solving is used when an individual attempts to accom-plish a goal for which an obstacle exists. Problem solving might be described asthe process one engages in to answer questions such as “How will I overcome thisobstacle?” or “How will I reach my goal but still meet these conditions?” Criticalattributes of the problem solving process include
• Identifying obstacles to the goal• Identifying alternative ways to accomplish the goal• Evaluating the alternatives• Selecting and executing the alternatives
Experimenting
Experimenting is the process of generating and testing hypotheses for thepurpose of understanding some physical or psychological phenomenon.Experimenting might be described as the process used when answering questionssuch as “How can this be explained?” or “Based on this explanation, what can bepredicted?” For example, an individual is involved in experimental inquiry when
20 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
he or she generates and tests a hypothesis about the effect a new airplane wingdesign will have on lift and drag. Critical attributes of experimenting include
• Making predictions based on known or hypothesized principles• Designing a way to test the predictions using observational data• Evaluating the validity of the principles based on the outcome of the test
Investigating
Investigating is the process of generating and testing hypotheses about past,present, or future events. Investigating may be described as the process one goesthrough when attempting to answer such questions as “What are the defining fea-tures of_____?” or “How did this happen?” or “Why did this happen?” or “Whatwould have happened if_____?” To illustrate, a student is involved in investigat-ing when he or she examines possible explanations for the existence of the phe-nomenon known as crop circles by examining what others have said or written onthe topic. Critical attributes of investigating include
• Identifying what is known or agreed upon regarding the phenomenon underinvestigation
• Identifying areas of confusion or controversy regarding the phenomenon• Providing an answer for the confusion or controversy using opinions and
arguments expressed by others• Presenting a logical argument for the proposed answer
Level 5: Metacognition
The metacognitive system is responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and regu-lating the functioning of all other types of thought. Taken together, these functionsare sometimes referred to as responsible for so-called executive control. Within theNew Taxonomy, the metacognitive system has four functions: (1) specifying goals,(2) process monitoring, (3) monitoring clarity, and (4) monitoring accuracy.
Specifying Goals
One of the primary tasks of the metacognitive system is to establish cleargoals and plans for accomplishing those goals. In terms of the New Taxonomy, thegoal-setting function of the metacognitive system is responsible for establishingclear learning goals for specific types of knowledge. For example, it would bethrough the goal-specification function of the metacognitive system that a studentwould establish a specific goal in terms of increasing competence at a specificpsychomotor skill taught in a physical education class. Along with the goal, thestudent would establish a plan for accomplishing the goal.
The New Taxonomy in Brief 21
Process Monitoring
The process-monitoring component of the metacognitive system typicallymonitors the effectiveness of a procedure as it is being carried out when a specificgoal has been identified. For example, the metacognitive system will monitor howwell a goal is being met relative to reading a bar graph or how well a goal is beingmet relative to shooting free throws. Process monitoring also comes into play whena long-term or short-term goal has been established for information, for example,when a student has established the goal of better understanding polynomials.
Monitoring Clarity
Monitoring clarity and monitoring accuracy belong to a set of functions thatsome researchers refer to as dispositional. The term disposition is used to indicatethat monitoring clarity and monitoring accuracy are ways in which an individualis or is not disposed to approach knowledge. Monitoring clarity involves deter-mining the extent to which an individual is free from indistinction and ambiguityabout knowledge.
Monitoring Accuracy
Monitoring accuracy involves determining the extent to which an individualis correct in terms of understanding specific knowledge. It typically requires indi-viduals to check their understanding by seeking out further information.
Level 6: Self-System Thinking
The self-system determines whether an individual will engage in or disengagefrom a given task; it also determines how much energy the individual will bring tothe task. Once the self-system has determined what will be attended to, the func-tioning of all other elements of thought (i.e., the metacognitive system, the cogni-tive system, and the knowledge domains) are, to a certain extent, dedicated ordetermined. There are four types of self-system thinking that are relevant to theNew Taxonomy: (1) examining importance, (2) examining efficacy, (3) examiningemotional response, and (4) examining overall motivation.
Examining Importance
One of the key determinants of whether an individual attends to a given typeof knowledge is whether that individual considers the knowledge important. Whatan individual considers to be important is probably a function of the extent towhich it meets one of two conditions: it is perceived as instrumental in satisfyinga basic need, or it is perceived as instrumental in the attainment of a personal goal.
22 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Examining Efficacy
Relative to the New Taxonomy, examining efficacy involves examining theextent to which an individual believes he or she has the ability, power or neces-sary resources to gain competence relative to a specific knowledge component. Ifa student believes he or she does not have the requisite ability, power, or resourcesto gain competence in a specific skill, this might greatly lessen the motivation tolearn that knowledge even though it is perceived as important.
Examining Emotional Response
The influence of emotion in human motivation is becoming increasingly clear.Relative to the New Taxonomy, examining emotions involves analyzing the extentto which an individual has an emotional response to a given knowledge compo-nent and the part that response plays in one’s motivation.
Examining Overall Motivation
As might be inferred from the previous discussion, an individual’s motivationto initially learn or increase competence in a given knowledge component is afunction of three factors: (1) perceptions of its importance, (2) perceptions of effi-cacy relative to learning or increasing competency in the knowledge component,and (3) one’s emotional response to the knowledge component. This is depicted inFigure 2.6.
The New Taxonomy in Brief 23
Figure 2.6 Aspects of Motivation
EmotionalImportance Efficacy
Response
Motivation
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
Given this set of relationships, one can operationally describe different levelsof motivation. Specifically, high motivation to learn or increase competence rela-tive to a given knowledge component will exist under the following conditions:
1. The individual perceives the knowledge component as important, and
2. The individual believes that he or she has the necessary ability, power,or resources to learn or increase competence relative to the knowledgecomponent, or
3. The individual has a positive emotional response to the knowledge com-ponent (or both 2 and 3).
Low motivation occurs under the following conditions:
1. The individual perceives the knowledge component to be unimportant, or
2. The individual believes that he or she does not have the necessary ability,power, or resources to learn or increase competence relative to the knowl-edge component, or
3. The individual has a negative emotional response to the knowledgecomponent.
In terms of the New Taxonomy, examining motivation is the process of iden-tifying one’s level of motivation to learn or increase competence in a given knowl-edge component and then identifying the interrelationships between one’s beliefsabout importance, beliefs about efficacy, and emotional responses that governone’s level of motivation.
SUMMARY
In summary, the New Taxonomy has a knowledge dimension and a mental pro-cessing dimension. Using these two dimensions, educators can design objectivesfor specific knowledge components involving specific mental processes. Readersnot thoroughly familiar with the information presented in this chapter areencouraged to read The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Marzano &Kendall, 2007).
Chapters 3 through 8 of this text address each mental-processing level of theNew Taxonomy as it relates to each of the three knowledge domains. Chapter 9addresses the use of the New Taxonomy as a framework for assessment.
24 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
CH A P T E R TH R E E
Retrieval Objectives and Tasks
Retrieval involves recognizing, recalling, or executing knowledge. At this levelof the New Taxonomy there is no expectation that the student demonstrates
the knowledge in depth or understands the basic structure of the knowledge or itscritical versus noncritical elements. We consider each of the three types of retrieval.
RECOGNIZING
Recognizing involves determining whether incoming information is accurate,inaccurate, or unknown. Figure 3.1 presents recognizing objectives and tasks forvarious types of knowledge.
The farthest column to the right of Figure 3.1 (Column 6) contains a prototyp-ical benchmark statement found in many state and district standards documents.The statements in this column demonstrate an important consideration in design-ing objectives and tasks using state or local standards documents—they can bevery generic in their description of their expectations regarding student compe-tence in subject matter content. The examples involve grade-level intervals. Whenstate and district documents write benchmark statements for each grade level, theproblem can be alleviated somewhat. However even grade-level benchmark state-ments can be quite general in nature. To illustrate, here are prototypical statementsfrom state-level standards documents regarding expectations for the English lan-guage arts at fifth grade:
1. Apply prior knowledge and experience to make inferences and respond tonew information presented in text.
2. Draw inferences and conclusions and support them with textual evidenceand prior knowledge.
(Text continues on page 30)
25
26
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ure
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27
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28
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min
e yo
ur le
vel o
f fit
ness
?__
Car
dio-
resp
irato
ry e
ndur
ance
__ H
eigh
t__
Mus
cula
r st
reng
th__
Fle
xibi
lity
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
from
alis
t w
hat
Info
rmat
ion
isor
is n
ot u
sefu
l whe
npe
rfor
min
g a
fitne
ssas
sess
men
t.
The
pro
cess
of p
erfo
rmin
ga
fitne
ssas
sess
men
t
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–6
Impr
oves
fitn
ess
byin
terp
retin
g In
form
atio
n fro
mfit
ness
ass
essm
ents
(e.
g.,
card
io-r
espi
rato
ry e
ndur
ance
,m
uscu
lar
stre
ngth
and
endu
ranc
e, fl
exib
ility
, and
body
com
posi
tion)
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Ske
tchi
ng t
he n
egat
ive
spac
e ar
ound
an
obje
ct,
rath
er t
han
draw
ing
the
obje
ct it
self,
is d
one
toa.
Hel
p im
prov
e th
e pe
rspe
ctiv
e of
the
draw
ing
b.Im
prov
e th
e ov
eral
l con
tour
of
the
shap
ec.
Trai
n th
e ey
e to
see
the
whi
te s
pace
of
the
draw
ing
d.M
ake
the
obje
ct a
ppea
r la
rger
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reco
gniz
e th
atsk
etch
ing
nega
tive
spac
e he
lps
to t
rain
the
eye
to s
ee t
hew
hite
spa
ce o
f a
draw
ing.
The
ski
ll of
sket
chin
gne
gativ
e sp
ace
Vis
ual A
rts
5–8
Kno
ws
how
exp
erie
nce
ofan
d id
eas
from
art
med
iaca
n be
enh
ance
d th
roug
hce
rtai
n te
chni
ques
and
proc
esse
s.
29
Sam
ple
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Whi
ch o
f th
e fo
llow
ing
is a
def
ensi
ve p
lay
invo
lleyb
all?
a.sp
ikin
g th
e ba
ll b.
bloc
king
c.cr
oss-
cour
t sh
otd.
deco
y
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reco
gniz
ebl
ocki
ng a
s a
defe
nsiv
e pl
ay in
volle
ybal
l.
The
ski
ll of
bloc
king
invo
lleyb
all.
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Iden
tifie
s so
phis
ticat
ion
inm
ovem
ent
asso
ciat
ed w
ithhi
ghly
ski
lled
phys
ical
activ
ities
(e.
g.,
mov
es t
hat
dist
ingu
ish
a pr
ofes
sion
alte
nnis
pla
yer
from
a h
igh
scho
ol t
enni
s pl
ayer
).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Whi
ch o
f th
e fo
llow
ing
can
be u
sefu
l for
proj
ectin
g a
char
acte
r on
sta
ge?
__ B
ody
alig
nmen
t__
Ges
ture
s __
Dic
tion
__ S
peak
ing
volu
me
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reco
gniz
e bo
dyal
ignm
ent,
gest
ures
,di
ctio
n, a
nd s
peak
ing
volu
me
as u
sefu
l for
proj
ectin
g a
char
acte
ron
sta
ge.
The
pro
cess
of
proj
ectin
g a
char
acte
r us
ing
phys
ical
tech
niqu
es
The
atre
5–8
Mak
es a
rtis
tic c
hoic
es b
yus
ing
basi
c ac
ting
skill
s(e
.g.,
sens
ory
reca
ll,co
ncen
trat
ion,
bre
ath
cont
rol,
dict
ion,
bod
yal
ignm
ent,
cont
rol o
fis
olat
ed b
ody
part
s).
Sta
rtin
g ou
t ru
nnin
g so
mew
hat
slow
er t
han
your
aver
age
spee
d is
a u
sefu
l str
ateg
y in
wha
t ki
ndof
com
petit
ion?
a.R
elay
rac
eb.
Mar
atho
nc.
Hur
dlin
g d.
Spr
int
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
star
ting
som
ewha
t sl
ower
tha
nav
erag
e sp
eed
as a
usef
ul s
trat
egy
in t
hem
arat
hon.
The
pro
cess
of
runn
ing
am
arat
hon
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
6–8
Use
s ba
sic
stra
tegi
es fo
rbo
th o
ffens
e an
d de
fens
ein
bot
h te
am a
nd in
divi
dual
spor
ts.
3. Describe elements of character development in written works.
4. Make inferences or draw conclusions about characters’ qualities and actions.
5. Participate in creative response to text using art, drama, or oral presentations.
Obviously, to design educational objectives and their related tasks at a specificgrade level, educators must frequently “unpack” benchmark statements to cull outspecific content on which they will focus.
This unpacking process is depicted in the third and fourth columns of Figure 3.1.Consider the first row of that figure. The benchmark statement reads, “Understandshow current domestic policies and international policies have been influenced bythe Cold War and conflicts in Korea and Vietnam.” The knowledge focus (Column 4)derived from this very general benchmark statement is “Events at the beginning ofthe Cold War.” The recognition objective (Column 3) derived from the knowledgefocus is “The student will be able to identify the correct sequence of critical eventsat the beginning of the Cold War.” Where the benchmark statement is quite broadand encompasses the Cold War, Korea, and Vietnam, the objective in this case notonly focuses on the Cold War but also calls attention to events at the beginning ofthe Cold War and their proper sequence.
This example illustrates that objectives derived from a benchmark statementfocus on specific elements implied or stated in it and put those elements in a specificcontext. The fourth column in Figure 3.1 identifies the focus of knowledge that hasbeen culled out of the benchmark statement by a district, school, or individualteacher. Identifying a knowledge focus from benchmark statements is obviously acritical step in designing educational objectives (Column 3) and tasks (Column 2),although it does not have to be done as explicitly as shown in the figure.
Examining the objective statements in Figure 3.1 (see fourth column) illus-trates that the verb phrase in some of the objectives is recognizes. The various lev-els of the New Taxonomy represent possible verb phrases that might be used toconstruct objectives and tasks. As shown in later chapters, at some levels of theNew Taxonomy the name of the level does not easily translate into a commonlyused verb phrase. In the case of recognizing objectives and tasks, terms andphrases like the following might be used:
• Select from a list• Identify from a list• Determine if the following statements are true
In the second column of Figure 3.1, a task is listed for each objective. Tasksrepresent the behavior students will exhibit as an indication they have met thestated objective. The articulation of specific tasks for each objective providesteachers with explicit guidance as to how they might design assessments. In
30 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Chapter 9 we consider how these tasks can be used to develop a comprehensivesystem of assessment using the New Taxonomy.
The tasks listed in Figure 3.1 depict the typical formats for recognizing tasks.In general, recognizing tasks are forced-choice in nature. Figure 3.2 lists varioustypes of forced-choice tasks. Any of the formats in Figure 3.2 could have beenused with the objectives in Figure 3.1.
It is instructive to consider the nature of recognizing tasks across the variousdomains of knowledge.
Recognizing With Information
Recognizing tasks for details involve the identification of accurate statementsregarding terms, facts, and time sequences. To illustrate, the first task involvingdetails requires students to recognize a correct sequence of events. No in-depthknowledge of these events is required. The second task requires students to iden-tify accurate information about the consumer price index taught at the simplelevel of a term. Again, no in-depth understanding of the consumer price index isrequired to complete the task.
Recognizing organizing ideas involves identifying accurate statements aboutgeneralizations and principles. To illustrate, the recognizing task for the general-ization requires students to identify a simple example of a nonrenewable resource.Again, this does not require in-depth understanding of the defining characteristicsof nonrenewable resources and their characteristics.
Recognizing With Mental Procedures
Recognizing tasks for mental skills involve validating accurate statements abouta specific mental skill. The first example in Figure 3.1 involves using simple bargraphs and line graphs. Since this procedure is classified as a skill (as opposed to aprocess), the assumption is that it has been addressed instructionally at a fairly simplelevel (see Chapter 2 for a discussion). The recognizing task involves identifyingthe best graph to use in a specific situation. Recognizing tasks for mental processesinvolve validating accurate statements about a specific mental process. The first men-tal process in Figure 3.1 is problem solving. Because it is classified as a process (asopposed to a skill), the assumption is that it has been addressed instructionally at afairly complex level (for a discussion see Chapter 2). The recognizing task requiresstudents to identify components of the problem-solving process from a list.
Recognizing With Psychomotor Procedures
Recognizing tasks for psychomotor skills involve validating accurate state-ments about a specific mental skill. The first psychomotor skill in Figure 3.1 is
Retrieval Objectives and Tasks 31
32 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 3.2 Types of Forced-Choice Items
1. Traditional Multiple Choice—Provides a stem and alternatives, some of which aredistracters and one of which is the correct choice
(Stem) The best definition of a region is. . . .A. An area of land between two bodies of water (distracter)B. An area of land that has common topographical or political features (correct choice)C. An area of land that is a specific size (distracter)D. An area of land that has a specific shape (distracter)
2. Matching—Provides multiple stems and multiple optionsTraditional formatInvention Inventor_____ 1. Vaccine for Polio A. Eli Whitney
B. Jonas Salk_____ 2. Telephone C. Henry Ford
D. Alexander Graham Bell_____ 3. Assembly Line E. Henry McCormick
Expanded formatPerson Activity TimeA. Kennedy 1. Led U.S. forces in Europe (WWII) 6. About 1790B. Jefferson 2. Elected first Roman Catholic president 7. About 1980C. Reagan 3. Elected first president of U.S. 8. About 1800
4. Purchased Louisiana Territory 9. About 18605. Hostages released at start of presidency 10. About 1960
3. Alternative Choice—Provides a stem and two choices that are quite similarTraditional format
(Stem) The part of speech used to form a clause is . . .A. A prepositionB. A conjunction
Alternative format(A. An architect, B. A draftsman) is an engineer who designs buildings.3. True–False—Provides statements that must be judged as true or false
Mark F is the statement is false and T if the statement is true:_____ 1. The first thing to do with an automobile that does not start is to check the battery._____ 2. A cause of premature tire wear is improper tire pressure._____ 3. The automobile’s onboard computer should be replaced if it drives poorly._____ 4. Under harsh driving conditions, an automobile’s oil should be changed every three
months or 3,000 miles, whichever comes first.
4. Multiple Response—Allows for two or more correct responses.Traditional formatWhich of the following can be the end punctuation for a sentence?1. A period2. A dash3. An exclamation point4. A question mark5. 1 and 26. 2, 3, and 47. 1, 3, and 48. 2 and 3
Alternative formatPlace a Y in front of each event listed below that occurred at the Battle of Gettysburg:
_____ 1. Pickett’s Charge_____ 2. The end of the Civil War_____ 3. Confederate soldiers occupied Culp’s Hill_____ 4. Meade’s Maneuver_____ 5. Fifteen citizens of Gettysburg were killed at Devil’s Den
Source: Adapted from Classroom Assessment and Grading that Work (Figure 4.7, p 77). Marzano, Robert J.Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2006.
sketching negative space. The recognizing task involves identifying the correctreason for sketching negative space among a list of options. Recognizing tasks forpsychomotor processes involve validating accurate statements about a specificmental process. The first psychomotor process in Figure 3.1 is projecting a char-acter on stage. The task requires identification of appropriate physical techniqueswithin the overall process of projecting a character on stage.
RECALLING
Recalling involves producing accurate information as opposed to simply recogniz-ing it. Figure 3.3 presents recalling objectives and tasks for various types ofknowledge.
As before, the benchmark statements in Figure 3.3 are very general.Consequently, a knowledge focus has been identified in the fourth column fromwhich objectives and tasks are designed. Some objectives and tasks employ theverb recall. However, other terms like the following might also be used:
• Exemplify• Name• List• Label• State• Describe• Who• What• Where• When
Generally, the format for recalling tasks is short written or oral constructed-response formats as illustrated in Figure 3.3. However, on occasion, fill-in-the-blank formats like the following are used:
As it relates to the cell membrane, the term selectively permeable means thatthe membrane _____________________________________________________.
Recalling With Information
Recalling tasks for details involve producing accurate but not necessarilycritical information about terms, facts, and time sequences. The first exampleof a recalling task for details involves factual information regarding the U.S.Constitution. To complete the recalling task, students must retrieve from theirpermanent memories one way that the U.S. Constitution limits the power of gov-ernment. The first example of a recalling task for an organizing idea addresses ageneralization about the impact of chance events on history. The task requires
Retrieval Objectives and Tasks 33
34
Fig
ure
3.3
Rec
allin
g O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Ter
ms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
Nam
e on
e w
ay b
y w
hich
the
U.S
.Con
stitu
tion
limits
the
pow
ers
of g
over
nmen
t.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
nam
eat
leas
t on
e w
ay in
whi
ch t
heU
.S.C
onst
itutio
n lim
its t
hepo
wer
s of
gov
ernm
ent,
such
as
by s
epar
atio
n an
d sh
arin
g of
pow
ers,
che
cks
and
bala
nces
,or
the
Bill
of
Rig
hts.
Fact
s ab
out
U.S
.Con
stitu
tion
His
tory
6–8
Und
erst
ands
how
ele
men
ts in
the
U.S
Con
stitu
tion,
suc
h as
sepa
ratio
n an
d sh
arin
g of
pow
ers,
che
cks
and
bala
nces
,an
d th
e B
ill o
f R
ight
s, s
erve
to
limit
gove
rnm
enta
l pow
er.
Wha
t w
as n
eces
sary
bef
ore
the
resu
lts o
f ea
rly s
tudi
es li
nkin
gsm
okin
g an
d ca
ncer
wer
eac
cept
ed a
s ac
cura
te?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reca
llth
at e
arly
stu
dies
on
the
link
betw
een
smok
ing
and
canc
erw
ere
repe
ated
and
yie
lded
cons
iste
nt r
esul
ts b
efor
e th
eyw
ere
acce
pted
as
accu
rate
.
Fact
s ab
out
early
stu
dies
linki
ng s
mok
ing
and
canc
er
Sci
ence
6–8
Kno
ws
that
bef
ore
the
resu
lts o
fan
exp
erim
ent
are
cons
ider
edva
lid,
they
mus
t be
foun
dre
peat
edly
and
con
sist
ently
.
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
In h
isto
ry,
we
have
cha
nce
even
ts t
hat
are
unex
pect
ed b
utca
n gr
eatly
influ
ence
eve
nts.
Iden
tify
an e
xam
ple
of a
cha
nce
even
t th
at h
ad a
sig
nific
ant
impa
ct o
n th
e ev
ents
tha
tfo
llow
ed.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
that
a c
hanc
e ev
ent
inhi
stor
y is
an
even
t th
at w
as n
otpl
anne
d or
ant
icip
ated
by
the
part
icip
ants
and
can
rec
all o
nesu
ch e
vent
fro
m r
ecen
t re
adin
gsin
his
tory
.
A g
ener
aliz
atio
nab
out
char
acte
ristic
sof
cha
nce
even
ts
His
tory
5–6
Und
erst
ands
tha
t ch
ance
pla
ysa
role
in h
isto
rical
eve
nts.
35
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng t
he la
wth
at w
hene
ver
an o
bjec
t is
see
nto
spe
ed u
p or
slo
w d
own,
an
unba
lanc
ed fo
rce
acts
on
it.W
hat
are
som
e ex
ampl
es o
fun
bala
nced
forc
es w
e se
e in
ever
yday
life
? D
escr
ibe
the
impa
ct t
hat
thes
e fo
rces
hav
e.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
prov
ide
ever
yday
exa
mpl
es t
hat
dem
onst
rate
the
law
of
unba
lanc
ed fo
rces
.
A p
rinci
ple
rega
rdin
gun
bala
nced
forc
es a
ndth
e sp
eed
of o
bjec
ts
Sci
ence
6–8
Kno
ws
that
whe
neve
r an
obj
ect
visi
bly
spee
ds u
p, s
low
s do
wn,
or c
hang
es d
irect
ion,
an
unba
lanc
ed fo
rce
(e.g
., fr
ictio
n)ha
s ac
ted
upon
it.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Wha
t is
an
exam
ple
of a
situ
atio
n in
whi
ch k
now
ing
anef
fect
ive
refu
sal s
kill
is u
sefu
l?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to r
emem
ber
the
type
sof
circ
umst
ance
s in
whi
chre
fusa
l ski
lls a
re u
sefu
l.
Ref
usal
ski
llsH
ealth
9–12
Kno
ws
how
bad
situ
atio
ns c
anbe
avo
ided
by
usin
g sk
ills
such
as r
efus
al,
nego
tiatio
n, a
ndco
llabo
ratio
n.
Why
wou
ld y
ou w
ant
to c
alcu
late
your
hea
rt r
ate
and
brea
thin
gra
te w
hen
exer
cisi
ng?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reca
llth
at h
eart
and
bre
athi
ng r
ate
are
com
pone
nts
of a
fitn
ess
asse
ssm
ent.
Cal
cula
ting
hear
t ra
te a
ndbr
eath
ing
rate
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–6
Enh
ance
s fit
ness
thr
ough
use
of a
sses
smen
t te
chni
ques
(e.g
., ca
rdio
-res
pira
tory
endu
ranc
e, m
uscu
lar
stre
ngth
and
endu
ranc
e, f
lexi
bilit
y,an
d bo
dy c
ompo
sitio
n).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
If yo
u w
ere
doin
g re
sear
ch o
n a
rece
nt e
vent
and
con
side
ring
whe
ther
a s
peci
fic b
ook
mig
ht b
eus
eful
, w
hy m
ight
you
che
ck t
hepu
blic
atio
n da
te,
the
tabl
e of
cont
ents
, an
d re
ad t
he p
refa
ce?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reca
llth
at u
sefu
l Inf
orm
atio
n ca
n be
prov
ided
by
a bo
ok’s
pub
licat
ion
date
, ta
ble
of c
onte
nts,
and
pref
ace.
Usi
ng a
boo
k to
obta
inIn
form
atio
n
Lang
uage
Art
s3–
5U
ses
the
inde
x, t
able
of
cont
ents
, gl
ossa
ry,
appe
ndix
,an
d pr
efac
e co
rrec
tly t
o lo
cate
Info
rmat
ion.
(Con
tinu
ed)
36
Fig
ure
3.3
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Des
crib
e w
hy e
stim
atio
n ca
n be
usef
ul a
s pa
rt o
f so
lvin
g a
prob
lem
and
afte
r yo
u ha
veso
lved
a p
robl
em.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
desc
ribe
the
valu
e of
est
imat
ion
in s
olvi
ng s
ome
prob
lem
s an
dfo
r ch
ecki
ng t
he r
easo
nabl
enes
sof
com
puta
tiona
l res
ults
.
Est
imat
ing
stra
tegi
esM
ath
3–5
Est
imat
es a
nd e
valu
ates
estim
atio
ns t
hrou
gh u
se o
fst
rate
gies
suc
h as
fro
nt-e
ndes
timat
ion
and
roun
ding
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Why
is it
impo
rtan
t to
pla
ce y
our
finge
rs o
n th
e ho
me
row
bef
ore
you
begi
n ty
ping
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f th
eho
me
row
for
corr
ect
finge
ring.
Spe
cific
keyb
oard
ing
tech
niqu
es
Tech
nolo
gyK
–2U
ses
corr
ect
hand
pos
ition
san
d bo
dy p
ostu
re w
hen
typi
ngon
a c
ompu
ter
keyb
oard
.
Wha
t is
the
pro
per
way
to
exec
ute
a si
t-up
?T
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
le t
o re
call
that
the
kne
es s
houl
d be
ben
tdu
ring
a si
t-up
.
Doi
ng s
it-up
sP
hysi
cal
Edu
catio
n3–
6
Eng
ages
in a
ctiv
ities
suc
h as
push
-ups
, pu
ll-up
s, s
it-up
s, a
ndis
omet
ric s
tren
gth
activ
ities
inor
der
to d
evel
op a
nd m
aint
ain
mus
cula
r st
reng
th.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
The
re a
re c
omm
on in
divi
dual
and
team
str
ateg
ies
for
keep
ing
the
ball
or p
uck
away
fro
mop
pone
nts
in in
vasi
on g
ames
,lik
e ba
sket
ball
and
hock
ey.L
ist
two
or m
ore
of t
hese
str
ateg
ies.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
list
the
stra
tegi
es t
hat
are
com
mon
to in
divi
dual
s an
d te
ams
for
keep
ing
the
ball
or p
uck
away
from
opp
onen
ts.
Pla
ying
net
and
inva
sion
gam
esP
hysi
cal
Edu
catio
n3–
6
Use
s be
ginn
ing
stra
tegi
es fo
rne
t an
d in
vasi
on g
ames
(e.g
., st
rikin
g a
ball
to k
eep
itup
or
away
fro
m o
ppon
ent
ina
rack
et s
port
or
drib
blin
g to
prev
ent
an o
ppon
ent
from
stea
ling
the
ball
in b
aske
tbal
l).
Why
is it
impo
rtan
t to
kee
p yo
urle
ft ha
nd w
ell u
nder
the
nec
kw
hen
play
ing
the
guita
r?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reca
llth
at h
and
posi
tion
is o
ne o
f th
em
ost
impo
rtan
t as
pect
s of
play
ing
the
guita
r.
Pla
ying
am
usic
alin
stru
men
t
Mus
ic3–
5P
erfo
rms
with
atte
ntio
n to
pitc
h,rh
ythm
, ph
ysic
al d
ynam
ics,
and
timbr
e w
hen
play
ing
a m
usic
alin
stru
men
t.
students to produce examples of how chance events affect history. Again, in-depthknowledge is not required.
Recalling With Mental Procedures
Recalling tasks for mental skills involve generating basic information about amental skill. The first recalling task for a mental skill involves refusal skills.Students must provide an example of when refusal skills might be useful. Recallingtasks for mental processes involve producing accurate information about a spe-cific mental process. The first recalling task for a mental process involves theprocess of using a book to obtain information. Students must retrieve informationabout how to use the publication date, table of contents, and a preface whenobtaining information from a book.
Recalling With Psychomotor Procedures
Recalling tasks for psychomotor skills involve generating information about aspecific psychomotor skill. The first recalling task for a psychomotor skill involvesspecific keyboarding techniques. Students must produce information about theimportance of the home row. Recalling tasks for psychomotor processes involveproducing information about a specific psychomotor process. The first recallingtask for a psychomotor process involves net and invasion games. Students mustproduce information about strategies used in various games of this type.
EXECUTING
Executing involves actually carrying out a mental or physical procedure asopposed to simply retrieving or recalling information about such procedures.There is a great deal of misunderstanding regarding the process of executing, par-ticularly as it relates to complex mental and psychomotor procedures. While it istrue that executing is at the lowest level of the New Taxonomy (retrieval), it canbe the highest level of expectation for students when a complex mental orpsychomotor procedure is involved. Consider, for example, the mental process ofwriting a persuasive essay. The actual execution of this process is a complex feat,indeed, requiring the management of many interacting components. The same canbe said for the process of playing basketball, a psychomotor procedure. How, then,could a district, school, or teacher ever expect students to use higher levels of theNew Taxonomy, such as articulating critical versus noncritical componentsof these procedures (i.e., an integrating task) or creating new generalizationsabout these procedures (i.e., a generalization task), or investigating the origins ofthese procedures (an investigation task) and so on? The answer is that executing,
Retrieval Objectives and Tasks 37
in fact, might be the highest level of expectation for students for these complexprocedures. Stated differently, a district, school, or teacher might not have objec-tives above the executing level in the New Taxonomy for complex procedures likewriting a persuasive essay and playing basketball.
Another option is to break these complex procedures into smaller compo-nent parts. Recall from the discussion in Chapter 2 that procedures like these aretechnically referred to as macroprocedures with many subcomponents interact-ing in complex ways. At a specific grade level, a school or district might focuson one or two elements only for a complex procedure. For example, at lowergrade levels, the skill of stating a clear claim might be the emphasis for the com-plex procedure of writing a persuasive essay. Likewise, at lower grade levels,the emphasis might be placed on dribbling only as it relates to the complexprocedure of playing basketball. With these more narrow foci, districts andschools can then legitimately include objectives for the other levels of the NewTaxonomy without the fear of overwhelming students. Marzano and Haystead(2008) have outlined how districts and schools might accomplish this spiralingeffect to curriculum in the areas of language arts, mathematics, science, andsocial studies.
Figure 3.4 presents executing objectives and tasks for various types ofknowledge.
Theoretically, all of the objective statements in Figure 3.4 could have employedthe term execute, but none do. This is because the term, although accurate, issimply not common within discussions of procedural knowledge. For example, itwould be considered clumsy to say, “The student will be able to execute the skillof determining the next number in a numeric series.” Instead, the verbs in execut-ing objectives and tasks are usually specific to the type of skill or process that isthe target of the objective or task, like the following:
• Add• Subtract• Multiply• Divide• Apply• Demonstrate• Draft• Complete• Locate• Make• Solve• Read• Use• Write
38 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
39
Fig
ure
3.4
Exe
cutin
g O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Gra
de/S
ubj.
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fac
ts, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
n/a
n/a
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
n/a
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
en/
a
Men
tal P
roce
dure
:S
kill
Det
erm
ine
your
cur
rent
hea
rtan
d br
eath
ing
rate
.T
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
le t
om
onito
r he
art
and
brea
thin
gra
tes.
Mon
itorin
ghe
art
rate
and
brea
thin
g ra
te
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–6
Kno
ws
how
to
mon
itor
elem
ents
such
as
hear
t ra
te,
brea
thin
gra
te,
perc
eive
d ex
ertio
n, a
ndre
cove
ry r
ate
in o
rder
to
dete
rmin
e in
tens
ity o
f ex
erci
se.
Pro
vide
the
nex
t nu
mbe
rin
thi
s se
ries:
7, 1
1, 1
4, 1
8,21
, __
_.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
disc
over
and
exe
cute
the
rul
efo
r a
spec
ific
num
eric
pat
tern
.
Det
erm
inin
g th
eru
le fo
r a
patte
rn o
fnu
mbe
rs
Mat
h3–
5R
ecog
nize
s a
wid
e va
riety
of
patte
rns,
suc
h as
bas
ic li
near
patte
rns,
sim
ple
repe
atin
g an
dgr
owin
g pa
ttern
s an
d th
eir
gove
rnin
g ru
les.
Men
tal P
roce
dure
:P
roce
ssW
rite
a pe
rsua
sive
ess
ay w
ithsp
ecia
l atte
ntio
n to
the
inte
rest
s an
d pe
rspe
ctiv
es o
fan
aud
ienc
e of
you
r ch
oice
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
writ
e a
pers
uasi
ve e
ssay
tha
tre
flect
s at
tent
ion
to t
hein
tere
sts
and
pers
pect
ives
of
a sp
ecifi
c au
dien
ce.
Writ
ing
ape
rsua
sive
essa
y
Lang
uage
Art
s3–
5W
rites
for
diffe
rent
aud
ienc
es,
such
as
self,
pee
rs,
teac
hers
,an
d ad
ults
, by
usi
ng s
trat
egie
ssu
ch a
s fo
cus
adap
tatio
n,or
gani
zatio
n, p
oint
of
view
,an
d au
dien
ce a
war
enes
s.
(Con
tinu
ed)
40
Fig
ure
3.4
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Gra
de/S
ubj.
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
If th
e ea
rth’
s di
amet
er is
12,7
40 k
m,
wha
t is
its
circ
umfe
renc
e? S
how
how
you
solv
ed t
his
prob
lem
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
solv
e a
varie
ty o
f pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g pe
rimet
er.
Sol
ving
ava
riety
of
prob
lem
sin
volv
ing
perim
eter
Mat
h6–
8S
olve
s pe
rimet
er a
nd a
rea
prob
lem
s fo
r a
varie
ty o
fsh
apes
(e.
g.,
para
llelo
gram
s,tr
iang
les,
circ
les)
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:S
kill
Tap
out
the
rhyt
hm o
f ¾
, or
wal
tz,
time.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
initi
ate
and
keep
a s
peci
fied
rhyt
hm.
Kee
ping
rhy
thm
Mus
ic
3–5
Per
form
s w
ith a
war
enes
s of
pitc
h, r
hyth
m,
dyna
mic
s an
dtim
bre,
and
tem
po.
Type
the
par
agra
ph g
iven
you
,st
artin
g w
ith y
our
finge
rs o
nth
e ho
me
row
and
usi
ngap
prop
riate
fin
gerin
g.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
type
usi
ng a
ppro
pria
tefin
gerin
g.
Usi
ngap
prop
riate
finge
ring
whi
lety
ping
Tech
nolo
gy3–
5P
erfo
rms
from
hom
e ro
w w
ithaw
aren
ess
of p
rope
r fin
gerin
gan
d pr
oper
pos
ture
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:P
roce
ssS
wim
tw
o la
ps,
mov
ing
from
back
str
oke,
to
side
str
oke,
to
brea
st s
trok
e in
any
ord
er,
mak
ing
smoo
th t
rans
ition
sfr
om o
ne t
o th
e ot
her.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
dem
onst
rate
adv
ance
dsw
imm
ing
stro
kes.
Usi
ng v
ario
ussw
imm
ing
stro
kes
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
9–12
Use
s ad
vanc
ed s
port
-spe
cific
tech
niqu
e in
a v
arie
ty o
fac
tiviti
es (
e.g.
, sw
imm
ing,
danc
e, k
ayak
ing,
indi
vidu
alan
d te
am s
port
s).
Per
form
a m
usic
alco
mpo
sitio
n of
you
r ch
oice
.P
ay a
ttent
ion
to y
our
tem
poan
d ot
her
dyna
mic
s w
eha
ve s
tudi
ed.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
perf
orm
a m
usic
alco
mpo
sitio
n on
pitc
h, in
rhyt
hm,
with
app
ropr
iate
dyna
mic
s an
d tim
bre
and
ast
eady
tem
po.
Per
form
ing
am
usic
alco
mpo
sitio
n
Mus
ic3–
5P
erfo
rms
with
aw
aren
ess
ofpi
tch,
rhy
thm
, dy
nam
ics
and
timbr
e, a
nd t
empo
.
The format for the tasks in Figure 3.4 are short written or oral constructed-response formats accompanied by actually performing (i.e., executing) the proce-dure. In the case of mental skills, forced-choice formats could have been used. Toillustrate, the format for the mental procedure regarding numeric series could havebeen a multiple-choice task like the following:
Which of the following is the next number you would expect in the series, 7,11, 14, 18, 21?
a. 20
b. 21
c. 22
d. 24
Executing With Information
By definition, executing does not apply to the domain of information.Information can be recognized and recalled but not executed.
Executing With Mental Procedures
Executing tasks for mental skills involves accurately carrying out the mentalskill or process without significant error but not necessarily being able to explainhow it works. The first example of an executing task for a mental skill involvesmonitoring heart rate and breathing rate. For this task students must actually carryout the procedure as opposed to providing information about the procedure. Thefirst example of an executing task for a mental process involves writing a persua-sive essay. To complete this task, students must actually write a persuasive essay.Again, it is important to remember that executing can be the highest level ofexpectation for mental processes.
Executing With Psychomotor Procedures
Executing tasks for psychomotor skills involve accurately carrying out a psy-chomotor skill or process without significant error but not necessarily being ableto explain how it works. The first example of an executing task for a psychomo-tor skill involves tapping out rhythm. To demonstrate competence in this skill,students must perform the task. The first example of an execution task for a psy-chomotor process involves using specific strokes while swimming. Students mustexecute these strokes in a coordinated fashion. Again, executing can be the high-est level of expectation for psychomotor processes.
Retrieval Objectives and Tasks 41
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS FOR
RETRIEVAL OBJECTIVES AND TASKS
Recognizing Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to validate the accuracy of information presented to them• Use terms and phrases like the following: recognize, select from a list, iden-
tify from a list, determine if the following statements are true• Use forced-choice formats
Recalling Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to produce accurate information• Use terms like the following: recall, exemplify, name, list, label, state,
describe, who, what, where, when• Use short written and oral constructed-response formats along with fill-in-
the-blank formats
Executing Objectives and Tasks
• Do not apply to the domain of information• Require students to carry out a procedure• Can be the highest level of expectation for complex processes• Use terms like the following: add, subtract, multiply, divide, apply, demon-
strate, draft, complete, make, solve, read, use, write• Use short written and oral constructed-response formats along with execu-
tion of the procedure; use forced-choice formats with mental skills
42 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
CH A P T E R FO U R
Comprehension Objectives and Tasks
Comprehension involves the related processes of integrating and symbolizingknowledge. Critical to both of these processes is that students are able
to identify the critical or essential information as opposed to the noncritical ornonessential information.
INTEGRATING
Integrating involves identifying and articulating the critical or essential elementsof knowledge. Figure 4.1 presents integrating objectives and tasks for the varioustypes of knowledge.
Benchmark statements sometimes make direct allusion to integrating, at leastfor the domain of information. For example, consider the benchmark statement inthe first row, which states that students are expected to understand the decline ofthe Cold War from the 1970s to the early 1990s. Implicit in this statement is theexpectation that students will distinguish between critical versus noncritical events.
The verb integrate is rarely if ever used with integrating objects and tasks.Rather, terms and phrases like the following are frequently employed:
• Describe how or why (or both)• Describe the key parts of• Describe the effects• Describe the relationship between• Explain ways in which• Make connections between• Paraphrase• Summarize
43
44
e 4.
1F
igur
Inte
grat
ing
Obj
ectiv
es a
nd
asks
T
Task
Obj
ectiv
ew
ledg
eK
no ocus
Fad
e/S
ubj.
Gr
k S
tate
men
tB
ench
mar
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rm,s
F, T
ime
acts
sequ
ence
s
vW
hat
ext
eren
ts e
viet
nal t
o th
e S
oer
e cr
Uni
on w
itica
l to
its c
olla
pse?
Whi
ch in
ter
ard
nal p
ress
ures
tow
colla
pse
wec
ted
byer
e no
t af
fve
nts?
thes
e e
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
impo
rxt
erta
nt e
nal
ents
tha
t le
d to
the
col
laps
eev
viet
Uni
on a
sof
the
So
oppo
sed
to t
hose
cau
ses
that
ere
sole
ly in
ter
wna
l.
eK
xter
y e
nal
een
ts t
hat
led
v to t
he c
olla
pse
viet
of t
he S
oU
nion
.
Wor
ldH
isto
ry7–
8
Und
erst
ands
the
dec
line
of t
heC
old
ar f
rom
the
197
0s t
o th
eW
early
199
0s.
Wha
t re
cent
act
ions
of
our
fal
eder
ergo
vve
con
trnm
ent
haut
ed t
o a
ibm
ark
y?et
eco
nom
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
desc
ribe
whi
ch o
f th
e cu
rren
tac
tions
of
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
ver
gonm
ent
hae
cont
rv
uted
ibk
to t
he m
ary.
et e
cono
m
Rec
ent
actio
ns o
f th
eU
nite
d S
tate
sgo
rve
nmen
tth
at c
ontr
ute
ibto
a m
arke
ty.
econ
om
Eco
nom
ics
6–8
ws
that
a m
arK
noke
t eco
nom
yat
es b
yop
erve
the
gorn
men
t hel
ping
ets
oper
mar
ky
ate
b p
rote
ctin
gpr
oper
ty r
., th
e r
ight
s (i.
eig
ht to
xclu
de o
ther
s fr
om u
sing
a g
ood
e or s
ervi
ce a
nd th
e rig
ht to
trer
ansf
oy
wne
rshi
p), b
vidi
ng a
sys
tem
pro
of w
ell a
sei
ghts
and
mea
sure
s as
wle
cur
renc
ya
stan
dard
and
sta
b.
orIn
fm
atio
n:O
rgan
izin
gal
izat
ion
Gen
er
It is
ofte
n sa
id th
at a
ll po
litic
s is
loca
l;th
at u
ltim
atel
y in
divi
dual
sre
spon
d to
thei
r im
med
iate
pol
itica
lat
her
than
from
aen
viro
nmen
t r.
natio
nal p
ersp
ectiv
eId
entif
y an
elec
tion
or c
ontr
ove
ersy
w h
aev
aliz
atio
nst
udie
d in
whi
ch th
is g
ener
has
pro
ed to
be
trv
uey
.Exp
lain
wh
your
eat
es th
e cr
xam
ple
illus
triti
cal
aliz
atio
n.as
pect
s of
this
gen
er
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
vide
pro
y w
a,
bxa
mpl
ey
of e
and
evi
denc
exp
lana
tion,
eal
izat
ion
that
of t
he g
ener
indi
vidu
als
tend
to
resp
ond
toan
d pa
rtic
ipat
e in
the
pol
itica
lat
her
proc
ess
from
a lo
cal r
than
a n
atio
nal p
ersp
ectiv
.e
aliz
atio
nA
gen
erab
out em
ent
inin
volv
the
polit
ical
.pr
oces
s
Civ
ics
9–12
ws
that
pol
itica
l par
Kno
ticip
atio
nca
n r
otin
g)an
ge f
rom
eng
agin
g (v
, an
d na
tiona
lat
the
loca
l, st
ate
lev
lic p
olic
yel
s to
influ
enci
ng p
ubth
roug
h at
tend
ing
polit
ical at
ions
mee
tings
and
dem
onst
ras
wlic
or
ell a
s co
ntac
ting
pub
conc
erne
d of
ficia
ls t
hrou
gh u
seof
lette
r w
ritin
g, p
etiti
onin
g,yc
ottin
g.or
bo
45
ask
Te
Obj
ectiv
wle
dge
Kno oc
usF
Gra
de/S
ubj.
k S
tate
men
tB
ench
mar
orm
atio
n:In
fO
rgan
izin
gP
rinci
ple
A b
asic
pr
eath
erin
cipl
e ab
out
the
wco
ncer
s he
atns
how
the
sun
’ea
ther
on
ear
crea
tes
wth
.Des
crib
ew
the
tilt
of
the
ear
hoth
and
its
rev
ects
olut
ion
arou
nd t
he s
un a
ffth
e se
ason
s.
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
pro
win
gvi
de a
des
crip
tion
sho
how
the
tilt
and
rev
olut
ion
ofth
e ea
rth
arou
nd t
he s
unaf
f.
ects
the
sea
sons
A p
rinci
ple
rega
rdin
g th
ese
ason
and
the
tilt
of t
he e
arth
.
Sci
ence
6–8
ws
hoK
noea
ther
w s
easo
ns a
nd w
patte
rns
of th
e ea
rth
are
desi
gned
yan
d al
tere
d b
the
tilt o
f the
ear
th’s
axis
and
the
eart
h’ol
utio
ns
rev
., he
at is
mor
ear
ound
the
sun
(i.e
inte
nse
on o
ne p
art o
r an
othe
r of
the
ear
olut
ion
th a
ccor
ding
to it
s re
var
ound
the
sun)
.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Des
cror
the
ibe
the
reas
onin
g f
step
s us
ed in
sub
trac
tions
actin
g fr
e de
nom
inat
ors
with
unl
ik.
yT
he s
tude
nt w
ill id
entif
y w
hea
ch s
tep
in a
ddin
g or
actin
g fr
subt
re
actio
ns w
ith u
nlik
deno
min
ator
s is
impo
rtan
t.
The
ski
ll of
subt
ract
ing
frac
tions
ew
ith u
nlik
deno
min
ator
s.
Mat
h6–
8P
erfo
rac
tion
ms
addi
tion
and
subt
rac
tions
with
unl
ike
for
frde
nom
inat
ors
and
mul
tiple
san
d di
vide
s al
l fr
.ac
tions
lem
in s
ente
nce
Wha
t pr
obm
eani
ng is
cre
ated
by
a“d
angl
ing
part
icip
le”?
Wha
t lo
gica
l ste
ps le
adto
its
corr
ectio
n?
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
iden
tify
the
logi
cal p
robl
emy
pres
ente
d b
a d
angl
ing
par
w it
can
be
ticip
le a
nd h
oco
rrec
ted.
The
ski
ll of
reco
gniz
ing
and
corr
ectin
gda
nglin
g.
mod
ifier
s
Lang
uage
Art
s6–
8
eren
t v
Use
s di
ffor
erb
fm
s in
writ
ing
(e.g
., lin
king
and
aux
iliar
erbs
,y
vve
rb p
hr,
and
regu
lar
and
ases er
bs).
irreg
ular
v
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
If y
ante
d to
con
duct
a s
urou
wv
yea
sam
ple
of s
tude
nts
to e
stim
ate
the
perc
enta
ge o
f st
uden
ts in
our
clas
s th
at a
re in
for
ym
edab
out
a cu
rren
t ev
ent,
desc
ribe
hoou
wou
ld c
hoos
e th
e su
rw
yv
yere
spon
dent
sy
each
.Exp
lain
wh
step
in t
he p
roce
ss is
impo
rtan
t.
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
desc
ribe
the
ky
step
se
ed in
sel
ectin
g a
invo
lvsa
mpl
e.
The
pro
cess
of
sam
plin
g w
ithin
y st
udy.
a su
rve
Sci
ence
6–8
Use
s to
ols
such
as
com
pute
rha
rdw
are
toar
e an
d so
ftwga
ther
, an
d in
ter
, an
alyz
epr
etsc
ient
ific
data
.
(Con
tinu
ed)
46
Fig
ure
4.1
(Con
tinue
d)
ask
TO
bjec
tive
wle
dge
Kno
Focu
sG
rade
/Sub
j.k
Sta
tem
ent
Ben
chm
ar
Wha
t ar
e th
e m
ost
impo
rtan
t th
ings
eep
in m
ind
whe
n co
nstr
uctin
gto
ka
wor
ell-f
med
par
raph
tha
tag
eff
ely
wec
tivroks
with
in a
larg
ery
or c
ompo
sitio
n? E
xpla
in w
hyes
saou
ha
the
step
s y
ev id
entif
ied
are
impo
rtan
t.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
ew
to
cons
trxp
lain
ho
uct
ael
l-str
wuc
ture
d pa
rag
aph
and
rw
it s
erho
vve
s th
e o
all
erpu
rpos
e of
the
com
posi
tion.
The
pro
cess
of w
ritin
gw
orel
l-fm
edag
par
aphs
.r
Lang
uage
Art
s3–
5
Use
s st
raf
t, an
dat
egie
s to
edi
t, dr
vise
wr
re.g
., w
riti
ng (
eite
s w
ithor
d ch
oice
and
atte
ntio
n to
w rse
nten
ce v
ael
l as
iatio
n as
wau
dien
ce;u
ses
par
aphs
agr
prop
erly
;ela
bor
alat
es o
n a
cent
rid
ea;p
rodu
ces
maf
ts).
ultip
le d
r
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Des
crib
e th
e ty
pica
l fin
gerin
g us
edf
ying
a s
cale
on
a sp
ecifi
cor
a p
lam
umen
t.us
ical
inst
rxp
lain
Als
o e
y th
is f
inge
rw
hin
g is
impo
rtan
t.
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
y th
e fin
ger
iden
tify
wh
or a
ing
fus
ical
inst
rsp
ecifi
c m
umen
t is
impo
ror
pla
tant
f.
ying
sca
les
The
ski
ll of
ing
whi
lefin
ger
ying
a s
cale
pla
on a
spe
cific
inst
rum
ent.
Mus
ic 3
–5yt
hmic
Use
s rh
, an
d,
mel
odic
harm
onic
cla
ssro
om in
stru
men
ts(e
.g.
, vi
olin
, el
ectr
pian
o,
ic g
uita
rdr
orum
s) t
o pe
rfm
sim
ple
chor
dal
patte
rat
ely
and
ns a
ccur
.in
depe
nden
tly
Des
crw
to h
old
a pe
ncil
soib
e ho
that
it is
eas
ier
to f
rom
lette
rs.
clea
rlyW
yh d
oes
hold
ing
a pe
ncil
this
wa
ou w
ry
help
yite
bet
ter?
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
w t
o ho
ld a
pen
cil
expl
ain
how
hile
writ
ing.
The
ski
ll of
hold
ing
a pe
ncil
corr
ectly
whe
nw
ritin
g.
Lang
uage
Art
sP
reK
Enh
ance
s w
ritin
g w
ith u
se o
f to
ols
and
mat
eria
ls s
uch
as c
ron
say
,m
arer
s, p
oste
r bo
ard,
and
kch
alkb
oard
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
eIn
cla
ss w
ha
ev b
een
lear
ning
hoy
softb
all.
w t
o pl
aD
escr
ibe
wha
tou
ld d
o du
ryo
u w
ing
a ga
me
if y
uoer
e th
e pi
tche
r on
the
tea
m.
w
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
expl
ain
hoy
softb
all.
w t
o pl
aal
The
gen
erpr
oces
sv
ed in
inol
vyi
ng s
oftb
all.
pla
ysic
alP
hE
duca
tion
3–5
al p
roce
ssU
nder
stan
ds t
he g
ener
ying
a m
ajor
spo
rof
pla
t.
Des
crw
yib
e ho
ould
go
abou
tou
wor
appl
ying
col
ors
and
fm
s in
ayi
ng p
arla
ndsc
ape
patic
ular
atte
ntio
n to
the
type
of b
res
ushs
trok
ould
use
dur
you
win
g ea
ch p
hase
of
.th
e pr
oces
sD
efy
the
step
sen
d w
hy
eou
hav
iden
tifie
d ar
e im
port
ant.
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
uanc
es o
fex
plai
n th
e n
appl
ying
col
ors
and
from
s in
land
scap
e pa
intin
g w
hile
usin
g a
spec
ific
set
of b
rush
stro
k.
es
The
pro
cess
of
appl
ying
col
ors
whi
le u
sing
asp
ecifi
c se
t of es
.br
ush
stro
k
Vis
ual A
rts
9–12
w t
heU
nder
stan
ds h
oun
icat
ion
of id
eas
isco
mm
aff
y th
e te
chni
ques
and
ecte
d b
w t
his
proc
esse
s us
ed a
nd h
ore
late
s to
the
med
ia.
Comprehension Objectives and Tasks 47
The most common format for integrating tasks is an extended written or oralconstructed response. For example, except for those involving details, all of thetasks in Figure 4.1 would require a fair amount of explanation.
Integrating With Information
In some situations, integrating can be applied to details; however, since inte-grating involves identifying essential versus nonessential elements, a set of detailsmust have a fairly complex structure to be amenable to integrating. For example,the first integrating task involves details about the key external events that led tothe collapse of the Soviet Union. There are a number of such events, and theseevents have a fairly complex relationship. To complete the task, students have to list the critical events from the set. Given their inherent complexity, organizingideas are highly amenable to integrating. When generalizations are the focus ofintegrating, the task involves identifying the defining characteristics of a class ofelements. For example, the integrating task involving a generalization addresses ageneralization about participation in the political process. The student must providean example of this generalization and explain how the example meets the definingcharacteristics of the generalization. Principles are different from generalizations.Principles involve a statement about the relationship between two variables.Consequently, integrating tasks for principles require students to explain the func-tional relationship between variables. For example, the integrating task involving aprinciple about the relationship between the tilt of the earth and the seasons requiresstudents to articulate the causal relationship between these two phenomena.
Integrating With Mental Procedures
Integrating tasks for mental skills and processes involve identifying and articu-lating the important steps of specific skills or processes. The first integrating taskinvolving a mental skill addresses subtracting fractions with like denominators.Students must describe the reasoning underlying the steps in this procedure. The firstintegrating task for mental processes involves the procedure for sampling within asurvey study. Again students must describe the process. Again it is worth noting thatwith complex procedures—mental and psychomotor—educational objectives arerarely written beyond the level of execution. The typical expectation is that studentsperform the procedures with fluency and accuracy, not that they can explain thelogic of the procedures. Integration goes beyond the typical expectation of execut-ing a procedure and requires understanding the logic underlying the procedure.
Integrating With Psychomotor Procedures
Integrating applies to psychomotor skills and processes the same way itapplies to mental skills and processes. A student must identify the steps involvedin the skill or process and the logic underlying those steps. The first integrating
task for psychomotor skills involves fingering for a specific musical instrumentwhile playing scales. The student must describe the steps involved in this proce-dure and the logic behind these steps. The first integrating task for psychomotorprocesses involves the process of playing softball. Students must explain the over-all events in this psychomotor process.
It is important to make a distinction between recalling as it relates to proce-dures and integrating as it relates to procedures. With recalling, students mustsimply retrieve the steps involved in a procedure. With integrating, students mustexplain the logic behind those steps—why they work.
SYMBOLIZING
Symbolizing involves depicting the critical aspects of knowledge in some type ofnonlinguistic or abstract form. Figure 4.2 presents symbolizing tasks for the vari-ous types of knowledge.
The process of symbolizing is rarely explicit in benchmark statements. Thatis, benchmark statements rarely ask students to represent or depict knowledge.The term symbolize is frequently used in symbolizing objectives and tasks. Otherterms and phrases include
• Depict• Represent• Illustrate• Draw• Show• Use models• Diagram• Chart
The obvious format for symbolizing tasks is a representation that does not relyon language. However, this does not mean that language is incompatible withsymbolizing tasks. Indeed, extended explanations and presentations in constructed-response formats often accompany symbolizing tasks. For example, almost everysymbolizing task in Figure 4.2 requires students to use language to one extent oranother. In many situations some type of graphic organizer is employed. These aresomewhat different for the various domains of knowledge.
Symbolizing With Information
Symbolizing as it relates to details can be done in a variety of ways, includingpictures, pictographs and graphic organizers. When graphic organizers are employed,the formats found in Figure 4.3 are commonly employed.
48 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
e 4.
2F
igur
Sym
boliz
ing
Obj
ectiv
es a
nd
asks
T
ask
TO
bjec
tive
wle
dge
Kno oc
usF
Gra
de/S
ubj.
k S
tate
men
tB
ench
mar
orIn
fm
atio
n:D
etai
ls:
Term
s,F
, Tim
eac
tsse
quen
ces
eIn
thi
s un
it, w
e h
av d
iscu
ssed
the
wes
of
avim
mig
ants
com
ing
to t
he U
nite
d S
tate
s af
ter
ra
the
Civ
il W
.ror
On
a w
ld m
ap o
utlin
eaw
, dr
xten
ding
fro
m t
he im
mig
lines
ean
ts’
rco
untr
ies
of o
rigin
to
the
poin
ts in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
that
y m
ost
com
mon
ly s
ettle
d.th
eU
se w
ider
line
sor
ban
ds t
o in
dica
te w
hat
coun
trer
e th
eie
s w
sour
ce o
f a
larg
er n
rum
bers
of
imm
ig.
ants
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
gap
hica
lly r
epre
sent
rat
ion
afte
r th
e C
ivil
imm
igr
war
in t
erm
s of
the
rant
s’im
mig
coun
trie
s of
orig
in a
s w
eel
l as
rela
tiv.
num
bers
Det
ails
of
imm
igat
ion
tor
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
afte
rth
e C
ivil
Wra
His
tory
5–6
Kno
acto
rs th
atw
s ab
out f
led
to in
crea
sed
imm
igat
ion
rin
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
durin
gth
e an
tebe
llum
per
iod
from
Chi
na, I
rela
nd, a
ndG
erm
anys
y an
d th
e w
aim
mig
ants
adj
uste
d to
life
rin
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes.
Kno
ws
abou
t the
rea
ctio
n to
imm
igan
ts fr
om th
e na
tivis
tr
vem
ent a
nd th
e m
ow
-“K
noN
othi
ng”p
ar.
ty
aphi
c to
indi
cate
the
arc
of
the
thre
e-U
se a
gr
act
pla
ey
wve
ha
just
stu
died
, in
dica
ting
the
eyk e
vac
ters
’en
ts a
nd c
har
actio
ns t
hat
mo
evy
fth
e pl
aar
d, in
clud
ing
clim
ax a
ndor
wre
solu
tion
of t
he p
la.y
le to
The
stu
dent
will
be
abat
e th
e ar
c of
a th
ree-
illus
try,
act p
lay
iden
tifyi
ng th
e ke
evac
ter
ents
and
cha
r, i
nclu
ding
clim
axac
tions
and
reso
lutio
n of
the
pla
.y
Det
ails
of
a ysp
ecifi
c pl
aLa
ngua
geA
rts
6–8
Kno
w a
plo
tw
s ho
velo
ps (
ede
alle
l.g
., pa
rst
or,
y lin
es a
nd s
ubpl
ots
ect
caus
e-an
d-ef
f , cl
imax
,re
latio
nshi
psan
d re
solu
tion)
.
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
aliz
atio
nG
ener
The
re is
a s
a,
ying
that
the
mor
e th
ings
cha
nge
y st
ath
e m
ore
the
, mea
ning
that
y th
e sa
me
alth
ough
som
e th
ings
mig
ht lo
ok v
ery
eren
t d
iff,
in o
ne w
aya
in o
ther
wy
hays
the
e no
t cha
nged
vat
all.
For
e, c
hild
ren
used
to g
o to
xam
ple
one-
room
sch
oolh
ouse
ser
, with
ev
ry
gad
e in
the
sam
e ro
om.
y w
Onc
e th
ey
ere
insi
de th
ough
, the
lear
ned
the
sam
e sp
ellin
g an
d ar
ithm
etic
y.
ou d
oou
wIf
yaw
ere
to d
r, y
this
w a
ll th
eou
mig
ht s
hoer
e di
ffth
ings
that
w,
eren
t abo
ut th
e sc
hool
hous
es
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
ate
the
idea
tha
till
ustr
ther
e ar
e co
mm
onal
ities
as w
eren
ces
ell a
s di
ffy
betw
een
the
pres
ent
daan
d th
e pa
st.
aliz
atio
nA
gen
erab
out
the
com
mon
aliti
esee
n th
ebe
twpa
st a
nd t
hepr
esen
t
His
tory
K–4
Und
erst
ands
ho
amili
esw
fac
ted
in t
he p
ast
inte
r(e
.g.,
role
s,
scho
olin
g,
jobs
xper
ew
ienc
es)
and
hoac
tions
ha
thos
e in
ter
evch
ange
d th
roug
h tim
e.
(Con
tinu
ed)
49
50
e 4.
2F
igur
(Con
tinue
d)
ask
Te
Obj
ectiv
wle
dge
Kno oc
usF
Gra
de/S
ubj.
k S
tate
men
tB
ench
mar
bw
the
sam
e le
sson
s be
ing
taug
ht in
ut a
lso
sho .
both
pla
ces
Thi
nk a
bout
oth
er w
ays
that
life
toda
eren
t fro
m li
fy
is s
imila
r to
and
diff
.e
long
ago
awD
r p
ictu
res
to il
lust
rw
thin
gs h
ave
ate
hoch
ange
d an
d ho
w th
eve
y ha
sta
.ye
d th
e sa
me
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
Illus
tree
n su
pply
and
ate
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
dem
and
and
thei
r im
pact
on
pr.
ice
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
grat
e th
eap
hica
lly il
lust
rre
latio
nshi
p be
twee
nsu
pply
and
dem
and.
A p
rinci
ple
abou
t th
ere
latio
nshi
pee
n su
pply
betw
and
dem
and
Eco
nom
ics
3–5
Und
erst
ands
that
sel
lers
wan
t to
sell
mor
e of
apr
oduc
t whe
n th
e pr
ices
are
high
er a
nd b
uan
tye
rs w
to b
uy m
ore
of a
pro
duct
whe
n th
e pr
wic
es a
re lo
r.e
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
w y
Rep
rese
nt h
ool
low
ing
ou m
ight
rea
d th
e f
new
spap
er a
r.
ticle
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
visu
ally
rep
rese
nt a
logi
cal
appr
oach
to
read
ing
aw
spap
er a
rne
ticle
.
The
ski
ll of
read
ing
asi
mpl
ew
spap
erne ar
ticle
Lang
uage
Art
s3–
5
Use
s te
, to
pic
xt h
eadi
ngs
and
sum
mar
,y
sent
ence
sg
eatu
res,
typ
efra
phic
f,
ace
and
chap
ter
title
s) t
o fin
dor
inf
mat
ion
and
mai
n id
ea.
ou h
aIm
agin
e y
ev t
o e
oung
erxp
lain
to
a y
stud
ent
wh
o-fif
ths
plus
thr
ee-f
ifths
equ
aly
twon
e.U
se d
raxp
lain
the
idea
.w
ings
to
e
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
ate
the
proc
ess
ofill
ustr
addi
ng s
impl
e fr
.ac
tions
The
ski
ll of
addi
ng s
impl
efr
actio
ns
Mat
h3–
5U
ses
addi
tion
and
subt
ror
sim
ple
actio
n f
fr.
actio
ns
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Usi
ng t
he p
roor
d pr
obvi
ded
wan
slat
ele
m,
trle
m in
to v
ath
e pr
oble
s an
d sy
mbo
ls f
riab
roap
prop
rat
ions
.ia
te o
per
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
rus
e va
les
to r
epre
sent
iab
a w
lem
.or
d pr
ob
The
pro
cess
of
ord
solv
ing
wle
ms
prob
Mat
h6–
8w
s th
at e
quat
ions
Kno
and
ineq
ualit
ies
are
mat
hem
atic
al s
tate
men
tsum
bers
and
usin
g n
sym
bols
to
repr
esen
tre
latio
nshi
ps a
nd
orre
al-w
ld s
ituat
ions
.
51
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Gra
de/S
ubj.
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Use
you
r ow
n no
tatio
n sy
stem
to
repr
esen
tth
e pr
oces
s yo
u us
e w
hen
expl
orin
g a
new
web
site
.Use
diff
eren
t cl
uste
rs t
o re
pres
ent
wha
t yo
u do
whe
n yo
u ar
e se
ekin
g sp
ecifi
cin
form
atio
n, w
hen
you
wan
t to
che
ck t
heau
then
ticity
of
the
site
, an
d w
hen
you
wan
tto
und
erst
and
the
diffe
rent
kin
ds o
f m
ater
ial
that
are
ava
ilabl
e fr
om a
site
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
repr
esen
t th
e flo
w o
f an
info
rmat
ion
sear
ch t
hat
uses
tex
t fe
atur
es a
ndhi
erar
chic
str
uctu
res
inw
eb-b
ased
info
rmat
iona
lte
xt.
The
pro
cess
of u
sing
web
-bas
edin
form
atio
nse
arch
es
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12
Und
erst
ands
com
plex
,im
plic
it hi
erar
chic
stru
ctur
es in
info
rmat
iona
lte
xts,
incl
udin
g In
tern
etda
taba
ses.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Illus
trat
e th
e re
quire
d al
ignm
ent
of t
he t
ip o
fth
e cu
e st
ick
to t
he c
ue b
all i
n or
der
to d
raw
the
cue
ball
back
and
to
the
right
afte
r it
impa
cts
with
the
obj
ect
ball.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
poin
t of
cue
stic
k im
pact
on
the
cue
ball
and
the
subs
eque
ntba
ll tr
ajec
tory
for
a gi
ven
billi
ard
prob
lem
.
The
ski
ll of
strik
ing
abi
lliar
d ba
ll
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
key
ele
men
tsof
adv
ance
d m
ovem
ent
in s
port
s.
Illus
trat
e th
e pr
oper
arm
and
han
d m
otio
n in
abu
tterf
ly s
trok
e.T
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
leto
illu
stra
te t
he p
rope
r ar
man
d ha
nd m
otio
n fo
r th
ebu
tterf
ly s
trok
e.
The
arm
and
hand
mot
ion
for
a bu
tterf
lyst
roke
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
key
ele
men
tsof
adv
ance
d m
ovem
ent
in s
port
s.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Use
an
S g
raph
to
indi
cate
dyn
amic
s of
a s
kitu
rn.I
ndic
ate
the
chan
ging
pre
ssur
e on
the
uphi
ll an
d do
wnh
ill s
ki a
nd t
he o
rient
atio
n of
the
skis
and
the
ski
er’s
tor
so t
o th
e fa
ll lin
e.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to il
lust
rate
an
S t
urn,
indi
catin
g th
e po
sitio
n of
the
skie
r’s t
orso
and
ski
sre
lativ
e to
the
fall
line,
as
wel
l as
the
chan
ging
pres
sure
on
the
uphi
ll an
ddo
wnh
ill s
kis
thro
ugho
utth
e tu
rn.
The
pro
cess
of
mak
ing
an S
turn
in s
kiin
g
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
mov
emen
tsas
soci
ated
with
hig
hly
skill
ed p
hysi
cal a
thle
tes
(e.g
., m
oves
tha
t le
ad t
osu
cces
sful
nav
igat
ion
ofa
slop
e w
hile
dow
nhill
skiin
g).
Use
an
illus
trat
ion
to in
dica
te h
ow t
o pa
ralle
lpa
rk o
n a
busy
str
eet
and
then
ret
urn
to t
heflo
w o
f tr
affic
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to il
lust
rate
the
over
all
proc
ess
of p
aral
lel p
arki
ng.
The
pro
cess
of
para
llel p
arki
ngD
river
’sE
duca
tion
9–12
Dem
onst
rate
s cr
itica
las
pect
s of
driv
ing
in a
nur
ban
envi
ronm
ent.
52 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 4.3 Graphic Organizers for Details
Event 1 Event 2 Event 3 Event 4 Event 5
Topic
The graphic organizer at the top of Figure 4.3 is used for terms and facts. Thetopic or term is placed in the circle, and the information about the topic or term iswritten in the spokes. Consider for example, the first symbolizing task for details.It involves facts about immigration after the Civil War and asks students to use amap to represent these facts. This, of course, is a very precise way for students tosymbolize such information. However, one or both of the graphic organizers inFigure 4.3 might have been used. For example “immigration after the Civil War”could be written in the circle and details about immigration written in the spokes.
The organizer at the bottom of Figure 4.3 is used for time sequences. If theinformation about immigration after the Civil War was conceptualized as aseries of chronological events, the time sequence organizer could have been used.(A more detailed description of graphic organizers of this type can be found inMarzano, 2007, and Marzano & Pickering, 2005.)
Figure 4.4 depicts the type of graphic organizer commonly used with general-izations. The generalization is placed in the rectangle at the top and the examplesof the generalization in the boxes below the top rectangle. For example, the gen-eralization in Figure 4.2 about the commonalities between the past and presentwould be written in the rectangle. Examples would be written in the boxes below.Since principles involve relationships between variables, graphs and charts are
Comprehension Objectives and Tasks 53
typically used with this type of knowledge structure. For example, a student mightcreate a graph representing the relationship between supply and demand for thetask in Figure 4.1 involving this principle. A graph might show demand on oneaxis and supply on another. (For a more detailed discussion of these graphic orga-nizers, see Marzano, 2007, and Marzano & Pickering, 2005.)
Figure 4.4 Graphic Organizers for Generalizations
Generalization
Example Example Example
Symbolizing With Mental Procedures
Symbolizing as it relates to mental skills and processes typically involvesdesigning a flow chart or diagram. Figure 4.5 depicts a common graphic organizerused to depict mental (and psychomotor) skills and processes.
Figure 4.5 Graphic Organizers for Skills and Processes
Product orOutcome
For example, a student might select the graphic organizer in Figure 4.5 todepict the skill of reading a newspaper article or the process of solving wordproblems. The causal relationships between the elements of these procedures aredepicted in the relationships between the circles. The culminating event is a prod-uct or an outcome, such as comprehending the article or solving the word problem.
Symbolizing With Psychomotor Procedures
Symbolizing psychomotor procedures is similar to symbolizing mental proce-dures. It commonly involves flow charts and diagrams. In addition, it can involvepictures. To illustrate, a student might draw a diagram to depict the skill of strik-ing a billiard ball. Similarly, a student might draw pictures to depict making Sturns in skiing.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS FOR
COMPREHENSION OBJECTIVES AND TASKS
Integrating Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to describe the critical versus noncritical elements ofinformation
• Are more common with information than with mental or psychomotor pro-cedures; when used with mental and psychomotor procedures they requirestudents to explain the logic underlying the steps in a procedure.
• Use terms like the following: describe how or why, describe the key partsof, describe the effects, describe the relationship between, explain ways inwhich, make connections between, paraphrase, summarize
• Use extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Symbolizing Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to depict critical elements in some nonlinguistic orabstract form
• Use terms like the following: symbolize, depict, represent, illustrate, draw,show, use model, diagram, chart
• Use extended written and oral constructed-response formats along withgraphic organizers, pictures, charts, graphs, tables, maps, and the like
54 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
55
CH A P T E R FI V E
Analysis Objectives and Tasks
processes: (1) matching, (2) classifying, (3) analyzing errors, (4) generalizing, andAs described in Chapter 2, the analysis processes involve examining knowl-
edge with the intent of generating new conclusions. There are five analysis
(5) specifying.
MATCHING
Matching involves identifying similarities and differences. Figure 5.1 presentsmatching objectives and tasks for the various domains of knowledge.
The verb match is rarely used in matching tasks. Most commonly, compare orcompare and contrast are used. The following terms and phrases might also be used:
• Categorize• Differentiate• Discriminate• Distinguish• Sort• Create an analogy• Create a metaphor
It is important to note that matching can involve more than two examples of aspecific type of knowledge. For example, a student demonstrates the ability tomatch by organizing individuals from history into two or more groups based ontheir similarities. The following task would elicit this type of matching:
We have been studying a number of individuals who were important his-torically for one reason or another. Organize these individuals into two or
56
e 5.
1F
igur
asks
Mat
chin
g O
bjec
tives
and
T
ask
Te
Obj
ectiv
wle
dge
Kno oc
usF
Sub
ject
,G
rade
k S
tate
men
tB
ench
mar
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
F, T
ime
acts
sequ
ence
s
atio
ns o
fC
ompa
re t
he c
eleb
rC
olum
by
in 1
905
and
us D
a20
05.H
oy
sim
ilar
and
w a
re t
hew
are
the
hoer
ent?
y di
ff
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
wys
tha
ta
cele
bry
atio
ns o
f C
olum
bus
Da
veha
cha
nged
and
rem
aine
d th
esa
me
ov.
er t
ime
Det
ails
abo
utC
olum
by
us D
ain
190
5 an
d20
05
His
toric
alU
nder
stan
ding
7–8
ws
that
his
tor
Kno
y ca
n be
inte
rpre
ted
diff
eren
ter
ently
at
diff
times
acc
ordi
ng t
o ne
wly
disc
oer
ed r
ecor
ds o
r ch
angi
ngv
polit
ics
or v
ie.
wpo
ints
eW
ha
ev b
een
stud
ying
the
term
s po
ew
ran
d au
thor
owity
.Hy
alik
are
the
eren
t?e
and
diff
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
nam
e th
e si
mila
ritie
s an
ddi
ffee
n th
e te
rer
ence
s be
twm
sw
poer
and
auth
or.
ity
The
ter
ms
poer
wan
dity
auth
or
Civ
ics
3–5
Und
erst
ands
tha
t po
er is
wsi
mpl
y th
e ab
ility
to
dire
ct o
rco
ntro
l som
ethi
ng o
r so
meo
new
hile
aut
horit
y is
pow
este
der
vy
in p
eopl
e b
w,
cus
tom
, la
or
the
vco
nsen
t of
the
go
rene
d.
orIn
fm
atio
n:O
rgan
izin
gal
izat
ion
Gen
er
We
haev b
een
stud
ying
pat
tern
sof
mig
atio
n, in
clud
ing
seas
onal
rm
igat
ion.
rId
entif
y th
e si
mila
ritie
ser
ence
s in
hum
an a
ndan
d di
ffr
anim
al m
ig,
espe
cial
lyat
ions
with
reg
ard
to t
he u
nder
lyin
g.
caus
es
le t
oT
he s
tude
nt w
ill b
e ab
desc
ribe
the
sim
ilarit
ies
and
diff
orer
ence
s in
the
cau
ses
fhu
man
and
ani
mal
mig
atio
n.r
aliz
atio
nG
ener
abou
t th
eca
uses
of
hum
an a
ndan
imal
mig
atio
nr
rG
eog
yap
h6–
8K
noat
ion
and
ws
abou
t m
igr
diffu
sion
(e
aliz
atio
n.g
., th
e na
tur
proc
ess
of a
n im
mig
ant;
rth
esp
read
of
a di
seas
e th
roug
h a
popu
latio
n;ra
tion
glob
al m
igha
bits
of
plan
ts a
nd a
nim
als)
.
orIn
fm
atio
n:O
rgan
izin
gP
rinci
ple
Wha
t is
com
mon
am
ong
cond
uctio
n, c
onec
tion
vad
iatio
n in
ter
and
rm
s of
w o
f he
at e
nerg
y?th
e flo w d
o th
eH
oer
?y
diff
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
wha
t is
com
mon
am
ong
the
conc
epts
of
cond
uctio
n,co
nad
iatio
n an
dve
ctio
n an
d r
w t
hey
diff
ho.
er f
rom
eac
h ot
her
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
cond
uctio
n,co
nec
tion,
vad
iatio
nan
d r
Sci
ence
6–8
Kno
ws
ws
that
hea
t en
ergy
flo
thro
ugh
the
proc
esse
s of
adia
tion,
and
cond
uctio
n, r
ectio
n fr
om w
conv
rma m
ater
ials
.or
reg
ions
to
cool
one
s
57
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Des
crib
e ho
w a
ddin
g an
dm
ultip
lyin
g ar
e al
ike
and
how
they
are
diff
eren
t.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
desc
ribe
how
add
ing
and
mul
tiply
ing
are
alik
e an
d ho
wth
ey d
iffer
.
The
ski
lls o
fad
ding
and
mul
tiply
ing
who
le n
umbe
rs
Mat
h3–
5K
now
s th
e el
emen
ts o
f an
dre
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
addi
tion,
subt
ract
ion,
mul
tiplic
atio
n, a
nddi
visi
on (
e.g.
, ad
dend
s ca
nap
pear
in a
ny o
rder
;div
isio
n is
the
reve
rse
of m
ultip
licat
ion)
.
Com
pare
situ
atio
ns w
hen
you
wou
ld u
se a
dire
ct q
uote
with
thos
e w
hen
you
wou
ldpa
raph
rase
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
desc
ribe
how
to
dete
rmin
ew
heth
er t
o us
e a
dire
ct q
uote
or p
arap
hras
e.
The
ski
lls o
fus
ing
dire
ctqu
otes
and
para
phra
sing
Lang
uage
Art
s6–
8W
rites
pro
per
rese
arch
pap
ers
(e.g
., us
es a
the
sis
stat
emen
t,us
es a
logi
cal s
eque
nce,
para
phra
ses
or e
labo
rate
s on
idea
s an
d co
nnec
ts t
hem
to
rela
ted
sour
ces
and
topi
cs,
iden
tifie
s va
lidity
and
inva
lidity
of
info
rmat
ion,
add
ress
es d
iffer
ent
poin
ts o
f vi
ew,
conv
erts
info
rmat
ion
into
form
s su
ch a
sch
arts
and
tab
les,
sea
mle
ssly
enha
nces
wor
k w
ith q
uota
tions
and
cita
tions
, ad
apts
res
earc
hed
mat
eria
l for
pre
sent
atio
npu
rpos
es).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Des
crib
e ho
w d
eter
min
ing
the
valid
ity o
f a
prim
ary
sour
ce is
sim
ilar
to a
nd d
iffer
ent
from
dete
rmin
ing
the
valid
ity o
f a
seco
ndar
y so
urce
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
wha
t is
sim
ilar
and
diffe
rent
in d
eter
min
ing
the
valid
ity o
f a
prim
ary
sour
ce a
ndof
a s
econ
dary
sou
rce.
The
pro
cess
of
dete
rmin
ing
the
valid
ity o
fpr
imar
y so
urce
san
d se
cond
ary
sour
ces
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12E
valu
ates
the
val
idity
and
relia
bilit
y of
prim
ary
and
seco
ndar
y so
urce
s by
usi
ngaw
aren
ess
of t
he c
redi
bilit
y an
dpe
rspe
ctiv
es o
f th
e au
thor
and
date
of
publ
icat
ion;
use
of lo
gic,
prop
agan
da a
nd b
ias;
and
com
preh
ensi
vene
ss o
f ev
iden
ce.
(Con
tinu
ed)
58
Fig
ure
5.1
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Usi
ng s
peci
fic e
xam
ples
,de
scrib
e th
e di
ffere
nce
betw
een
how
you
wou
ld t
ake
indi
rect
and
dire
ct m
easu
rem
ents
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
com
pare
the
pro
cess
es o
f di
rect
and
indi
rect
mea
sure
men
ts.
The
pro
cess
esof
dire
ctan
d in
dire
ctm
easu
rem
ents
Mat
h6–
8K
now
s ho
w to
mak
e ba
sic
indi
rect
mea
sure
men
ts (
e.g.
, usi
ng g
rids
or g
raph
ing
pape
r to
est
imat
ear
ea o
f irr
egul
ar s
hape
s).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Iden
tify
how
usi
ng a
gra
phite
penc
il is
sim
ilar
to a
nd d
iffer
ent
from
usi
ng a
cha
rcoa
l pen
cil
whe
n sk
etch
ing
a pe
rson
’s fa
ce.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
how
usi
ng a
gra
phite
penc
il is
sim
ilar
to a
nd d
iffer
ent
from
usi
ng a
cha
rcoa
l pen
cil f
orsk
etch
ing
a fa
ce.
The
ski
lls o
fus
ing
a gr
aphi
tepe
ncil
and
ach
arco
al p
enci
lin
a s
peci
ficsi
tuat
ion
Vis
ual A
rts
K–4
Und
erst
ands
the
diff
eren
ces
betw
een
art
tool
s (e
.g.,
pain
t,cl
ay,
film
), t
echn
ique
s (e
.g.,
laye
ring,
sha
ding
, si
ze v
aria
tion)
,an
d pr
oces
ses
(e.g
., tin
ting
inph
otog
raph
y, f
iring
in p
otte
ry).
Des
crib
e ho
w h
ittin
g a
base
ball
that
is p
lace
d on
a t
ee is
sim
ilar
to a
nd d
iffer
ent
from
hitt
ing
aba
seba
ll th
row
n by
a p
itche
r.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
sim
ilarit
ies
and
diffe
renc
es b
etw
een
hitti
ng a
base
ball
on a
tee
and
hitt
ing
a ba
seba
ll th
row
n by
a p
itche
r.
The
ski
lls o
fhi
tting
aba
seba
ll fr
om a
tee
and
hitti
ng a
thro
wn
base
ball
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Kno
ws
how
to
cond
ition
and
trai
n fo
r se
lect
phy
sica
l act
iviti
es.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Con
tras
t th
e ap
proa
ches
use
d to
cont
rol s
peed
and
dire
ctio
n in
snow
boar
ding
with
tho
se u
sed
in s
kate
boar
ding
or
skiin
g as
it co
mpa
res
to r
olle
rbla
ding
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
toid
entif
y th
e si
mila
ritie
s an
ddi
ffere
nces
bet
wee
n tw
o cl
osel
yre
late
d sp
orts
, suc
h as
snow
boar
ding
and
ska
tebo
ardi
ng.
The
pro
cess
esof
sno
wbo
ardi
ng,
skat
eboa
rdin
g,sk
iing,
and
rolle
rbla
ding
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
sop
hist
icat
ion
inm
ovem
ent
asso
ciat
ed w
ith h
ighl
ysk
illed
ath
lete
s (e
.g.,
wha
tm
akes
a s
ucce
ssfu
l vs.
anun
succ
essf
ul p
lay
in fo
otba
ll).
Sel
ect
two
spec
ific
type
s of
danc
es w
e ha
ve b
een
stud
ying
,su
ch a
s ta
p an
d ba
llet.
How
are
they
sim
ilar
and
how
are
the
ydi
ffere
nt?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
sim
ilarit
ies
and
diffe
renc
es b
etw
een
two
type
sof
dan
ces.
The
pro
cess
esof
per
form
ing
spec
ific
type
s of
danc
es
Dan
ce9–
12U
nder
stan
ds a
dvan
ced
mov
emen
ts a
ssoc
iate
d w
ithva
rious
typ
es o
f da
nces
.
more groups and explain how the individuals within each group are simi-lar. Also explain how the individuals are different from group to group:
Alexander Graham Bell
Galileo
George Washington Carver
Louis Pasteur
Amelia Earhart
Sally Ride
John Glenn
Henry Ford
Eric the Red
Ferdinand Magellan
Jacques Cartier
Martin Luther King, Jr.
This example illustrates that what is typically thought of as a categorizing taskis considered matching in the New Taxonomy. This is because categorizing asexemplified in the foregoing task involves sorting elements into like categoriesbased on their characteristics. As described in Chapter 2, classifying in the NewTaxonomy focuses on superordinate and subordinate categories, whereas match-ing focuses on similarities and differences.
Matching can also employ an analogy format like the following:
Explain how the relationship between a bone and a skeleton is similar toand different from the relationship between a word and a sentence.
Analogy formats require students to identify how a relationship between onepair of elements is similar to the relationship between a second pair of elements.In this case, it is how the relationship between a bone and a skeleton is similar tothe relationship between a word and a sentence.
Finally, matching tasks can also employ a metaphor format like the following:
Explain the following metaphor: Helen Keller was the Frederick Douglassof her family.
To complete this task, a student must determine how Helen Keller andFrederick Douglass are alike at an abstract level, since they bear little resemblanceat a concrete level. This is the essence of a metaphor, identifying abstract similar-ities when there are few or no concrete similarities.
All the example tasks in Figure 5.1 use short or extended written or oralconstructed-response formats. As a guide to completing matching tasks, thegraphic organizers in Figure 5.2 are commonly used.
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 59
60 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
1. Sentence Stem
Reprinted from Marzano and Pickering (2005, p. 40)
2. Venn Diagram
3. Double Bubble
Figure 5.2 Graphic Organizers for Matching
• _________________________ and ________________________ are similar because they both• ________________________________________________________________________________.• ________________________________________________________________________________.• ________________________________________________________________________________.
• _______________________________ and __________________________ are different because• _________________ is _________________, but __________________ is __________________.• _________________ is _________________, but __________________ is __________________.• _________________ is _________________, but __________________ is __________________.
Different Similar Different
Different Item Similar Item Different
Different Similar Different
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 61
4. Comparison Matrix
5. Analogy
6. Metaphor
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3
Characteristic 1 Similaritiesand Differences
Characteristic 2 Similaritiesand Differences
Characteristic 3 Similaritiesand Differences
Item 1, pair 1 Item 1, pair 2
Item 2 pair 1 Item 2 pair 2Common relationship between items
Common General Characteristics of Item 1 Characteristics Characteristics of Item 2
Source: Adapted from Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual (pp. 40, 43, 44, 50, 52). Marzano,Robert J., & Pickering, Debra J. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005.
62 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
For a detailed description of the graphic organizers in Figure 5.2, see Marzanoand Pickering (2005). The first graphic organizer is a sentence stem. Sentencestems provide students with explicit guidance regarding how to describe similari-ties and differences between items. To illustrate, assume a student was matchingthe sun and the moon. In the top portion of the sentence stem, the terms sun andmoon are recorded along with a description of how they are similar. The studentmight write,
• They are both bodies in space.• They both have an influence on the earth.• They both provide light.
The bottom portion of the stem is reserved for differences. There the studentmight write,
The sun and moon are different because
• The sun is about 93 million miles from earth, but the moon is about 250,000miles away.
• The sun is made up of gases, but the moon is made up of rocks.• The sun influences temperature and seasons, but the moon influences tides.
The second organizer is the Venn diagram. Each circle represents one of theitems being matched. Similarities between items are written in the area of inter-section between the two circles. Differences are recorded in the parts of each cir-cle that do not intersect.
The third organizer in Figure 5.2 is the double bubble. It was popularized byHyerle (1996). Similarities are recorded in the bubbles between the two items. Forexample, three similarities between the sun and the moon would be recorded in thethree bubbles in the middle. Differences would be recorded in the bubbles on thefar right and far left.
The fourth organizer is the comparison matrix. The columns represent theitems to be compared; the rows represent the characteristics on which they arecompared. To illustrate, consider the matching task in Figure 5.1 for principles. Itasks students to compare principles regarding conduction, convection and radia-tion. These items would be placed as the column headings in the comparisonmatrix. Next, students (or the teacher) would identify characteristics on which tocompare the three. Those characteristics might be (1) amount of heat generated,(2) method of heat transfer, and (3) use in cooking. These would be placed in therows of the comparison matrix. In the appropriate cells, students would thenrecord the similarities and differences between conduction, convection, and radi-ation on these characteristics.
The fifth organizer is used for analogies. As shown in Figure 5.3, the first pairof elements in the analogy is written above and below the left side. The secondpair of elements in the analogy is written above and below the line on the rightside. The common relationship between the two pairs is written on the line belowthe triangle.
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 63
Figure 5.3 Analogy Graphic Organizer
Bone Word
Skeleton SentenceIs building block of
The sixth organizer is used with metaphors. The two terms in the metaphor arewritten at the tops of the first and third columns. Explicit characteristics for bothterms are written in the rows for their respective terms. The middle column artic-ulates the abstract commonalities between the two terms in the metaphor. This isdepicted in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Metaphor Graphic Organizer
Characteristics of Item 1Common General Characteristics Characteristics of Item 2
Frederick Douglass Helen Keller
Was a slave as a young boy Had a rough beginning Got sick as a baby, which lefther deaf and blind
Learned to read and write anyway
Achieved goals even when difficult
Learned how to read Brailleand write; also went to college
Wrote books and gave speeches against slavery
Worked to help other people who suffered like they did.
Through speech tours and writing, inspired others toovercome their disabilities
Source: From Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual (p 52). Marzano, Robert J., & Pickering, Debra J.Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005.
Here the metaphor involves Frederick Douglass and Helen Keller. On the sur-face, they bear little resemblance. Frederick Douglass was a slave; Helen Kellergot sick as a baby, which left her deaf and blind. However at an abstract level,these two characteristics are related; they demonstrate that both FrederickDouglass and Helen Keller had rough beginnings. It is the abstract relationshipsarticulated in the middle column that constitute the metaphoric link between thetwo items.
Matching With Information
Matching tasks for details involve identifying the manner in which terms,facts or time sequences are similar to and different from related structures. Forexample, the first matching task for details requires students to determine the sim-ilarities and differences between facts pertaining to the Columbus Day celebra-tions of 1905 and 2005. Matching tasks for organizing ideas involve identifyinghow one principle or generalization is similar to and different from other general-izations and principles. For example, the matching task for generalizationsrequires students to describe similarities and differences between characteristics ofhuman migration and animal migration.
Matching With Mental Procedures
Matching tasks for mental skills involve identifying how two or more skills aresimilar and different in terms of their component parts. For example, the first match-ing task for mental skills requires students to describe the similarities and differ-ences between the skills of addition and multiplication. Matching tasks for mentalprocesses involve identifying how two or more processes are similar and differentin terms of their component parts. For example, the first matching task for mentalprocesses requires students to describe the similarities and differences between theprocesses of determining the validity of primary and secondary sources.
Matching With Psychomotor Procedures
Matching tasks for psychomotor skills involve identifying how two or morephysical skills are similar and different in terms of the steps they involve. Forexample, the first matching task for psychomotor skills requires students todescribe the similarities and differences between the skills of using a graphitepencil and a charcoal pencil when sketching. Matching tasks for psychomotorprocesses involve identifying how two or more physical processes are similar anddifferent in terms of the steps they involve. For example, the first matching taskfor psychomotor processes requires students to describe the similarities and differ-ences between the processes of snowboarding and skateboarding or between theprocesses of skiing and rollerblading.
64 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
CLASSIFYING
Classifying as defined in the New Taxonomy goes beyond organizing items intogroups or categories. Rather, classifying involves identifying the superordinatecategory in which knowledge belongs as well as the subordinate categories (ifany) for knowledge. Figure 5.5 presents classifying objectives and tasks for thevarious domains of knowledge.
As illustrated in the right-most column of Figure 5.5, classifying is sometimesexplicit in benchmark statements. To illustrate, consider the row of Figure 5.5 thataddresses informational details. The benchmark statement in this second exampleof classifying details addresses knowledge of types of regions. Implicit in suchknowledge is the process of classifying specific locations within superordinatecategories, such as formal regions, functional regions and perceptual regions.As described in the previous discussion of matching, classifying in the NewTaxonomy involves identification of superordinate and subordinate categories asopposed to identifying similarities and differences only.
The term classify is frequently employed in classifying tasks as well as termsand phrases like the following:
• Organize• Sort• Identify a broader category• Identify categories• Identify different types
The most common format for classifying tasks is short or extended writtenand oral constructed-response formats. Commonly, graphic organizers like thoseshown in Figure 5.6 are used as aids and guides in classifying tasks.
The first organizer in Figure 5.6 is used when a classifying task involves sort-ing elements into superordinate categories. The superordinate categories form thecolumn heads, and elements are listed under their appropriate superordinate cate-gory. This is depicted in Figure 5.7.
Here the three columns are titled Art Materials, Art Techniques and Art Processes.In addition to this organizer, students would be given the following list of elements,all relating to art: paint, clay, overlapping, shading, varying size and color, addingin sculpture, subtracting in sculpture, casting jewelry, charcoal, pencil, wood, collage,mural, stippling, glaze, mixing color, and constructing jewelry. Students would beasked to sort these art elements into their respective superordinate categories.
The second organizer in Figure 5.6 is used when the classifying task involvesidentifying subordinate categories. Subordinate categories are placed in the circlesbelow the element that is the focus of the classifying task. This is depicted inFigure 5.8.
(Text continues on page 71)
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 65
66
Fig
ure
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asks
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ssif
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ectiv
es a
nd T
ask
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o cl
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ter
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nal,
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rG
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Und
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gion
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fom
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, st
ates
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ted
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, di
ffie
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tiona
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ketin
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., th
e m
ara
loca
l ne
, th
e w
spap
er“f
ansh
ed”
ofes
sion
al s
por
a pr
ofts
tea
m),
and
perc
eptu
al (
ele
Bel
t in
.g.,
the
Bib
the
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ted
Sta
tes
a in
, th
e R
ivie
rso
uthe
rn F
ance
).r
orIn
fm
atio
n:O
rgan
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gal
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ion
Gen
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We
haev
y b
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stud
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tre
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as t
heea
ther
phe
nom
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bre
late
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wtu
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ends
ha
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als
o be
en s
tudi
ed r
elat
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to d
emog
vap
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, e
ashi
on.
en f
Wha
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h tr
end
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yses
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w w
com
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? H
oe
ould
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erth
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tem
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e or
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ish?
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dent
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o cl
assi
fyab tr
ends
in t
erm
s of
the
type
s of
dat
ay
on w
hich
the ys
ical
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pend
(ph
rde
mog
,ap
hic
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and
the
yph
enom
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atte
mpt
to
pred
ict.
Cha
ract
eris
tics
rof
tre
nds
foer
ent
type
sdi
ffof
dat
a
Sci
ence
9–12
Und
erst
ands
the
crit
eria
tha
t sc
ient
ific
ust
mee
t to
be
expl
anat
ions
mco
nsid
ered
v.g
., co
nsis
tenc
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id (
ew
ith e
, m
akin
gvi
denc
e ab
out
natu
re,
beac
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te p
redi
ctio
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tem
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spec
t th
e ru
les
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,vi
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ebe
ope
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m,
repo
rt m
etho
dsan
d pr
oced
ures
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mitm
ent
, m
akto
mak
ing
kno
lic).
wle
dge
pub
67
ask
Te
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ectiv
wle
dge
Kno oc
usF
Sub
ject
,ad
eG
rk
Sta
tem
ent
Ben
chm
ar
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n:In
fO
rgan
izin
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ple
uscl
e o
The
merv
load
pr
orm
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cipl
e f
a pa
rt o
f w
hat
larg
er s
et o
f pr
inci
ples
ysic
al e
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ted
to p
her
cise
? x
Wha
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eso
me
cate
gor
uscl
eie
s of
the
mer
ovlo
ad p
rinci
ple
in a
ctio
n?
The
stu
dent
will
be
le to
iden
tify
the
abus
cle
om
ervlo
adpr
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ple
as im
port
ant
fai
ning
.or
str
engt
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A p
rinci
ple
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m oerv
load
ysic
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duca
tion
7–8
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prK
noai
ning
tha
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es o
f tr
.g.,
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hanc
e fit
ness
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oerv
load
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freq
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and
mod
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, du
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tal
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cedu
re:
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ll
or s
pelli
ng is
a t
ask
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orre
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of
wha
t co
llect
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of im
port
ant
skill
s? W
hat
othe
r sk
ills
are
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mon
lyus
ed a
t th
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me
time?
The
stu
dent
will
le t
o cl
assi
fybe
ab
king
spel
l-che
cas
am
ong
the
proo
frea
ding
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editi
ng s
kills
nee
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to p
repa
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ritte
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ng.
for
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ll of
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ectin
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Lang
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ses
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dit
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ok
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., co
rrec
ts m
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agm
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par
aphs
r,
, m
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title
s];
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cts
pres
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from
at a
ccor
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to
purp
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rat
es v
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men
ts;
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uses
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hnol
ogy)
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hae
lear
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at o
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Wha
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clud
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exam
ple
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ner
bal
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icat
ion.
com
m
The
ski
ll of
usin
g ge
stur
esas
a f
rom
of
unic
atio
nco
mm
For
eign
Lang
uage
K–4
Use
s an
d un
ders
tand
s ap
prop
riate
verb
al c
ues
and
body
lang
uage
non .g
., cl
ar(e
erba
l mes
sage
s,ifi
es v
s at
tent
ion,
enga
ges
a lis
tene
r’ex
pres
ses
hum
or).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
veW
e ha
bee
n le
arni
ng w
hat
to d
ow
hen
cros
sing
the
str
eet
and
also
wha
tto
do
in t
he e
ent
of a
fire
or
vea
r.
thqu
ake
Wha
t ki
nds
of r
ules
are
xam
ples
of?
th
ese
eW
hat
othe
r ru
les
e th
is?
are
ther
e lik
The
stu
dent
will
be
le t
o id
entif
yab ce
rtai
n ru
les
asth
ose
that
are
lishe
d an
des
tab
follo
ed f
wor
pers
onal
saf
.et
y
The
pro
cess
of
ety
pers
onal
saf
Hea
lth P
reK
K
nool
low
inw
s th
e ro
utin
es t
o f
.g.,
fire
drem
erge
ncy
situ
atio
ns (
e,
ills
calli
ng 9
11,
runn
ing
from
or
scre
amin
gat
som
eone
tr
ou).
ying
to
hurt
y
(Con
tinu
ed)
68
Fig
ure
5.5
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
To w
hat
type
of
mat
hem
atic
alco
mpu
tatio
ns d
o th
e co
mm
utat
ive,
asso
ciat
ive,
and
dis
trib
utiv
e pr
oper
ties
appl
y? W
hat
is a
n ex
ampl
e of
eac
h?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
that
cert
ain
oper
atio
nsar
e us
ed w
ithra
tiona
l num
bers
.
Men
tal
proc
esse
spe
rfor
med
on
ratio
nal n
umbe
rs
Mat
h6–
8K
now
s op
erat
ions
with
rat
iona
lnu
mbe
rs (
e.g.
, di
strib
utiv
e pr
oper
ty,
com
mut
ativ
e an
d as
soci
ativ
e pr
oper
ties
of a
dditi
on a
nd m
ultip
licat
ion,
inve
rse
prop
ertie
s, id
entit
y pr
oper
ties)
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Whe
n us
ing
ther
mom
eter
s, r
uler
s an
dgr
adua
ted
cylin
ders
, w
hat
type
of
skill
sar
e w
e en
gage
d in
? W
hat
are
othe
rex
ampl
es o
f th
is t
ype
of s
kill?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
clas
sify
tool
s an
d si
mpl
eeq
uipm
ent
asth
ose
used
inga
ther
ing
data
.
The
ski
lls o
fus
ing
spec
ific
type
s of
too
ls t
oco
llect
dat
a
Sci
ence
3–5
Gat
hers
sci
entif
ic d
ata
usin
g si
mpl
eto
ols
and
equi
pmen
t (e
.g.,
ther
mom
eter
s, m
icro
scop
es,
calc
ulat
ors,
bal
ance
s, g
radu
ated
cylin
ders
).
Wha
t ty
pes
of d
ance
ski
lls a
re fo
llow
ing
and
mirr
orin
g? W
hat
othe
r ex
ampl
esar
e th
ere
of t
hese
typ
es o
f sk
ills?
The
stu
dent
will
be a
ble
to c
lass
ifysk
ills
as c
omm
onin
par
tner
dan
ce.
The
ski
lls o
fpa
rtne
r da
ncin
gD
ance
K–4
Use
s pa
rtne
r sk
ills
such
as
lead
ing
and
follo
win
g as
wel
l as
copy
ing
and
mirr
orin
g.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Wha
t is
the
cat
egor
y of
str
ateg
ies
used
in p
layi
ng t
enni
s, p
ing-
pong
and
badm
into
n;ho
w a
re t
hese
diff
eren
tfr
om in
vasi
on g
ames
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
clas
sify
stra
tegi
es a
sco
mm
on t
o ne
tga
mes
as
oppo
sed
to in
vasi
on g
ames
.
The
pro
cess
of
play
ing
a ne
tga
me
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–5
Use
s be
ginn
ing
stra
tegi
es fo
r ne
t an
din
vasi
on g
ames
(e.
g.,
keep
ing
the
ball
goin
g or
aw
ay f
rom
opp
onen
t in
ara
cket
spo
rt,
drib
blin
g th
e ba
ll in
bask
etba
ll).
We
have
bee
n pr
actic
ing
a nu
mbe
r of
mus
ical
pie
ces
over
the
pas
t fe
ww
eeks
, ea
ch o
f w
hich
use
s cr
esce
ndo.
Des
crib
e so
me
of t
he c
ateg
orie
s of
cres
cend
o th
ese
piec
es m
ight
fall
into
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
vario
us c
ateg
orie
sof
cre
scen
do.
The
pro
cess
of
mus
icpe
rfor
man
ce
Mus
ic9–
12P
erfo
rms
at a
n in
term
edia
te le
vel
(e.g
., at
tend
s to
phr
asin
g an
din
terp
reta
tion,
per
form
s va
rious
met
ers
and
rhyt
hms
in a
var
iety
of
keys
)a
varie
ty o
f m
usic
al p
iece
s w
ithex
pres
sion
(e.
g.,
appr
opria
te d
ynam
ics,
phra
sing
, ru
bato
).
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 69
Figure 5.6 Graphic Organizers for Generalizing
1. Superordinate Categories
2. Subordinate Categories
Superordinate Category 1 Superordinate Category 2 Superordinate Category 3
70 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 5.7 Graphic Organizers for Superordinate Categories
Art Materials Art Techniques Art Processes
Figure 5.8 Graphic Organizer for Subordinate Categories
Literary Texts
Fiction Nonfiction
ScienceMyths Poems Biography Speech
Fiction
John F.Navajo’s Rudyard Bernice KohnIsaac Asimov
Kennedy“Changing Kipling “Birds of Talking Leaves:The Robots
Prey March” The Story of "InauguralWoman” of Dawn
Sequoyah Address"
HowardWilliamGeorge Lucas Greenfield Martin Luther
ShakespeareHercules New Hope/Star Marc Chagall: King Jr. “I Have
“All the World’sWars An Introduction a Dream”
a Stage”
In Figure 5.8, students have been asked to identify various types of fiction andnonfiction, both of which are subsumed under the larger category of types of literary texts.
Classifying With Information
Classifying tasks for details involve the identification of superordinate andsubordinate categories. For example, the first classifying task for details requiresstudents to classify fruits, vegetables, butter, steak, and pasta into three categories:protein, fat, and vitamins. This requires students to sort each food type into prede-termined superordinate categories in their proper order based on the extent towhich these food types contain protein, fat, and vitamins. It is important to notethat this task requires a different type of thinking than would be required if the tasksimply was to organize these food types into categories of their own choosing. Thelater is simple matching involving similarities and differences between food types.The task in Figure 5.6 requires organizing elements into predetermined superordi-nate categories. Classifying tasks for details more commonly involve superordi-nate categories than subordinate categories because of the specificity of details.
Classifying tasks for organizing ideas involve superordinate and subordinatecategories. For example, the classifying task for principles requires students toidentify the superordinate category for a principle involving muscle overload. Thistask demonstrates that classifying tasks can be completed with a relatively shortresponse on the part of students. Here students would simply have to state that theprinciple of overload belongs to a bigger (i.e., superordinate) category of princi-ples regarding strength training and explain why. The brevity of the requiredresponse, however, does not detract from its cognitive complexity.
Classifying With Mental Procedures
Classifying tasks for mental skills involve the identification of superordinateand subordinate categories. For example, the first classifying task for mental skillsrequires students to classify the skill of correcting spelling errors as belongingto the superordinate category of skills involved in proofreading and editing.Conversely, students could have been asked to identify subordinate categories ofspelling errors. Classifying tasks for mental processes involve both superordinateand subordinate categories. The first classifying task for mental processes requiresstudents to classify specific rules as belonging to the superordinate category ofpersonal safety. Conversely, students could have been asked to identify subordi-nate categories of personal safety.
Classifying With Psychomotor Procedures
Classifying tasks for psychomotor skills and processes involve identifyingsuperordinate and subordinate categories for specific physical skills. For example,
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 71
the first classifying task for psychomotor skills requires students to identify thesuperordinate category of the psychomotor skills of using thermometers, rulers,and graduated cylinders. The first classifying task for psychomotor processesrequires students to identify the superordinate category of net games. Had thesuperordinate category been given first, the classifying task would have involvedidentifying examples of net games, such as tennis, Ping-Pong and badminton.
ANALYZING ERRORS
Analyzing errors involves identifying factual or logical errors in knowledge orprocessing errors in the execution of knowledge. Figure 5.9 depicts objectives andtasks for analyzing errors across the domains of knowledge.
The verb analyze errors can be used in analyzing errors objectives and tasks.Other terms and phrases include the following:
• Identify problems• Identify issues• Identify misunderstandings• Assess• Critique• Diagnose• Evaluate• Edit• Revise
The common format for analyzing errors is short or extended written or oralconstructed-response formats. In addition, more structured formats might beemployed. To illustrate, consider the following task:
John knows that you are most likely to get a sunburn if you are out inthe sun between 11:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m. He asks six of his friends whythis is so. They each give him a different answer. Identify which of theanswers are wrong and explain the errors made in each case:
Answer 1: We are slightly closer to the sun at noon than in the morning orafternoon.
Answer 2: More “burn” will be produced by the noon sun than by the morn-ing or afternoon sun.
Answer 3: When the sun’s rays fall straight down (directly) on a surface, moreenergy is received than when they fall indirectly on the surface.
(Text continues on page 77)
72 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
73
e 5.
9F
igur
asks
Ana
lyzi
ng E
rror
s O
bjec
tives
and
T
Task
Obj
ectiv
ew
ledg
eK
no ocus
FS
ubje
ct,
ade
Gr
k S
tate
men
tB
ench
mar
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
F, T
ime
acts
sequ
ence
s
Rev
ieat
ure
ofw
cam
paig
n lit
erco
mpe
ting
cand
idat
es t
o de
term
ine
whe
ther
a c
andi
date
has
sim
plifi
edan
issu
e in
wys
tha
t co
uld
mis
lead
aan
yam
iliar
with
one
who
is n
ot f
.th
e de
tails
The
stu
dent
will
be
le t
o de
ter
abm
ine
acy
ofth
e ac
cur
cont
ent
pres
ente
din
a p
ersu
asiv
ear
gum
ent,
such
as
a po
litic
al s
peec
h.
Det
ails
abo
utsp
ecifi
cor
cand
idat
es f
lic o
ffice
pub
Civ
ics
9–12
alid
ity,
Und
erst
ands
the
use
of
logi
cal v
fact
ual a
ccur
, em
otio
nal a
ppea
l,ac
ydi
stor
vide
nce
and
appe
als
to b
ias
ted
ean
d ho
y af
fw
the
alid
ity o
fec
t th
e v
hist
orar
ical
and
con
tem
por
y po
litic
alun
icat
ion
(eco
mm
s .g
., Li
ncol
n’“H
ouse
”D
ivid
ed,
Soj
ourn
er T
rs
uth’
“Ain
’t I
aom
an?,
”W
s C
hief
Jos
eph’
“I S
hall
Fig
htor
eN
o M
ore
Fer
,”M
arv
tin L
uthe
r K
ing,
’s
Jr.
e“I
Hav
” a
Dre
am,
cam
paig
ner
adv
, po
litic
al c
artis
emen
tsto
ons)
.
Your
frie
nd a
rgue
s th
at t
he m
ount
ain
rang
e r
as c
ause
dig
ht o
utsi
de o
ur c
ity w
ybe
stor
a m
assi
vm
cen
turie
s ag
o.B
ased
on
wha
t y
w a
bout
ear
ou k
noth
, co
uld
this
sto
rpr
oces
ses
y be
tru
e?W
hy
not?
y or
wh
The
stu
dent
will
be
le t
o de
ter
abm
ine
acy
ofth
e ac
cur
orsp
ecifi
c in
fm
atio
nba
sed
onw
ledg
e of
kno
ear
ysic
alth
’s p
h.
proc
esse
s
Det
ails
rega
rdin
g th
eea
rys
ical
th’s
ph
proc
esse
s
rG
eog
yap
h3–
5Id
entif
ies
patte
rns
on t
he la
ndsc
ape
ycr
eate
d b
ph
.g.,
the
ysic
al p
roce
sses
(e
timbe
r,
line
in m
ount
aino
us r
egio
nsth
e v
xpos
ed a
ndeg
etat
ion
on t
he e
prot
ecte
d si
des
of a
mou
ntai
n ra
nge)
.
orIn
fm
atio
n:O
rgan
izin
gal
izat
ion
Gen
er
We
haev
bee
n st
udyi
ng t
he e
arly
Am
eric
an n
oel
.v
acte
rs in
The
cha
rth
ese
ear
orly
wve
ks h
a b
een
desc
ribed
as f
lat
and
unid
imen
sion
al.I
dent
ifyso
me
of t
he e
rror
s or
inco
nsis
tenc
ies
in t
his
posi
tion.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y w
hat
le a
ndis
pla
usib
le a
bout
impl
ausi
b acte
rs in
ath
e ch
argi
v.
en g
enre
aliz
atio
nA
gen
erab
out
the
acte
rs in
ach
ar en g
enre
giv
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12U
nder
stan
ds f
acte
rea
ture
s of
cha
rel
opm
ent
in li
ter
dev
.g.,
atur
e (e
een
the
prot
agon
ist
diffe
renc
es b
etw
and
anta
goni
st,
flat
vs.f
ull c
har
,ac
ters
chan
ges
in c
har
, th
e im
por
acte
rsta
nce
acte
r’of
a c
har
es).
s ac
tions
and
mot
iv
(Con
tinu
ed)
74
e 5.
9F
igur
(Con
tinue
d)
ask
TO
bjec
tive
wle
dge
Kno oc
usF
Sub
ject
,G
rade
k S
tate
men
tB
ench
mar
orm
atio
n:In
fO
rgan
izin
gP
rinci
ple
The
sto
ry w
e ju
st r
ead
argu
es t
hat
ere
resp
onsi
bhu
man
s w
or t
hele
fe
.xt
inct
ion
of t
he d
inos
aurs
Bas
ed o
nou
r un
ders
tand
ing
of t
he e
ary
s ea
rth
’ly
hist
or,y
lem
s w
ith id
entif
y th
e pr
obth
is a
rgum
ent.
The
stu
dent
will
be
le t
o id
entif
yab
alla
cy o
f an
the
far
gum
ent
base
d on
an u
nder
stan
ding
of f
vide
nce.
ossi
l e
Prin
cipl
esos
sil
rega
rdin
g f
vide
nce
e
Sci
ence
6–8
ws
hoK
no,
hist
orw
the
age
y an
dch
angi
ng li
for
e f
ms
of t
he e
arth
can
be
yde
term
ined
b fo
ssils
and
the
are
aar
ound
the
m a
nd h
ovi
denc
ew
thi
s e
yca
n be
com
prom
ised
bol
ding
, t
he f
brea
king
and
upl
iftin
g of
laer
s.y
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
aph
pres
ente
d to
yT
he g
rw
s an
ou s
hoxt
rem
e r
eal
l in
a st
ocis
e an
d f
s pr
k’ic
e.
over
the
pas
t 2
mon
ths
et t
heY
ying
dat
a us
ed t
o de
acco
mpa
nel
opv
rth
is g
yap
h in
dica
te a
cha
nge
bew
a f
ver
the
per
dolla
rs o
iod,
whi
ch t
he g
aph
r.
corr
ectly
indi
cate
sW
hat
crea
ted
the
mis
impr
essi
on?
The
stu
dent
will
be
le t
o id
entif
yab fla
raph
ws
in g
pres
enta
tion
base
don
ski
ll at
inte
rpre
ting
the
es.
x an
d y
ax
The
ski
ll of
read
ing
asp
ecifi
c ty
peof
gap
hr
Mat
h6–
8U
nder
stan
ds t
hat
the
sam
e se
t of
dat
aca
n be
rep
rese
nted
usi
ng a
vraie
ty o
fle
s, g
rta
b,
and
sym
bols
to
con
aphs
yve
eren
t m
essa
ges
(edi
ffar
.g.,
via
tion
insc
ale
can
alte
r a
visu
al m
essa
ge).
Ye
impo
rou
’vle
fro
m a
ted
a ta
bsp
read
shee
t do
cum
ent
into
the
pap
erou
are
wr
yiti
ng,
ble
lose
sut
the
tab
rso
me
fove
rrm
attin
g an
d o
uns
the
page
mar
gins
ely
.Wha
t is
the
lik
caus
e of
thi
s er
ror?
The
stu
dent
will
be
le to
dia
gnos
eab er
rors
in d
ata
form
attin
g ba
sed
onan
und
erst
andi
ng o
fth
e st
eps
used
toim
port
dat
a.
The
ski
ll of
impo
rtin
g a
le f
rom
ata
bsp
read
shee
t to
ord
a W
file
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8K
now
s th
e el
emen
ts a
nd u
ses
ofsp
read
shee
ts (
e,
row
and
.g.,
cells
colu
mn;
fr
ulas
use
d to
imm
edia
tely
om
upda
te d
ata;
spre
adsh
eets
use
d in
prin
trm
and
elec
tron
ic fo
for
purp
oses
suc
has
to
trac
usin
ess
prof
it an
d lo
ss)
king
b
eatu
res
ofU
ses
soph
istic
ated
fr
com
pute
r pr
og.g
., cl
ip a
ram
s (e
t, sp
ell-
, th
esau
rch
ecke
ror
d co
unt)
.us
, w
75
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
You’
ve ju
st f
inis
hed
mak
ing
apr
esen
tatio
n to
the
cla
ss o
n a
book
tha
tyo
u re
ad a
bout
the
Civ
il W
ar.O
ne o
fth
e qu
estio
ns a
fello
w s
tude
nt a
sks
is,
“Why
did
you
cho
ose
that
boo
k fo
r yo
urpr
esen
tatio
n?”
Doe
s th
at s
ugge
st t
hat
you
mad
e in
err
or in
put
ting
toge
ther
your
pre
sent
atio
n? H
ow m
ight
you
hav
ean
ticip
ated
the
que
stio
n?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reco
gniz
eer
rors
in o
ral
pres
enta
tion
thro
ugh
aco
nsid
erat
ion
of a
udie
nce
expe
ctat
ions
.
The
pro
cess
of d
esig
ning
and
deliv
erin
gan
ora
lpr
esen
tatio
n
Lang
uage
Art
s6–
8P
rese
nts
oral
ly e
xpre
ssin
g a
clea
r po
int
of v
iew
(e.
g.,
uses
org
aniz
atio
nal
patte
rns
such
as
outli
nes,
pre
view
s,in
trod
uctio
n, b
ody,
tra
nsiti
ons,
and
conc
lusi
on;u
ses
evid
ence
and
argu
men
ts t
o su
ppor
t op
inio
ns;u
ses
visu
al a
ids)
.
You’
ve e
xcha
nged
pap
ers
in c
lass
to
chec
k on
e an
othe
r’s w
ork.
For
one
prob
lem
tha
t as
ks fo
r th
e m
edia
n of
alis
t of
inte
gers
, yo
u se
e th
at 1
0.25
isth
e an
swer
the
stu
dent
pro
vide
d.H
owdo
you
kno
w t
his
is a
n er
ror
with
out
even
doi
ng t
he c
alcu
latio
n fir
st?
Wha
t se
ems
a lik
ely
expl
anat
ion
for
this
err
or?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
erro
rs r
elat
ed t
om
edia
n, m
ean
and
mod
e ba
sed
on a
nun
ders
tand
ing
ofth
e pr
oces
ses
used
to c
alcu
late
the
m.
The
pro
cess
of s
olvi
ngpr
oble
ms
rega
rdin
gce
ntra
lte
nden
cy
Mat
h6–
8K
now
s m
easu
res
of c
entr
al t
ende
ncy
(i.e.
, m
ean,
mod
e, m
edia
n).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Vid
eota
pe y
our
exec
utio
n of
a s
kill
that
you
wan
t to
impr
ove.
Rev
iew
the
tap
e in
slow
mot
ion
to id
entif
y an
y in
corr
ect
body
pos
ition
or
mov
emen
t.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
spor
t pe
rfor
man
ceer
rors
bas
ed o
n an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
spor
t-sp
ecifi
c sk
ills.
A s
peci
ficph
ysic
al s
kill
ofth
e st
uden
t’sch
oice
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
9–12
Use
s so
phis
ticat
ed s
kills
in p
hysi
cal
activ
ities
(e.
g.,
swim
min
g, b
alle
t,m
ount
ain
biki
ng,
indi
vidu
al a
ndte
am s
port
s).
(Con
tinu
ed)
76
Fig
ure
5.9
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Vid
eota
pe y
our
perf
orm
ance
on
anin
stru
men
t of
you
r ch
oice
.Ide
ntify
erro
rs in
a s
peci
fic a
spec
t of
you
rte
chni
que
and
expl
ain
how
you
mig
htad
dres
s th
ese
erro
rs.
The
stu
dent
will
be a
ble
to id
entif
yte
chni
cal e
rror
sin
tec
hniq
ue fo
r a
chos
en in
stru
men
t.
Spe
cific
tech
niqu
esfo
r pl
ayin
g an
inst
rum
ent
ofth
e st
uden
t’sch
oice
Mus
ic6–
8E
xpre
ssly
and
acc
urat
ely
perf
orm
s on
acl
assr
oom
inst
rum
ent
a va
riety
of
piec
es t
hat
incl
ude
mod
est
rang
es a
ndch
ange
s of
tem
po,
key
and
met
er.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Wat
ch t
he v
ideo
of
a ju
dged
com
petit
ion
in a
spo
rt t
hat
inte
rest
syo
u.K
eep
your
ow
n sc
ore
for
each
com
petit
or,
prov
ide
a ra
tiona
le fo
r th
esc
ore,
and
atte
mpt
to
reco
ncile
you
rsc
ores
aga
inst
the
judg
es’s
core
s or
final
ran
king
s.D
o yo
u th
ink
the
judg
esm
ade
any
erro
rs in
the
ir ra
nkin
g?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
toid
entif
y er
rors
in c
ompe
titiv
epe
rform
ance
of a
spec
ific
spor
t bas
edon
kno
wle
dge
ofth
e m
ovem
ent
elem
ents
req
uire
d.
A s
peci
fic s
port
of t
he s
tude
nt’s
choi
ce
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–6
Use
s ap
prop
riate
mov
emen
t se
quen
ces
for
sele
cted
gam
es,
spor
ts a
nd d
ance
s(e
.g.,
com
bini
ng s
teps
to
perf
orm
cert
ain
danc
es;c
ombi
ning
run
ning
,st
oppi
ng,
thro
win
g, c
atch
ing,
and
hitti
ng fo
r ba
seba
ll).
Sel
ect
a sp
ort,
art,
or c
raft
for
whi
chyo
u co
nsid
er y
ours
elf
at le
ast
at t
hein
term
edia
te le
vel.
Bro
wse
the
web
for
a si
te t
hat
offe
rs t
ips
and
tech
niqu
esan
d de
term
ine
whe
ther
or
not
they
seem
val
id b
ased
on
your
exp
erie
nce.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
dete
rmin
ew
heth
er t
here
are
erro
rs in
the
desc
riptio
n of
ate
chni
que
orpr
oces
s ba
sed
onan
und
erst
andi
ngof
the
tec
hniq
ueor
pro
cess
.
A s
peci
fic s
port
,ar
t, or
cra
ft of
the
stud
ent’s
choi
ce
Vis
ual A
rts
9–12
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Com
plet
es a
rtw
ork
with
suf
ficie
ntco
mpe
tenc
e an
d co
nfid
ence
(e.g
.tec
hniq
ue,
proc
ess)
with
the
goal
of
carr
ying
out
inte
ntio
nU
nder
stan
ds s
ophi
stic
atio
n in
mov
emen
t as
soci
ated
with
hig
hly
skill
ed a
thle
tes
(e.g
., m
oves
tha
t le
adto
suc
cess
ful s
erve
s an
d pa
sses
as
oppo
sed
to u
nsuc
cess
ful s
erve
s an
dpa
sses
in v
olle
ybal
l).
Answer 4: When the sun is directly overhead, its rays pass through less atmos-phere than when it is lower in the sky.
Answer 5: The air is usually warmer at noon than at any other time of the day.
Answer 6: The ultraviolet rays of sunlight are mainly responsible for sunburn.
The foregoing example involves information. The following example involvesthe mental process of using the word-processing software WordPerfect:
Robert plans to perform the following steps to write a composition usingWordPerfect. Identify what will go wrong if he carries out the followingsteps exactly as stated:
1. When he gets into WordPerfect, he will begin by clicking on the CEN-TER command on the bar at the top of the page.
2. He will type in his three-paragraph composition.
3. When he is done, he will click on the small x in the upper right-handcorner of the screen.
4. The next day he will reopen WordPerfect and print out his composition.
Analyzing Errors With Information
In terms of details, analyzing errors tasks involve determining the extent towhich information is reasonable, given what the student already knows about thetopic. For example, the first analyzing errors task for details involves informationabout a specific candidate for public office. Students must determine possibleerrors in the candidate’s position on a specific issue. Relative to organizing ideas,analyzing errors tasks involve determining whether statements regarding a gener-alization or a principle are logical. For example, the analyzing errors task regard-ing the generalization about characters in a specific genre asks students to identifyinconsistencies or errors in this position.
Tasks employing analyzing errors for information typically require knowledgeof different types of errors that might be made. Figure 5.10 presents four cate-gories of such errors.
Other than the types of logical errors listed in Figure 5.10, analyzing errorsrequires knowledge of how to present and defend a claim. This is depicted inFigure 5.11.
Figure 5.11 provides a generic framework for providing support for a claim.Students do not have to understand the technical aspects of grounds, backing, andqualifiers (such as their names and defining characteristics). However, they shouldbe aware that valid claims should be supported (grounds), this support should beexplained (backing), and exceptions to the claim should be identified (qualifiers).
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 77
78 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 5.10 Four Categories of Logical Errors
1. Faulty logic can occur in seven different ways:
A. Contradiction—presenting conflicting information. If a politician runs on a platformsupporting term limits, then votes against an amendment that would set term limits, thatpolitician has committed the error of contradiction.
B. Accident—failing to recognize than an argument is based on an exception to a rule. Forexample, if a student concludes that the principal always goes to dinner at a fancyrestaurant on Fridays because he or she sees him at one on a given Friday which justhappens to be his birthday, that student has committed the error of accident.
C. False cause—confusing a temporal (time) order of events with causality or oversimplifyingthe reasons behind some event or occurrence. For example, if a person concludes that thewar in Vietnam ended because of the antiwar protests, he or she is guilty of ascribing afalse cause. The antiwar protests might have had something to do with the cessation of thewar, but there were also many other interacting causes.
D. Begging the question—making a claim and then arguing for the claim by using statementsthat are simply the equivalent of the original claim. For example, if a person says thatproduct x is the best detergent on the market and then backs up this statement by simplysaying that it is superior to other detergents, he or she is begging the question.
E. Evading the issue—changing the topic to avoid addressing the issue. For example, aperson is evading the issue if he or she begins talking about the evils of the news mediawhen asked by a reporter about an alleged involvement in fraudulent banking procedures.
F. Arguing from ignorance—arguing that a claim is justified simply because its opposite has notbeen proven true. For example, if a person argues that there is no life on other planetsbecause there has been no proof of such existence, he or she is arguing from ignorance.
G. Composition–division—asserting something about a whole that is really only true of itsparts is composition; on the flip side, division is asserting about all of the parts somethingthat is generally, but not always, true of the whole. For example, if a person asserts thatRepublicans are corrupt because one Republican is found to be corrupt, he or she iscommitting the error of composition. If a person states that a particular Democrat supportsbig government simply because Democrats are generally known for supporting governmentprograms, he or she is committing the error of division.
2. Attacks can occur in three ways:
A. Poisoning the well—being so completely committed to a position that you explain awayabsolutely everything that is offered in opposition to your position. This type of attackrepresents a person’s unwillingness to consider anything that may contradict his or heropinion. For example, if a political candidate has only negative things to say about anopponent, he or she is poisoning the well.
B. Arguing against the person—rejecting a claim using derogatory facts (real or alleged) aboutthe person who is making the claim. If a person argues against another person’s positionon taxation by making reference to poor moral character, he or she is arguing against theperson.
C. Appealing to force—using threats to establish the validity of a claim. If your landlordthreatens to evict you because you disagree with him or her on an upcoming election issue,he or she is appealing to force.
3. Weak reference occurs in five ways:
A. Sources that reflect biases—consistently accepting information that supports what wealready believe to be true, or consistently rejecting information that goes against what webelieve to be true. For example, a person is guilty of bias if he or she believes that a personhas committed a crime and will not even consider DNA evidence indicating that theindividual is innocent.
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 79
B. Sources that lack credibility—using a source that is not reputable for a given topic.Determining credibility can be subjective, but there are some characteristics that mostpeople agree damage credibility, such as when a source is known to be biased or has littleknowledge of the topic. A person is guilty of using a source that lacks credibility when he orshe backs up a belief that the government has a conspiracy to ruin the atmosphere by citinga tabloid journal known for sensational stories that are fabricated.
C. Appealing to authority—invoking authority as the last word on an issue. If a person says,“Socialism is evil” and supports this claim by saying the governor said so, he or she isappealing to authority.
D. Appealing to the people—attempting to justify a claim based on its popularity. For example,if a girl tells her parents she should have a pierced belly button because everyone else hasone, she is appealing to the people.
E. Appealing to emotion—using a so-called sob story as proof for a claim. For example, ifsomeone uses the story of a tragic accident in his or her life as a means to convince peopleto agree with his or her opinion on war, she is appealing to emotion.
4. Misinformation occurs in two different ways:
1. Confusing the facts—using information that seems to be factual but that has been changedin such a way that it is no longer accurate. For example, a person is confusing the facts ifhe or she backs up a claim by describing an event but leaving out important facts or mixingup the temporal order of the events.
2. Misapplying a concept or generalization—misunderstanding or wrongly applying a conceptor generalization to support a claim. For example, if someone argues that a talk-show hostshould be arrested for libel after making a critical remark, the person has misapplied theconcept of libel.
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007)
Figure 5.11 Framework for Supporting a Claim
Grounds: Once a claim is made, it should be supported by grounds. Depending on the type of claimmade, grounds may be composed of
• Matters of common knowledge• Expert opinion• Experimental evidence• Other information considered factual
Backing: Backing establishes the validity of grounds and discusses them in depth.
Qualifiers: Not all grounds support their claims with the same degree of certainty. Consequently,qualifiers state the degree of certainty for the claim or exceptions to it or both.
Source: Marzano & Kendall (2007).
Analyzing Errors With Mental Procedures
In terms of mental skills and processes, analyzing errors tasks involve iden-tifying errors that someone is making or has made while executing a mentalprocedure. For example, the first analyzing errors task for mental skills
involves reading a specific type of graph. The first analyzing errors task formental processes involves the process of designing and delivering an oralpresentation. When procedures are involved (mental or psychomotor), theemphasis is not on logical errors, as is the case with information (details andorganizing ideas). Rather the emphasis is on identifying any errors or bugs inthe execution of the procedure.
Analyzing Errors With Psychomotor Procedures
Analyzing errors tasks for psychomotor procedures follow the same pattern asanalyzing errors tasks for mental procedures. They involve the identification oferrors someone has made or is making while carrying out a psychomotor skillor process. For example, the first analyzing errors task for psychomotor skillsinvolves a specific physical skill of the student’s choice. The first analyzing errorstask for psychomotor processes involves the process of playing a sport of thestudent’s choice.
GENERALIZING
The analysis skill of generalizing involves inferring new generalizations and prin-ciples from information that is known or stated. Figure 5.12 depicts generalizingobjectives and tasks across the domains of knowledge.
The term generalize can be used in generalizing tasks along with terms andphrases like the following:
• What conclusions can be drawn• What inferences can be made• Create a generalization• Create a principle• Create a rule• Trace the development of• Form conclusions
The most common format for generalizing tasks is short or extended written ororal constructed-response formats. These tasks might be relatively unstructured,like those in Figure 5.12, or they might be highly structured as in the followingtwo examples:
(Text continues on page 85)
80 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
81
Fig
ure
5.12
Gen
eral
izin
g O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng s
ettle
men
tsfr
om a
ncie
nt t
imes
to
mod
ern.
Bas
edup
on w
hat
you
know
abo
ut t
wo
spec
ific
settl
emen
ts,
wha
t ge
nera
lizat
ions
can
you
mak
e ab
out
whe
re p
eopl
e te
nd t
oes
tabl
ish
settl
emen
ts a
nd w
hy?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to c
onst
ruct
and
def
end
a ge
nera
lizat
ion
abou
tw
hy h
uman
set
tlem
ents
appe
ar w
here
the
y do
.
Det
ails
abo
utsp
ecifi
cse
ttlem
ents
Geo
grap
hy6–
8K
now
s th
at p
hysi
cal a
nd h
uman
dist
ribut
ions
occ
ur w
ith r
espe
ct t
osp
atia
l and
hum
an p
atte
rns,
arra
ngem
ents
, an
d as
soci
atio
ns(e
.g.,
why
som
e ar
eas
are
mor
ede
nsel
y se
ttled
, pa
ttern
s in
the
kind
and
num
ber
of li
nks
betw
een
settl
emen
ts).
Mes
sage
s ab
out h
ealth
pro
duct
s ca
n be
help
ful,
aler
ting
us to
thei
r us
eful
ness
,ho
w th
ey a
re b
est u
sed,
and
thei
r si
deef
fect
s.B
ut e
ach
heal
th p
rodu
ct is
mad
eby
a c
ompa
ny w
ith a
spe
cific
vie
w o
fhe
alth
.Sel
ect o
ne h
ealth
pro
duct
and
find
out d
etai
ls a
bout
the
com
pany
that
prod
uced
it.W
hat g
ener
aliz
atio
ns c
anyo
u m
ake
abou
t the
hea
lth p
rodu
ct b
ased
on th
e in
form
atio
n ab
out t
he c
ompa
ny?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to m
ake
gene
raliz
atio
nsab
out
the
influ
ence
of
sour
ces
of in
form
atio
non
the
val
idity
and
usef
ulne
ss o
f th
ein
form
atio
n pr
esen
ted.
Det
ails
abo
utsp
ecifi
c so
urce
sof
info
rmat
ion
Hea
lth6–
8K
now
s ho
w m
essa
ges
from
the
med
ia,
frie
nds
and
othe
r lo
cal
sour
ces
can
impa
ct h
ealth
prac
tices
(e.
g.,
heal
th fa
ds,
adve
rtis
ing,
mis
conc
eptio
nsab
out
heal
th).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
We
have
see
n ev
iden
ce fo
r a
num
ber
ofge
nera
lizat
ions
abo
ut h
isto
ry a
ndge
ogra
phy.
For
exa
mpl
e, t
he r
ocky
inte
rior
of a
ncie
nt G
reec
e an
d ea
syac
cess
to
the
Med
iterr
anea
n S
eapr
ovid
e su
ppor
t fo
r th
e ge
nera
lizat
ion
that
the
geo
grap
hy o
f a
regi
on c
an h
ave
a si
gnifi
cant
impa
ct o
n a
coun
try’
sfu
ture
.The
ear
ly U
nite
d S
tate
s, w
hose
land
teem
ed w
ith r
esou
rces
and
the
The
stu
dent
will
be a
ble
to d
evel
opge
nera
lizat
ions
abo
utho
w k
now
ledg
e of
the
past
can
be
used
to
bette
r un
ders
tand
poss
ible
con
sequ
ence
sof
pre
sent
act
ions
.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t hi
stor
yan
d ge
ogra
phy
Geo
grap
hy6–
8U
nder
stan
ds h
ow p
hysi
cal a
ndhu
man
geo
grap
hic
fact
ors
influ
ence
maj
or e
vent
s an
d m
ovem
ents
inhi
stor
y (e
.g.,
the
cour
se a
ndou
tcom
e of
bat
tles
and
war
s, th
esl
ave
trad
e in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
beca
use
of th
e de
man
d fo
r ch
eap
labo
r, th
e pr
ofita
bilit
y of
the
tria
ngle
trad
e be
caus
e of
pre
vaili
ng w
ind
and
ocea
n cu
rren
ts).
(Con
tinu
ed)
82
Fig
ure
5.12
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
ener
gy o
f am
bitio
us s
ettle
rs f
rom
oth
erla
nds,
has
gro
wn
to b
e a
pow
erfu
l and
wea
lthy
natio
n la
rgel
y be
caus
e of
the
sere
sour
ces.
We’
ve a
lso
seen
tha
t th
ehi
stor
y of
the
Ath
enia
ns,
who
se s
eapo
wer
was
unr
ival
ed a
nd u
nche
cked
,al
so s
uppo
rts
the
gene
raliz
atio
n th
atw
ith g
reat
pow
er c
an c
ome
grea
tar
roga
nce,
and
thr
ough
arr
ogan
ce,
defe
at.W
hat
does
thi
s su
gges
t to
you
abou
t th
e re
latio
nshi
p of
the
pas
t an
dpr
esen
t, w
heth
er t
he s
ubje
ct is
geog
raph
y or
his
tory
? P
rovi
de e
vide
nce
for
your
con
clus
ions
.
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
We’
ve e
xplo
red
the
way
s in
whi
ch m
usic
refle
cts
diffe
rent
cul
ture
s an
d tim
es.
We’
ve a
lso
disc
usse
d ho
w,
thou
ghcu
lture
s ca
n la
st c
entu
ries,
pop
ular
mus
ic s
eem
s to
com
e an
d go
fairl
yqu
ickl
y.H
owev
er,
som
e so
ngs
that
wer
epo
pula
r in
the
ear
ly t
o m
id-t
wen
tieth
cent
ury
are
still
hea
rd t
oday
.Bas
ed o
nw
hat
you
know
abo
ut t
he s
ongs
tha
tsu
rviv
e, w
hat
gene
raliz
atio
ns c
an y
oum
ake
abou
t ne
w m
usic
and
whe
ther
itw
ill s
tand
the
tes
t of
tim
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
prov
ide
gene
raliz
atio
ns o
n ho
wth
e qu
aliti
es o
f m
usic
help
a p
artic
ular
pie
ce o
fm
usic
end
ure.
Prin
cipl
es a
bout
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
mus
ican
d cu
lture
Mus
ic6–
8U
nder
stan
ds c
hara
cter
istic
s of
clas
sic
mus
ic a
nd c
lass
ic m
usic
genr
es a
s w
ell a
s th
e fa
ctor
saf
fect
ing
wha
t m
akes
mus
ic c
lass
ic(e
.g.,
from
diff
eren
t ge
nres
, st
yles
,hi
stor
ical
per
iods
, co
mpo
sers
).
83
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
We
have
stu
died
a n
umbe
r of
ref
usal
skill
s to
be
used
in d
iffer
ent
situ
atio
ns.
Wha
t ge
nera
lizat
ion
can
you
mak
eab
out
refu
sal s
kills
reg
ardl
ess
of t
hesi
tuat
ions
in w
hich
the
y ar
e us
ed?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
cons
truc
t a
gene
raliz
atio
n ab
out
the
use
of s
peci
ficre
fusa
l ski
lls.
Spe
cific
ref
usal
stra
tegi
esH
ealth
6–8
Und
erst
and
vario
us r
efus
alst
rate
gies
and
the
situ
atio
ns in
whi
ch t
hey
are
best
app
lied.
We
have
stu
died
var
ious
way
s of
reco
rdin
g tim
e—th
e E
gypt
ian
and
the
May
an,
for
exam
ple—
and
the
syst
ems
on w
hich
the
y ar
e ba
sed—
for
exam
ple,
sola
r or
luna
r.W
hat
can
we
say
is t
rue
abou
t th
e te
chni
que
that
is u
sed
tore
cord
tim
e, r
egar
dles
s of
the
sys
tem
bein
g us
ed?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
deve
lop
age
nera
lizat
ion
abou
t th
eob
serv
atio
nal a
nd d
ata-
gath
erin
g sk
ills
requ
ired
to r
ecor
d tim
eth
roug
hout
his
tory
.
Obs
erva
tiona
lan
d da
ta-
gath
erin
g sk
ills
His
toric
alU
nder
stan
ding
5–6
Und
erst
ands
var
ious
sys
tem
s fo
rre
cord
ing
time
(e.g
., E
gypt
ian,
Indi
an,
May
an,
Mus
lim,
Jew
ish)
as
wel
l as
the
astr
onom
ical
sys
tem
sth
at a
re t
he fo
unda
tion
of s
uch
syst
ems
(e.g
., so
lar,
luna
r,se
milu
nar)
;eva
luat
es t
heir
stre
ngth
s an
d w
eakn
esse
s.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Wha
t ge
nera
lizat
ions
abo
ut e
ffect
ive
writ
ing
can
be m
ade
whe
n w
e co
nsid
erw
hat
is r
equi
red
to w
rite
an e
ffect
ive
essa
y, p
arag
raph
, or
eve
n an
effe
ctiv
ese
nten
ce?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to g
ener
aliz
e ab
out
the
writ
ing
proc
ess
requ
ired
for
the
deve
lopm
ent
ofan
effe
ctiv
e se
nten
cean
d its
app
licat
ion
to a
nef
fect
ive
essa
y or
the
reve
rse.
The
writ
ing
proc
ess
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12
Use
s ac
cura
te a
nd s
enso
ryla
ngua
ge t
o cl
arify
and
enh
ance
idea
s an
d su
ppor
t va
rious
purp
oses
(e.
g.,
to t
ell a
nim
agin
ativ
e st
ory,
to
tran
slat
eco
mpl
ex c
once
pts
into
sim
ple
term
s, t
o ac
hiev
e a
spec
ific
voic
e,to
def
end
liter
ary
conc
epts
).
How
mig
ht y
ou c
hara
cter
ize
inno
vatio
nin
a w
ay t
hat
capt
ures
its
uses
and
valu
e in
lite
ratu
re,
the
arts
and
tech
nolo
gy?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
crea
te a
gene
raliz
atio
n th
atca
ptur
es t
he s
igni
fican
tas
pect
s of
inno
vatio
nac
ross
sub
ject
are
as.
The
pro
cess
of in
vent
ion
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8U
nder
stan
ds th
e si
mila
ritie
s an
ddi
ffere
nces
in th
e te
rms
inve
ntio
nan
d in
nova
tion
(e.g
., in
vent
ion
is th
epr
oces
s of
cre
atin
g a
new
sys
tem
or o
bjec
t whi
le in
nova
tion
is th
epr
oces
s of
enh
anci
ng o
r ad
aptin
gan
exi
stin
g sy
stem
or
obje
ct).
(Con
tinu
ed)
84
Fig
ure
5.12
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Wha
t ca
n be
sai
d ge
nera
lly a
bout
the
mot
ions
com
mon
in g
estu
res
used
by
Italia
n sp
eake
rs?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to g
ener
aliz
e ab
out
gest
ures
that
are
com
mon
amon
g sp
eake
rs o
f the
targ
et la
ngua
ge.
The
ski
ll of
usin
g ge
stur
esin
a s
peci
ficla
ngua
ge.
For
eign
Lang
uage
9–12
Kno
ws
abou
t w
ritin
g sy
stem
s in
the
targ
et a
nd n
ativ
e la
ngua
ges
as w
ell a
s an
y ot
her
sele
cted
lang
uage
(e.
g.,
logo
grap
hic,
sylla
bic,
alp
habe
tic).
Sel
ect
thre
e re
late
d w
eigh
t-lif
ting
skill
s,su
ch a
s th
e fr
ont
and
rear
squ
at a
nd t
hede
ad li
ft, a
nd d
eter
min
e w
hat
can
besa
id g
ener
ally
abo
ut t
he p
rope
rex
ecut
ion
of t
hese
ski
lls.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to g
ener
aliz
e ab
out
prop
er fo
rm in
wei
ght
liftin
g ba
sed
on w
hat
iskn
own
abou
t pr
oper
form
in t
hree
rel
ated
lifts
.
Spe
cific
wei
ght-
liftin
gte
chni
ques
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Kno
ws
how
to
trai
n an
d co
nditi
onfo
r se
lect
phy
sica
l act
iviti
es.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Wha
t ge
nera
lizat
ions
can
be
mad
eab
out
usin
g ex
erci
se e
quip
men
t as
oppo
sed
to t
he s
port
tha
t it
mim
ics
(e.g
., bi
ke m
achi
nes
vs.b
ikes
;cro
ss-
coun
try
skiin
g vs
.cro
ss-c
ount
ry s
kim
achi
nes;
trea
dmill
s vs
.run
ning
)?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to g
ener
aliz
e ab
out
the
rela
tions
hip
of m
ovem
ent
form
s in
spo
rts
to t
hem
ovem
ent
form
spo
ssib
le u
sing
mac
hine
sth
at m
imic
tho
se s
port
s.
The
gen
eral
proc
ess
ofus
ing
exer
cise
equi
pmen
t fo
rsp
ecifi
c sp
orts
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Kno
ws
how
to
trai
n an
d co
nditi
onfo
r se
lect
phy
sica
l act
iviti
es.
Bas
ed u
pon
your
exp
erie
nce
in o
il or
wat
erco
lor
pain
ting,
wha
t ca
n be
sai
dab
out
the
thin
gs t
o w
atch
out
for
whe
nla
yerin
g on
e co
lor
over
ano
ther
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to g
ener
aliz
e ab
out
atte
ntio
n to
seq
uenc
ean
d la
yerin
g co
mm
on t
oth
e pr
oces
ses
of o
il an
dw
ater
col
or p
aint
ing.
The
pro
cess
of
laye
ring
colo
rsV
isua
l Art
s9–
12U
nder
stan
ds t
hat
the
med
ium
,te
chni
que,
and
pro
cess
es o
neus
es a
ffect
the
idea
s or
info
rmat
ion
bein
g co
mm
unic
ated
.
1. Following is a set of statements we have been studying about life onearth. What are some conclusions you might come to that are supportedby these generalizations? Explain your reasoning.
a. There have been profound changes in the climate over the earth.
b. Coordination and integration of action are generally slower in plantsthan in animals.
c. There is an increasing complexity of structure and function fromlower to higher forms of life.
d. All life comes from life and produces its own kind of living organism.
e. Light is a limiting factor of life.
2. What general conclusion can you infer about batting, based on yourunderstanding of the following skills?
a. Hitting a curve ball
b. Hitting a fast ball
c. Hitting a knuckle ball
d. Hitting a slider
Commonly, graphic organizers like those in Figure 5.13 are used as guides andaids in generalizing tasks.
The rows of the generalization matrix list the information from which a gen-eralization is to be developed. In this case, the matrix addresses four types of
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 85
Figure 5.13 Generalizing Matrix
Characteristic 1:Who Governs
Characteristic 2:How Decisions Are Made
Characteristic 3:Current Examples Conclusions
Item 1:Democracy
Item 2:Republic
Item 3:Theocracy
Item 4:Dictatorship
Conclusions
government: democracy, republic, theocracy, and dictatorship. The columnsrepresent the specific characteristics that will be used to create the generaliza-tion. In this case, those characteristics are (a) who governs, (b) how decisionsare made, and (c) current examples. Note that generalizations can be constructedfor each type of government (row generalizations) and for each characteristic(column generalizations). The bottom right square in the matrix contains thesummary generalization.
Generalizing With Information
As it relates to details, generalizing tasks involve inferring generalizations andprinciples from specific terms, facts, or events. For example, the first generalizingtask for details involves facts about settlements from ancient times. Students mustuse their knowledge of details about ancient times to create new conclusions aboutsettlements. Generalizing is a fairly sophisticated skill as it relates to organizingideas. It involves the articulation of new generalizations and principles based onknown generalizations and principles. For example, the first generalizing task fororganizing ideas addresses a number of generalizations across the topics of historyand geography. To complete this task, students must understand generalizationsabout history and geography and also make inferences to devise a larger overar-ching generalization.
Generalizing With Mental Procedures
Generalizing tasks for mental skills involve constructing and defending con-clusions about a set of skills. For example, the first generalizing task for mentalskills involves specific refusal skills. Students must use their understanding ofspecific refusal skills to create an overarching conclusion about refusal skills.Generalizing tasks for mental processes involve constructing and defending con-clusions about two or more processes. For example, the first generalizing task formental processes involves related processes for writing essays, paragraphs, andsentences. Students must create a generalization about writing that applies to thesethree situations.
Generalizing With Psychomotor Procedures
Generalizing tasks for psychomotor procedures follow the same pattern asfor mental procedures. The first generalizing task for psychomotor skills involvesconstructing and defending generalizations about the skill of using gestures inItalian. The first generalizing task for psychomotor processes involves construct-ing and defending generalizations about processes for using exercise equipmentfor specific sports.
86 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
SPECIFYING
The analysis skill of specifying involves making and defending predictions aboutwhat might happen or what will necessarily happen in a given situation. Figure 5.14lists specifying tasks and objectives across the domains of knowledge.
Specifying objectives and tasks can use the term specify along with terms andphrases like the following:
• Make and defend• Predict• Judge• Deduce• What would have to happen• Develop an argument for• Under what conditions
Specifying tasks typically use short and extended written or oral constructed-response formats.
Specifying With Information
As depicted in Figure 5.14, specifying does not apply well to details becausedetails are inherently too specific to involve rules from which predictions can bemade. On the other hand, specifying is a natural type of thinking relative to orga-nizing ideas, which, by definition, are rule based. Specifying, as it relates to gen-eralizations, involves identifying what might be or must be true about a specificitem based on an understanding of the class or category to which that itembelongs. For example, the first specifying task for organizing ideas uses general-izations regarding the right of habeas corpus to predict what must be true in a spe-cific newspaper article. Specifying as it relates to principles involves making anddefending predictions about what will or might happen under certain conditions.For example, the second specifying task for organizing ideas addresses principlesregarding the change processes on earth. Based on these principles, students mustconclude what must be true relative to a specific weather pattern.
Specifying With Mental Procedures
Specifying, as it relates to mental skills and processes, involves identifyingwhat must happen or might happen during the execution of the skill or processunder specific conditions. For example, the first specifying task for mental skillsfocuses on making predictions based on an understanding of the skills of reading
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 87
88
Fig
ure
5.14
Spec
ifyi
ng O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
N/A
N/A
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
If a
new
spap
er e
dito
rial
desc
ribed
an
actio
n as
“dan
gero
us t
o ci
vil l
iber
ty,”
and
said
“th
at e
very
def
enda
ntde
serv
es t
o kn
ow o
f w
hat
he is
char
ged,
”w
hat
topi
c in
the
Bill
of
Rig
hts
do y
ou b
elie
ve t
heed
itoria
l was
con
cern
ed a
bout
?E
xpla
in w
hy t
he n
ewsp
aper
artic
le m
ust
be r
efer
ring
to t
heto
pic
you
have
iden
tifie
d.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
circ
umst
ance
s th
atbe
ar d
irect
ly o
n th
e rig
ht o
fha
beas
cor
pus.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
rega
rdin
g th
erig
ht o
f ha
beas
corp
us.
Civ
ics
6–8
Und
erst
ands
how
the
pow
er o
fgo
vern
men
t is
limite
d in
ord
er to
prot
ect t
he r
ight
s of
indi
vidu
als
bysp
ecifi
c pr
ovis
ions
of t
he U
nite
dS
tate
s C
onst
itutio
n (in
clud
ing
the
Bill
of R
ight
s, e
.g.,
habe
as c
orpu
s;tr
ial b
y ju
ry;d
oubl
e je
opar
dy;e
xpo
st fa
cto;
freed
om o
f rel
igio
n,sp
eech
, pre
ss, a
nd a
ssem
bly;
equa
l pro
tect
ion
and
due
proc
ess
of la
w;r
ight
to c
ouns
el).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
If a
clas
smat
e ar
gues
tha
t re
cent
Dec
embe
r sn
owst
orm
s pr
ovid
eev
iden
ce t
hat
eart
h’s
clim
ate
isno
t ch
angi
ng,
wha
t pr
inci
ples
wou
ld y
ou a
rgue
are
bei
ngas
sum
ed a
bout
the
nat
ure
ofcl
imat
e ch
ange
? W
hat
prin
cipl
esar
e be
ing
igno
red?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
circ
umst
ance
s th
atin
dica
te fa
st p
roce
sses
of
chan
ge o
n ea
rth
and
thos
e th
atin
dica
te s
low
er p
roce
sses
.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
fast
and
slow
erpr
oces
ses
ofch
ange
on
eart
h
Sci
ence
3–5
Und
erst
ands
how
the
eart
h’s
surfa
ce is
con
stan
tly c
hang
ing
bybo
th s
low
and
rap
id p
roce
sses
(e.g
., sl
ow p
roce
sses
, suc
h as
wea
ther
ing,
ero
sion
, tra
nspo
rt,
and
depo
sitio
n of
sed
imen
tca
used
by
wav
es, w
ind,
wat
er,
and
ice;
rapi
d pr
oces
ses,
suc
h as
torn
adoe
s, v
olca
nic
erup
tions
,an
d ea
rthq
uake
s).
89
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng v
ario
usm
ap p
roje
ctio
ns a
nd h
ow d
iffer
ent
proj
ectio
ns d
isto
rt th
e re
latio
nshi
pof
land
mas
ses
in d
iffer
ent w
ays.
If yo
u co
mpa
red
Gre
enla
nd a
ndA
fric
a by
est
imat
ing
thei
r sq
uare
mile
s us
ing
a M
erca
tor
map
and
then
com
pare
d th
em u
sing
a gl
obe,
how
wou
ld th
eco
mpa
rison
s di
ffer
and
why
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mak
ean
d de
fend
infe
renc
es a
bout
map
rea
ding
bas
ed o
n an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
effe
cts
ofdi
ffere
nt m
ap p
roje
ctio
ns.
The
ski
lls o
fre
adin
g a
Mer
cato
r m
apan
d a
glob
e
Geo
grap
hy6–
8Id
entif
ies
the
char
acte
ristic
sof
map
pro
ject
ions
, su
ch a
sdi
stor
tion
on a
fla
t m
appr
ojec
tion
and
unde
rsta
nds
the
purp
oses
and
bes
t us
e of
each
typ
e.
If yo
u ch
ange
the
dim
ensi
ons
of a
squ
are
but
keep
it a
s a
rect
angl
e w
ith t
he s
ame
unit
area
, ho
w w
ill it
s pe
rimet
erch
ange
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to m
ake
and
defe
nd in
fere
nces
abo
ut th
ere
sults
of m
easu
ring,
bas
ed o
n an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
perim
eter
and
are
a.
The
ski
ll of
mea
surin
gle
ngth
,pe
rimet
er,
and
area
Mat
h3–
5U
nder
stan
ds r
elat
ions
hips
betw
een
leng
th,
perim
eter
,ci
rcum
fere
nce,
and
are
a.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
You’
ve w
ritte
n an
exp
osito
ryes
say
on t
he v
ictim
s of
a r
ecen
thu
rric
ane.
Whe
n yo
u fin
ishe
d,yo
u de
cide
d yo
u sh
ould
pers
uade
you
r cl
assm
ates
to
help
you
rai
se m
oney
for
the
caus
e.H
ow w
ould
you
r w
ritin
gan
d ap
proa
ch c
hang
e, a
nd w
hat
wou
ld y
ou k
eep?
Exp
lain
how
your
cha
nges
wou
ld im
prov
eth
e ch
ance
s of
per
suad
ing
your
cla
ssm
ates
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mak
e an
d de
fend
an
infe
renc
eab
out
the
deve
lopm
ent
of a
pers
uasi
ve e
ssay
bas
ed o
n an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
rel
atio
nshi
pof
per
suas
ive
writ
ing
to o
ther
type
s of
writ
ing.
The
pro
cess
of w
ritin
g a
pers
uasi
vees
say
Lang
uage
Art
s6–
8
Writ
es p
ersu
asiv
e co
mpo
sitio
ns(e
.g.,
enga
ges
the
read
er b
yus
ing
cont
ext
and
pers
ona;
deve
lops
a m
aste
r id
ea t
hat
conv
eys
an o
pini
on;c
reat
es a
ndor
gani
zes
an a
ppro
pria
test
ruct
ure
for
a sp
ecifi
c au
dien
ce;
incl
udes
det
ails
, re
ason
s, a
ndex
ampl
es p
ersu
asiv
ely;
excl
udes
irrel
evan
t in
form
atio
n;an
ticip
ates
and
addr
esse
s co
unte
r cl
aim
s;ci
tes
sour
ces
of in
form
atio
nas
app
ropr
iate
).
(Con
tinu
ed)
90
Fig
ure
5.14
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
If yo
u se
t up
an in
vest
igat
ion
that
assu
med
con
stan
t tem
pera
ture
for
both
exp
erim
enta
l and
con
trol
cond
ition
s, u
nder
wha
t con
ditio
nsan
d ho
w m
ight
you
sal
vage
you
rex
perim
ent,
if th
e te
mpe
ratu
rew
as fo
und
not t
o be
con
stan
t?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mak
ean
d de
fend
an
infe
renc
e ab
out
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
an
inve
stig
atio
n an
d th
e ev
alua
tion
of a
n ex
plan
atio
n by
car
eful
lyac
coun
ting
for
all v
aria
tions
and
dete
rmin
ing
thei
r re
leva
nce
toth
e st
ated
pur
pose
.
The
men
tal
proc
ess
ofco
nduc
ting
anin
vest
igat
ion
Sci
ence
9–12
Kno
ws
that
con
cept
s an
dkn
owle
dge
guid
e al
l sci
entif
icin
quiri
es,
whi
le c
urre
nt s
cien
tific
disc
over
y in
fluen
ces
the
desi
gn a
nd in
terp
reta
tion
ofin
vest
igat
ions
and
eva
luat
ions
mad
e by
oth
er s
cien
tists
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Giv
en w
hat
you
know
abo
utvo
caliz
ing
and
voic
e pr
ojec
tion,
wha
t w
ould
like
ly b
e th
e re
sult
ifyo
u vo
caliz
ed f
rom
you
r th
roat
rath
er f
rom
you
r di
aphr
agm
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mak
ean
d de
fend
an
infe
renc
e ab
out
the
effe
cts
of d
iffer
ent
type
s of
voca
lizat
ion
base
d on
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
mec
hani
csof
the
ski
ll.
The
ski
ll of
voca
lizin
gT
heat
re9–
12U
nder
stan
ds b
oth
cont
empo
rary
and
clas
sic
actin
g te
chni
que.
The
cue
-bal
l and
eig
ht-b
all a
re in
a di
rect
line
to
the
corn
er p
ocke
t.W
hat
wou
ld li
kely
hap
pen
if yo
usa
nk t
he e
ight
-bal
l usi
ng b
otto
mE
nglis
h on
the
cue
bal
l?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mak
ean
d de
fend
an
infe
renc
ere
gard
ing
the
effe
ct o
f di
ffere
ntty
pes
of E
nglis
h on
the
cue
bal
l,ba
sed
on a
n un
ders
tand
ing
ofcu
e ba
ll co
ntro
l.
The
ski
ll of
putti
ng E
nglis
hon
a c
ue b
all
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
sop
hist
icat
ion
inm
ovem
ent a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith h
ighl
ysk
illed
ath
lete
s (e
.g.,
wha
t mak
essu
cces
sful
ser
ves,
pas
ses,
and
spik
es in
vol
leyb
all).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
If yo
u co
nsis
tent
ly r
ush
the
net
afte
r yo
u de
liver
eve
ry s
erve
,w
hat
wou
ld y
our
oppo
nent
like
lydo
in r
espo
nse?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mak
ean
d de
fend
an
infe
renc
e on
the
likel
y st
rate
gy o
f an
opp
onen
t, if
the
oppo
nent
is p
rese
nted
with
cons
iste
nt b
ehav
ior.
The
pro
cess
of
play
ing
tenn
isP
hysi
cal
Edu
catio
n9–
12
Kno
ws
and
follo
ws
the
rule
s fo
rsp
ortin
g ac
tiviti
es a
nd u
ses
appr
opria
te o
ffens
ive
and
defe
nsiv
e st
rate
gies
.
If yo
u be
gin
a m
usic
al p
iece
at t
hew
rong
tem
po, w
hat i
mpa
ct m
ight
this
hav
e on
mus
ical
phr
ases
with
in th
e pi
ece
and
for
the
impr
essi
on o
f the
pie
ce o
vera
ll?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mak
ean
d de
fend
infe
renc
es a
bout
the
impa
ct o
f a
give
n te
mpo
on
vario
us a
spec
ts o
f a
mus
ical
perf
orm
ance
.
The
pro
cess
of
perf
orm
ing
am
usic
al p
iece
Mus
ic6–
8A
ccur
atel
y pe
rfor
ms
on a
clas
sroo
m in
stru
men
t a
varie
tyof
pie
ces
that
dis
play
mod
est
rang
es a
nd c
hang
es o
f te
mpo
,ke
y, a
nd m
eter
.
a Mercator map and reading a globe. The first specifying task for mental processesfocuses on making predictions based on an understanding of the process of writinga persuasive essay.
Specifying With Psychomotor Procedures
Specifying tasks for psychomotor procedures are the same as specifying tasksfor mental procedures—students identify what must happen or might happen inthe execution of a procedure under certain conditions. For example, the first spec-ifying task for psychomotor skills focuses on making predictions based on anunderstanding of the skill of vocalizing. The first specifying task for psychomotorprocesses focuses on making predictions based on an understanding of the processof playing tennis.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS FOR
ANALYSIS OBJECTIVES AND TASKS
Matching Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to identify similarities and differences• Use terms and phrases like the following: match, categorize, compare, com-
pare and contrast, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, sort, create an anal-ogy, create a metaphor
• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats• Use specific types of graphic organizers
Classifying Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to identify superordinate and subordinate categories• Use terms and phrases like the following: classify, organize, sort, identify a
broader category, identify categories, identify different types• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats• Use specific types of graphic organizers
Analyzing Errors Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to identify logical errors in information and processingerrors in the execution of procedural knowledge
• Use terms and phrases like the following: analyze the errors in, identify prob-lems, identify issues, identify misunderstandings, assess, critique, diagnose,evaluate, edit, revise
• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Analysis Objectives and Tasks 91
Generalizing Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to infer new generalizations and principles from knowninformation
• Use terms and phrases like the following: generalize, what conclusions canbe drawn, what references can be made, create a generalization, create aprinciple, create a rule, trace the development, form conclusions
• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats• Use specific types of graphic organizers
Specifying Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to make and defend predictions about what might happenor what will necessarily happen in a given situation
• Use terms and phrases like the following: make and defend, specify, pre-dict, judge, deduce, what would have to happen, develop an argument for,under what conditions
• Use short or extended written or oral constructed-response formats
92 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
93
CH A P T E R SI X
Knowledge Utilization Objectives and Tasks
(1) decision making, (2) problem solving, (3) experimenting, and (4) investigating.The knowledge utilization processes require students to apply or use knowl-
edge in specific situations. There are four knowledge utilization processes:
We consider each.
DECISION MAKING
Decision making involves selecting among alternatives that initially appear equal.Figure 6.1 lists decision-making objectives and tasks for the various domains ofknowledge.
The term decide is commonly used in decision-making objectives and tasks alongwith other terms and phrases including the following:
• Select the best among the following alternatives• Which among the following would be the best• What is the best way• Which of these is most suitable
The most common format for decision-making tasks is short or extended writ-ten or oral constructed-response formats. Sometimes decision-making tasks arequite structured, as in the following example:
Assume that the following three sites are being considered as the locationfor a new waste disposal plant: (1) near the lake at the north end of town,(2) near the airport, and (3) in the mountains outside of town. Which sitewould be best? Explain why the specific characteristics of the site youselected make it the best selection.
(Text continues on page 98)
94
Fig
ure
6.1
Dec
isio
n-M
akin
g O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
Usi
ng t
he d
ata
you
have
fro
m y
our
mos
tre
cent
fitn
ess
asse
ssm
ent,
deci
de w
hat
aspe
cts
of y
our
pers
onal
fitn
ess
need
atte
ntio
n an
d w
hat
you
mig
ht d
o to
impr
ove
your
ove
rall
fitne
ss.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
use
data
fro
m a
per
sona
lfit
ness
ass
essm
ent
and
know
ledg
e ab
out
fitne
ssco
mpo
nent
s to
mak
e a
deci
sion
abo
ut h
ow t
oim
prov
e ov
eral
l fitn
ess.
Det
ails
fro
m a
pers
onal
fitn
ess
repo
rt
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–6
Impr
oves
sel
ect f
itnes
sco
mpo
nent
s th
roug
h at
tent
ion
to r
elev
ant a
sses
smen
ts(e
.g.,
card
io-r
espi
rato
ryen
dura
nce,
mus
cula
r st
reng
than
d en
dura
nce,
flex
ibili
ty, a
ndbo
dy c
ompo
sitio
n).
We’
ve b
een
lear
ning
tha
t ru
les
mig
ht b
eus
eful
in o
ne s
ituat
ion
but
not
in a
noth
er.
Use
our
four
rul
es fo
r cl
assr
oom
beha
vior
and
dec
ide
whi
ch o
f th
efo
llow
ing
thre
e si
tuat
ions
wou
ld b
enef
itm
ost
if it
used
our
rul
es:y
our
hom
e,pe
ople
tra
velin
g to
geth
er o
n a
vaca
tion,
polit
icia
ns in
the
gov
ernm
ent.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
deci
de w
hich
non
scho
olsi
tuat
ions
wou
ld b
enef
it fr
omes
tabl
ishe
d sc
hool
rul
es.
Det
ails
abo
utsp
ecifi
cbe
havi
oral
rul
es
Beh
avio
ral
Stu
dies
3–5
Und
erst
ands
tha
t ev
enco
nsis
tent
rul
es,
such
as
the
ones
at
hom
e, s
choo
l, ch
urch
and
in t
he c
omm
unity
, ar
esu
bjec
t to
cha
nge
(e.g
., so
me
rule
s be
com
e ou
tdat
ed,
new
peop
le a
re in
volv
ed,
outs
ide
circ
umst
ance
s ch
ange
).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
You
are
help
ing
desi
gn t
he s
tage
for
asc
hool
pro
duct
ion
for
a pl
ay s
et in
189
0sD
enve
r.B
ased
on
wha
t yo
u kn
ow a
bout
this
tim
e in
the
Wes
t, de
cide
wha
t ki
nds
of p
rops
and
sce
nery
will
like
ly b
e pa
rtof
eve
ry o
utdo
or s
tree
t sc
ene.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
tode
cide
on
the
prop
s an
dsc
ener
y ne
eded
for
a pl
ay s
etin
the
Am
eric
an W
est,
base
don
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
how
tocr
eate
an
envi
ronm
ent o
nst
age
and
know
ledg
e of
som
eas
pect
s of
the
Am
eric
an W
est.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t pr
ops
and
scen
ery
The
ater
5–8
Cre
ates
env
ironm
ents
thro
ugh
scen
ery,
pro
pert
ies,
light
ing
and
soun
d ch
oice
san
d ch
arac
ters
thr
ough
cost
ume
and
mak
eup
choi
ces.
95
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
You
have
team
spr
ints
sch
edul
ed fo
r th
isaf
tern
oon.
You’
ve g
ot a
sna
ck h
igh
inca
rboh
ydra
tes,
a c
andy
bar
that
’s h
igh
insu
gar
and
fat,
and
a pr
otei
n dr
ink.
Bas
edon
wha
t you
kno
w a
bout
prin
cipl
esof
nut
ritio
n an
d th
e im
pact
of p
hysi
cal
activ
ities
, whi
ch s
houl
d yo
u ch
oose
befo
re y
our
exer
cise
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
deci
de w
hat
food
cho
ices
are
the
mos
t be
nefic
ial,
base
d on
an u
nder
stan
ding
of
nutr
ition
and
the
dem
ands
of
eith
erae
robi
c or
ana
erob
icac
tiviti
es.
Prin
cipl
es o
fnu
triti
onH
ealth
9–12
Und
erst
ands
how
peo
ple
ofdi
ffere
nt g
ende
rs,
ages
, an
dac
tivity
leve
ls h
ave
diffe
rent
nutr
ient
and
ene
rgy
need
s.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
You
wer
e gi
ven
four
thr
ee-d
igit
num
bers
—36
2, 4
59,
921,
and
658
—an
das
ked
to q
uick
ly e
stim
ate
the
sum
inyo
ur h
ead.
Iden
tify
at le
ast
two
way
s of
doin
g th
is a
nd t
hen
expl
ain
whi
ch w
ould
be t
he b
est
way
to
do s
o.C
onsi
der
spee
d an
d ac
cura
cy in
you
r de
cisi
on.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
deci
de,
base
d on
a fa
mili
arity
with
est
imat
ion
stra
tegi
es,
whi
ch s
trat
egie
s ar
eap
prop
riate
for
a pa
rtic
ular
prob
lem
typ
e.
Est
imat
ion
skill
san
d st
rate
gies
Mat
h3–
5U
ses
stra
tegi
es (
e.g.
, fr
ont-
end
estim
atio
n, r
ound
ing)
to
estim
ate
com
puta
tions
and
to
eval
uate
tho
se e
stim
atio
ns.
You’
ve ju
st d
isco
vere
d th
at th
e da
ta y
ouim
port
ed in
to a
spr
eads
heet
has
asi
gnifi
cant
flaw
:All
the
data
hav
e be
ensh
ifted
by
one
colu
mn,
so
that
the
varia
ble
nam
es id
entif
y th
e w
rong
dat
a.D
eter
min
eho
w y
ou w
ill r
esto
re o
r re
impo
rt th
e da
taan
d ex
plai
n yo
ur r
easo
ning
.Con
side
r at
leas
t tw
o m
etho
ds fo
r ac
com
plis
hing
this
task
and
at l
east
two
crite
ria b
y w
hich
you
will
mak
e yo
ur d
ecis
ion.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to d
ecid
e, b
ased
on
anun
ders
tand
ing
of t
he p
roce
ssof
impo
rtin
g da
ta,
wha
tap
proa
ch is
mos
t ef
ficie
nt fo
rco
rrec
ting
impo
rt e
rror
s.
Dat
a-m
anip
ulat
ion
stra
tegi
es
Tech
nolo
gy9–
12Im
port
s, e
xpor
ts,
and
mer
ges
data
sto
red
in d
iffer
ent
form
ats
(e.g
., te
xt,
grap
hics
).
(Con
tinu
ed)
96
Fig
ure
6.1
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
You’
ve b
een
aske
d to
writ
e a
lette
r to
pers
uade
a c
ity c
ounc
il pe
rson
to
visi
tyo
ur c
ivic
s cl
ass
and
desc
ribe
the
job’
sdu
ties
and
resp
onsi
bilit
ies.
Wha
tst
rate
gies
wou
ld y
ou u
se t
o m
ake
the
invi
tatio
n an
app
ealin
g on
e? C
onsi
der
atle
ast
thre
e st
rate
gies
we
have
stu
died
,su
ch a
s ap
peal
to
emot
ion,
app
eal t
ore
ason
, an
d ap
peal
to
trad
ition
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to d
ecid
e ho
w t
o em
ploy
pers
uasi
ve w
ritin
g st
rate
gies
that
are
mos
t ef
fect
ive
for
apa
rtic
ular
aud
ienc
e an
dpu
rpos
e.
Pro
cess
es fo
rpe
rsua
sive
writ
ing
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12
Ada
pts
writ
ing
for
diffe
rent
purp
oses
(e.
g.,
to in
form
,an
alyz
e, e
nter
tain
, per
suad
e).
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng w
ays
to le
arn
and
rem
embe
r ne
w in
form
atio
n.T
hree
of
thes
e w
ays
are
(a)
verb
atim
reh
ears
al,
(b)
mne
mon
ic d
evic
es, a
nd (
c) e
xten
ded
prac
tice.
Sel
ect s
omet
hing
you
wou
ld li
keto
lear
n an
d de
cide
whi
ch o
f the
se th
ree
appr
oach
es w
ould
be
best
, giv
en th
eco
nten
t you
hav
e se
lect
ed.U
se a
t lea
sttw
o cr
iteria
whi
le m
akin
g yo
ur d
ecis
ion.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to d
ecid
e, b
ased
on
anun
ders
tand
ing
of le
arni
ngst
rate
gies
, th
e be
st w
ay t
ole
arn
new
per
sona
lly c
hose
nco
nten
t.
The
pro
cess
of
lear
ning
new
know
ledg
e
Hea
lth9–
12K
now
s an
d ap
plie
s a
num
ber
of s
trat
egie
s fo
r le
arni
ngne
w k
now
ledg
e.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
You’
ve a
lway
s pl
ayed
ten
nis
on a
spha
ltco
urts
, an
d to
day
you’
ll be
pla
ying
am
atch
on
a gr
ass
cour
t fo
r th
e fir
st t
ime.
Con
side
r at
leas
t th
ree
stra
tegi
es fo
rhi
tting
a fo
reha
nd g
roun
dstr
oke.
Whi
chof
the
m w
ould
mos
t lik
ely
be t
he b
est
appr
oach
to
use
and
why
? D
escr
ibe
the
crite
ria y
ou u
sed
to m
ake
your
dec
isio
n.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to d
ecid
e, b
ased
on
anun
ders
tand
ing
of t
he w
ay t
hat
diffe
rent
sur
face
s af
fect
tra
vel
in t
enni
s, h
ow b
est
to r
etur
na
fore
hand
on
a di
ffere
ntsu
rfac
e.
Str
ateg
ies
for
hitti
ng a
fore
hand
str
oke
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
sop
hist
icat
ion
inm
ovem
ent
asso
ciat
ed w
ithhi
ghly
ski
lled
athl
etes
.
97
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
You’
ve b
een
aske
d to
cre
ate
a da
nce
sequ
ence
tha
t m
akes
peo
ple
thin
k of
asp
ecifi
c an
imal
.Whi
ch o
f th
e da
nce
mov
emen
ts w
e ha
ve b
een
prac
ticin
gw
ould
you
use
? W
hy?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to d
ecid
e, b
ased
on
anun
ders
tand
ing
of d
ance
,w
hat
mov
emen
ts t
o us
efo
r a
danc
e w
ith a
spe
cific
purp
ose.
Spe
cific
dan
cem
ovem
ents
Dan
ceK
–4C
reat
es a
seq
uenc
e of
mov
emen
ts w
ith a
spe
cific
impr
essi
on in
min
d.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
The
sce
ne y
ou w
ill p
lay
requ
ires
that
, by
the
end
of t
he s
cene
, yo
u tr
ansf
orm
fro
ma
quie
t an
d re
serv
ed c
hara
cter
to
som
eone
bol
d an
d co
nfid
ent.
Dec
ide
how
you
will
tra
nsfo
rm y
ours
elf
over
the
cour
se o
f th
e sc
ene
so t
hat
the
tran
sitio
nis
bel
ieva
ble.
Iden
tify
spec
ific
phys
ical
actio
ns y
ou m
ight
use
and
prio
ritiz
e th
emin
ter
ms
of t
heir
utili
ty.E
xpla
in t
he c
riter
iayo
u us
ed t
o pr
iorit
ize
the
stra
tegy
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
deci
de,
base
d on
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
act
ing
proc
ess,
how
bes
t to
com
mun
icat
e a
sign
ifica
ntch
ange
in a
cha
ract
er o
ver
time
that
als
o m
aint
ains
cred
ibili
ty w
ith t
he a
udie
nce.
Phy
sica
lst
rate
gies
use
din
the
act
ing
proc
ess
The
ater
9–12
Cre
ates
and
mai
ntai
nsbe
lieva
ble
char
acte
rs t
hat
com
mun
icat
e w
ith a
udie
nces
in im
prov
isat
ions
and
prod
uctio
ns.
You’
d lik
e to
cre
ate
an o
il pa
intin
g th
atev
okes
in t
he v
iew
er a
n im
med
iate
sens
e of
the
sur
face
tex
ture
or
even
ath
ree-
dim
ensi
onal
, sc
ulpt
ural
feel
.D
ecid
e w
hat
tech
niqu
es a
nd p
roce
sses
you
wou
ld u
se a
nd w
hy y
ou b
elie
ve t
hey
will
be
effe
ctiv
e.Id
entif
y th
e st
rate
gies
you
mig
ht c
onsi
der
and
the
crite
ria y
ouus
ed t
o se
lect
you
r st
rate
gies
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
deci
de,
base
d on
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
pai
ntin
gte
chni
ques
, ho
w t
o cr
eate
asp
ecifi
c vi
sual
effe
ct.
Str
ateg
ies
with
in t
hepr
oces
s of
pain
ting
Vis
ual A
rts
9–12
Und
erst
ands
how
the
med
iaan
d pr
oces
ses
one
uses
affe
ct t
he c
omm
unic
atio
nof
idea
s.
98 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Here the alternatives are provided to students. This is in contrast to a task likethe following, which requires students to generate the alternatives:
What site would be the best location for a waste-disposal plant? Identifyat least three viable potential sites and explain why the specific character-istics of the site you selected make it the best selection.
When decision-making tasks are highly structured, it is common to providestudents with a decision-making matrix like that shown in Figure 6.2.
The matrix in Figure 6.2 is set up for the decision-making task about the bestsite for a waste-disposal park. The alternatives form the columns. The criteria thatwill be used to select among the alternatives form the rows. In the task, three alter-natives are being considered: (1) near the lake at the north end of town, (2) near theairport, and (3) in the mountains outside of town. Also three criteria are being used:(A) moderate to low cost, (B) environmentally safe, and (C) aesthetically pleasing.A “Y” indicates that an alternative meets a criterion. For example, the first alterna-tive (near the lake) meets the first criterion (moderate to low cost). An “N” indi-cates that an alternative does not meet the criterion, and a “?” indicates that thestudent is not sure whether the alternative meets the criterion. Once the matrix iscompleted, the student looks at the pattern of “Y” responses to determine the bestalternative. In this case, it is the first alternative, near the lake. For a discussion ofmore sophisticated types of decision-making matrices, see Marzano (2007).
We next consider decision-making tasks across the various domains ofknowledge.
Decision Making With Information
Details are frequently the criteria used in decisions. For example, the firstdecision-making task for details requires students to use details from a personal
Figure 6.2 Decision-Making Matrix
Alternative 1Near the Lake
Alternative 2Near the Airport
Alternative 3In the Mountains Outside of Town
Criterion 1:Moderate tolow cost
Y Y ?
Criterion 2:Environmentally safe Y N ?
Criterion 3:Aesthetically pleasing Y N Y
fitness report to make a decision about how to improve overall fitness. Organizingideas are also common criteria used to make selections between alternatives. Forexample, the first decision-making task for organizing ideas requires students touse generalizations about props and scenery to determine how best to create a spe-cific environment on stage.
Decision Making With Mental Procedures
Mental skills are sometimes used as explicit tools with which to gather infor-mation for decisions. For example, the first decision-making task for mental skillsrequires students to use their knowledge of estimation skills to decide on the bestapproach to solve a specific type of problem. The second decision-making task formental processes requires students to use their knowledge of learning strategies todetermine the best approach to learn new content of their choice.
Decision Making With Psychomotor Procedures
Psychomotor skills and processes can also be used when making decisions.For example, the second decision-making task for psychomotor skills requiresstudents to use their knowledge of specific dance movements to determine the bestway to convey a specific impression. The first decision-making task for psy-chomotor processes requires students to use their knowledge of physical strategiesin acting to determine the best way to convey a specific impression on stage.
PROBLEM SOLVING
The knowledge utilization process of problem solving involves accomplishing agoal for which obstacles or limiting conditions exist. Problem solving is closelyrelated to decision making in that the latter is frequently a subcomponent of prob-lem solving. However, whereas decision making does not involve obstacles to agoal, problem solving does. Figure 6.3 lists sample problem-solving objectivesand tasks across the knowledge domains.
The term solve is frequently used in problem-solving tasks and objectivesalong with terms and phrases like the following:
• How would you overcome• Adapt• Develop a strategy to• Figure out a way to• How will you reach your goal under these conditions
The most common format for problem-solving tasks is short or extended writ-ten and constructed-response formats.
(Text continues on page 104)
Knowledge Utilization Objectives and Tasks 99
100
Fig
ure
6.3
Prob
lem
-Sol
ving
Obj
ectiv
es a
nd T
asks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng th
e pr
opos
ed w
ind
farm
on th
e no
rth
side
of t
own.
All
sour
ces
of e
nerg
y,in
clud
ing
alte
rnat
ive
ener
gy s
ourc
es, p
rese
ntpr
oble
ms,
suc
h as
une
venn
ess
of s
uppl
y, a
ndtr
ade-
offs
, suc
h as
less
exp
ense
at t
he c
ost o
fco
nven
ienc
e.Id
entif
y th
e cu
rren
t gre
ates
tob
stac
les—
soci
al, p
hysi
cal,
tech
nica
l, or
aco
mbi
natio
n of
thes
e—an
d th
e so
lutio
nsne
eded
for
the
adop
tion
of th
e pr
opos
ed p
roje
ct.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to p
ropo
se a
sol
utio
nfo
r th
e ad
optio
n of
spec
ific
alte
rnat
ive
ener
gy s
ourc
es b
ased
on a
n un
ders
tand
ing
ofth
e ob
stac
les
and
trade
-offs
ass
ocia
ted
with
its
use.
Det
ails
abo
uta
spec
ific
alte
rnat
ive
ener
gy s
ourc
e
Geo
grap
hy9–
12U
nder
stan
ds h
ow t
hew
ides
prea
d us
e of
ren
ewab
leen
ergy
sou
rces
(e.
g.,
sola
r,w
ind,
the
rmal
) m
ight
affe
ctbo
th t
he e
arth
and
soc
iety
(e.g
., ai
r an
d w
ater
qua
lity,
the
oil i
ndus
trie
s, a
nd c
urre
ntm
anuf
actu
ring
prac
tices
).
We
have
see
n an
end
orse
men
t fr
om a
tele
visi
on c
eleb
rity
rega
rdin
g th
e po
sitiv
eef
fect
s of
new
exe
rcis
e eq
uipm
ent
for
flatte
ning
your
sto
mac
h;ho
wev
er,
neith
er t
he c
omm
erci
alno
r th
e co
mpa
ny t
hat
has
prov
ided
any
evid
ence
of
its e
ffect
iven
ess.
How
will
you
over
com
e th
is p
robl
em?
Whe
re w
ill y
ou g
o to
find
the
nece
ssar
y in
form
atio
n?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
alte
rnat
ive
sour
ces
of h
ealth
-rel
ated
info
rmat
ion
whe
n no
neap
pear
ava
ilabl
e.
Det
ails
abo
uta
spec
ific
type
of e
xerc
ise
equi
pmen
t
Hea
lth9–
12K
now
s ho
w t
o de
term
ine
whe
ther
var
ious
res
ourc
esfr
om h
ome,
sch
ool,
and
the
com
mun
ity p
rese
ntva
lid h
ealth
info
rmat
ion,
prod
ucts
, an
d se
rvic
es.
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
Poo
r na
tions
may
bel
ieve
tha
t th
ey d
o no
t ha
vest
rong
eno
ugh
voic
es a
t th
e U
.N.,
but
wea
lthy
natio
ns,
who
sig
nific
antly
impa
ct t
rade
and
com
mer
ce in
the
wor
ld,
likel
y be
lieve
tha
t th
est
reng
th o
f th
eir
influ
ence
sho
uld
refle
ct t
his
grea
ter
cont
ribut
ion.
How
mig
ht t
he s
truc
ture
of
the
U.N
.be
revi
sed
to a
ccom
mod
ate
both
conc
erns
? To
sol
ve t
his
prob
lem
, us
e w
hat
you
know
of
the
idea
s de
velo
ped
and
agre
emen
tsfo
rged
dur
ing
the
Con
stitu
tiona
l Con
vent
ion.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
prop
ose
aso
lutio
n to
a p
robl
emre
gard
ing
polit
ical
repr
esen
tatio
n ba
sed
on a
n un
ders
tand
ing
of is
sues
rai
sed
durin
gth
e C
onst
itutio
nal
Con
vent
ion
and
how
they
wer
e re
solv
ed.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
prop
osed
durin
g th
eC
onst
itutio
nal
Con
vent
ion
U.S
.His
tory
5–6
Kno
ws
the
impo
rtan
t iss
ues
ofth
e tim
e of
the
Con
stitu
tiona
lC
onve
ntio
n an
d w
hich
of t
hem
wer
e su
ppor
ted
and
whi
chw
ere
oppo
sed
(e.g
.,se
para
tion
of p
ower
s, c
heck
san
d ba
lanc
es, t
he V
irgin
iaP
lan,
the
New
Jer
sey
Pla
n,th
e C
onne
ctic
ut C
ompr
omis
e,ab
oliti
on).
101
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
es
Bas
ed o
n w
hat
you
have
lear
ned
abou
t an
ecos
yste
m,
incl
udin
g su
ch p
rinci
ples
as
pred
ator
–pre
y re
latio
nshi
ps,
com
petit
ion
for
reso
urce
s, a
nd t
he a
ccep
tabl
e ra
nge
ofte
mpe
ratu
res
for
cert
ain
spec
ies,
dev
elop
ate
rrar
ium
tha
t yo
u be
lieve
pro
vide
s its
inha
bita
nts
with
the
str
onge
st p
ossi
bilit
y of
alo
ng li
fe.I
dent
ify t
he s
igni
fican
t pr
oble
ms
you
face
d in
sel
ectio
n of
spe
cies
and
the
envi
ronm
ent
and
how
you
sol
ved
them
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
addr
ess
the
prob
lem
s th
at t
hrea
ten
surv
ival
of
a se
lect
edsp
ecie
s ba
sed
on a
nun
ders
tand
ing
ofpr
edat
or–p
rey
rela
tions
hips
,co
mpe
titio
n fo
rre
sour
ces,
and
requ
irem
ents
for
food
and
a su
ppor
ting
envi
ronm
ent.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
ecos
yste
ms
Sci
ence
6–8
Kno
ws
fact
ors
that
affe
ctth
e nu
mbe
r an
d ty
pes
ofor
gani
sms
an e
cosy
stem
can
supp
ort
(e.g
., av
aila
ble
reso
urce
s;ab
iotic
fact
ors,
such
as
quan
tity
of li
ght
and
wat
er,
rang
e of
tem
pera
ture
s,an
d so
il co
mpo
sitio
n;di
seas
e;co
mpe
titio
n fr
omot
her
orga
nism
s w
ithin
the
ecos
yste
m;p
reda
tion)
.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
We’
ve b
een
stud
ying
var
ious
kin
ds o
f re
fusa
lsk
ills.
If yo
u ha
d a
frie
nd w
ho r
ecog
nize
d th
atot
hers
wer
e m
akin
g hi
m a
ct in
a w
ay t
hat
mig
htha
rm h
is h
ealth
but
who
was
una
ble
to r
esis
tth
eir
influ
ence
, w
hat
advi
ce o
r st
rate
gy w
ould
you
offe
r an
d w
hy?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y ho
wbe
st to
sol
ve a
pro
blem
of n
egat
ive
soci
alin
fluen
ce th
roug
hun
ders
tand
ing
the
best
use
of r
efus
al s
kills
.
Spe
cific
ref
usal
skill
sH
ealth
3–5
Und
erst
ands
tec
hniq
ues
for
avoi
ding
, an
d re
spon
ding
to,
nega
tive
soci
al in
fluen
ces
and
pres
sure
to
use
alco
hol
or d
rugs
(e.
g.,
refu
sal s
kills
,se
lf-co
ntro
l).
Whi
le s
cann
ing
a to
pogr
aphi
c m
ap fo
rin
form
atio
n ab
out
a sp
ecifi
c m
ount
ain,
you
see
that
the
con
tour
line
for
the
ridge
you
are
inte
rest
ed in
doe
s no
t ha
ve a
num
ber
asso
ciat
ed w
ith it
, al
thou
gh t
here
are
con
tour
lines
nea
r it
that
do
have
alti
tude
s as
sign
ed.
Des
crib
e ho
w y
ou w
ill d
eter
min
e th
e al
titud
e of
the
cont
our
line
and
how
you
will
det
erm
ine
whe
ther
it is
in fe
et o
r m
eter
s.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
solv
e th
epr
oble
m o
f m
issi
ngin
form
atio
n on
a m
apth
roug
h th
e us
e of
basi
c m
ap-r
eadi
ngsk
ills.
Rea
ding
aco
ntou
r m
apG
eogr
aphy
3–5
Iden
tifie
s th
e ba
sic
char
acte
ristic
s of
map
s an
dgl
obes
(e.
g.,
title
, le
gend
,ca
rdin
al a
nd in
term
edia
tedi
rect
ions
, sc
ale,
grid
,pr
inci
pal p
aral
lels
, m
erid
ians
,pr
ojec
tion)
.
(Con
tinu
ed)
102
Fig
ure
6.3
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Whi
le w
orki
ng o
n a
rese
arch
pap
er,
you
disc
over
con
flict
ing
clai
ms
amon
g th
e so
urce
syo
u us
e re
gard
ing
a sp
ecifi
c, c
ritic
al e
vent
.How
will
you
res
olve
the
pro
blem
? D
iscu
ss t
hepr
oces
ses
avai
labl
e, in
clud
ing
eval
uatin
g th
ecr
edib
ility
of
sour
ces,
ver
ifyin
g th
e fa
cts,
and
dete
rmin
ing
whe
ther
logi
cal i
nfer
ence
s ar
em
ade
from
the
fact
s.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
reso
lve
aqu
estio
n of
con
flict
ing
info
rmat
ion
thro
ugh
eval
uatin
g th
ecr
edib
ility
of
sour
ces,
verif
ying
fact
s, a
ndev
alua
ting
infe
renc
esm
ade
from
fact
s.
The
pro
cess
of
findi
ng,
citin
g,an
d us
ing
sour
ces
in a
rese
arch
pap
er
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12
Writ
es r
esea
rch
pape
rs (
e.g.
,us
es a
thes
is s
tate
men
t, us
esan
app
ropr
iate
org
aniz
atio
npa
ttern
, par
aphr
ases
idea
san
d co
nnec
ts th
em to
sour
ces,
iden
tifie
s nu
ance
san
d di
scre
panc
ies
inin
form
atio
n, a
ddre
sses
all
poss
ible
per
spec
tives
, use
svi
sual
aid
s w
hen
nece
ssar
y,in
tegr
ates
quo
tatio
ns a
ndci
tatio
ns c
orre
ctly
, ada
pts
rese
arch
ed m
ater
ial f
orpr
esen
tatio
n in
ant
icip
atio
nof
a p
artic
ular
aud
ienc
e).
You
are
task
ed w
ith w
ritin
g an
ess
ay t
hat
will
pers
uade
bot
h yo
ur p
eers
and
par
ents
in t
heco
mm
unity
to
cont
ribut
e m
oney
tow
ard
the
build
ing
of a
hig
h-te
ch c
lass
room
tha
t w
on’t
beco
mpl
eted
unt
il af
ter
you
grad
uate
.How
will
you
craf
t ar
gum
ents
tha
t w
ill p
ersu
ade
both
audi
ence
s to
con
trib
ute
to t
he c
ause
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
solv
e th
epr
oble
m o
f ap
peal
ing
to d
iffer
ent
audi
ence
sin
the
sam
e es
say
byus
ing
a va
riety
of
pers
uasi
ve t
echn
ique
s.
The
pro
cess
of w
ritin
g a
pers
uasi
vees
say
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12
Writ
es p
ersu
asiv
eco
mpo
sitio
ns th
at a
ddre
sspr
oble
ms–
solu
tions
or
caus
es–e
ffect
s (e
.g.,
uses
ath
esis
sta
tem
ent;
addr
esse
sal
l pos
sibl
e co
unte
rar
gum
ents
;use
s rh
etor
ical
devi
ces,
suc
h as
app
eals
tolo
gic
and
appe
als
to e
mot
ion,
uses
per
sona
l ane
cdot
es;
deve
lops
arg
umen
ts a
nd u
ses
deta
ils, a
ddre
sses
trad
ition
,ca
use-
and-
effe
ct r
easo
ning
,co
mpa
rison
–con
tras
tre
ason
ing)
.
103
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
The
fin
gerin
g su
pplie
d fo
r an
inst
rum
enta
l pie
ceyo
u ar
e st
udyi
ng d
oes
not
wor
k fo
r th
e si
ze a
ndsh
ape
of y
our
hand
s.B
ased
on
wha
t w
orks
best
for
you,
ass
ign
new
fin
gerin
g w
here
ver
need
ed.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
solv
e a
spec
ific
finge
ring
prob
lem
by
revi
sing
fin
gerin
gno
tatio
n to
bes
t m
eet
pers
onal
ski
lls a
ndlim
itatio
ns.
Fin
gerin
g sk
ills
for
a sp
ecifi
cin
stru
men
t
Mus
ic6–
8A
ccur
atel
y pe
rfor
ms
a va
riety
of in
stru
men
tal p
iece
s w
ithex
pres
sion
on
a cl
assr
oom
inst
rum
ent,
dem
onst
ratin
gm
aste
ry o
f m
odes
t ra
nges
and
chan
ges
of t
empo
,ke
y, a
nd m
eter
.
You
are
to p
rese
nt a
spe
ech
in t
he fo
reig
nla
ngua
ge w
e ar
e st
udyi
ng,
and
you
have
had
cons
iste
nt p
robl
ems
pron
ounc
ing
som
e of
the
wor
ds in
the
spe
ech.
How
mig
ht y
ou w
rite
out
the
spee
ch fo
r yo
urse
lf to
ens
ure
that
you
say
each
wor
d co
rrec
tly?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to s
olve
a p
robl
emof
pro
nunc
iatio
nth
roug
h m
akin
g no
tes
to s
elf i
n an
unf
amili
arla
ngua
ge a
bout
cor
rect
pron
unci
atio
n.
Cor
rect
pron
unci
atio
n in
a fo
reig
nla
ngua
ge
For
eign
Lang
uage
K–4
Pre
sent
s si
mpl
e or
al r
epor
tsab
out
com
mon
sch
ool a
ndho
me
activ
ities
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Bec
ause
of
a re
cent
inju
ry,
you
find
that
you
rba
ckha
nd is
not
as
stro
ng a
s it
shou
ld b
e.D
evis
e a
met
hod
of p
lay
that
will
cap
italiz
e on
your
oth
er s
tren
gths
to
offs
et t
his
prob
lem
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
solv
e a
spec
ific
spor
ts-s
kill
prob
lem
by
iden
tifyi
ng s
trat
egie
sth
at w
ill c
ompe
nsat
e.
Pla
ying
ten
nis
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
9–12
Fol
low
s th
e ru
les
of a
sele
cted
spo
rt a
nd m
akes
use
of o
ffens
ive
and
defe
nsiv
e te
chni
ques
.
The
cha
ract
er y
ou’v
e be
en s
elec
ted
to p
lay
isve
ry o
ld,
whi
ch y
ou w
on’t
be fo
r a
long
tim
e.D
escr
ibe
wha
t ph
ysic
al t
echn
ique
s yo
u’ll
use
tom
ake
the
audi
ence
bel
ieve
tha
t yo
u ar
e m
uch
olde
r th
an y
ou a
ppea
r.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
solv
e ac
ting
chal
leng
es t
hrou
ghan
und
erst
andi
ng o
fte
chni
ques
use
d to
proj
ect
char
acte
rs o
fa
spec
ific
type
.
The
pro
cess
of
port
rayi
ng a
char
acte
r
The
atre
9–12
Und
erst
ands
var
ious
clas
sica
l and
con
tem
pora
ryac
ting
tech
niqu
es a
ndm
etho
ds.
Problem Solving With Information
Details are frequently used to solve problems. For example, the first problem-solving task for details requires an understanding of details about a specific alter-native energy source. Organizing ideas apply to a variety of problem-solvingtasks. Commonly, a student uses a generalization or principle when identifyinghow best to overcome the obstacle within the problem. For example, the first prob-lem-solving task for organizing ideas involves the use of generalizations proposedat the Constitutional Convention to help solve a hypothetical problem about theUnited Nations.
Problem Solving With Mental Procedures
Specific mental skills can be the subject of problem-solving tasks. For exam-ple, the first problem-solving task for mental skills involves refusal skills. In thistask, effective use of refusal skills is the vehicle used to solve the problem. In thesecond example, the problem exists within the execution of the mental processitself: There is an obstacle to the typical procedure for reading a contour map—altitudes are not assigned to the contour lines. Mental processes are commonly thesubject of problem solving. The first problem-solving task for mental processesinvolves the process of finding, citing and using sources in research papers. In thiscase, the obstacle is that this process has produced conflicting results.
Problem Solving With Psychomotor Procedures
The first example of a problem-solving task for psychomotor skills involvesfingering skills for a specific instrument. The constraint is that a new system of fin-gering must be designed by students. The first example of a problem-solving taskfor psychomotor processes involves the process of playing tennis. The obstacle inthis situation is that an injury has limited the use of the student’s backhand stroke.
EXPERIMENTING
Experimenting involves generating and testing hypotheses about a specific physi-cal or psychological phenomenon. A critical feature of experimenting tasks is thatthe data be newly collected by the student. Figure 6.4 lists experimenting objec-tives and tasks across the various domains of knowledge.
The terms generate and test are commonly used in experimenting objectivesand tasks, along with terms and phrases like the following:
• Generate and test• Test the idea that
(Text continues on page 109)
104 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
105
Fig
ure
6.4
Exp
erim
entin
g O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
Iden
tify
a re
cent
sig
nific
ant
even
t an
dhy
poth
esiz
e ho
w d
iffer
ent
type
s of
peo
ple
in t
heco
mm
unity
will
vie
w it
.Pro
vide
the
rea
soni
ngfo
r yo
ur h
ypot
hesi
s an
d th
en s
urve
y m
embe
rsof
the
com
mun
ity t
o te
st y
our
hypo
thes
is.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to g
ener
ate
and
test
a h
ypot
hesi
s ab
out
how
sel
ecte
d ev
ents
mig
ht b
e vi
ewed
by
diffe
rent
mem
bers
of
the
com
mun
ity.
Det
ails
abo
ut a
spec
ific
curr
ent
even
t
Hea
lth9–
12U
nder
stan
ds t
hat
even
ts c
anbe
vie
wed
diff
eren
tly b
ydi
ffere
nt t
ypes
of
peop
le.
Sel
ect
a de
velo
pmen
t in
tec
hnol
ogy
that
has
occu
rred
in t
he p
ast
twen
ty y
ears
.For
exa
mpl
e,yo
u m
ight
sel
ect
the
iPod
.Bas
ed o
n w
hat
we
have
dis
cuss
ed a
bout
how
suc
h ch
ange
sim
pact
soc
iety
, de
velo
p a
hypo
thes
is a
bout
how
that
tec
hnol
ogy
has
had
an im
pact
on
peop
le’s
lives
.The
n ga
ther
info
rmat
ion
that
will
dire
ctly
test
you
r hy
poth
esis
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
and
test
a h
ypot
hesi
s th
atde
mon
stra
tes
anun
ders
tand
ing
of t
hepo
ssib
le im
pact
of
are
cent
tec
hnol
ogy
onso
ciet
y.
Det
ails
abo
ut a
spec
ific
tech
nolo
gica
lin
nova
tion
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8U
nder
stan
ds h
ow t
echn
olog
yan
d so
ciet
y af
fect
one
anot
her
(e.g
., ne
wte
chno
logi
es a
re d
evel
oped
to s
erve
the
pro
cess
and
prod
uct
need
s of
soc
iety
;as
soci
ety,
eco
nom
y, a
nd p
oliti
csch
ange
, so
doe
s te
chno
logy
;so
ciet
al n
eeds
, va
lues
, an
dbe
liefs
influ
ence
tec
hnol
ogy)
.
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
We
know
tha
t th
ere
are
good
rea
sons
for
peop
le c
hoos
ing
one
kind
of
geog
raph
y ov
eran
othe
r w
hen
choo
sing
a p
lace
to
live.
For
exam
ple,
in a
gric
ultu
ral a
nd e
arly
soc
ietie
s,se
ttlin
g ne
ar fe
rtile
soi
l was
crit
ical
for
surv
ival
,no
t si
mpl
y co
nven
ient
for
livel
ihoo
d.B
ased
on
how
we
live
now
, de
velo
p a
hypo
thes
is a
bout
wha
t es
sent
ial a
spec
ts p
eopl
e lo
ok fo
r w
hen
they
con
side
r m
ovin
g to
a n
ew p
lace
.Why
mig
ht t
he r
easo
ns b
e di
ffere
nt?
How
can
you
colle
ct in
form
atio
n di
rect
ly f
rom
peo
ple
toan
swer
thi
s qu
estio
n?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
and
test
a h
ypot
hesi
sre
gard
ing
the
reas
ons
why
peo
ple
choo
se t
oliv
e in
cer
tain
pla
ces.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t w
hyhu
man
ses
tabl
ish
settl
emen
ts
Geo
grap
hy3–
5Id
entif
ies
area
s of
den
sehu
man
pop
ulat
ion
and
unde
rsta
nds
reas
ons
for
such
popu
latio
n (e
.g.,
fert
ile s
oil,
avai
labi
lity
of w
ater
;av
aila
bilit
y of
coa
l, iro
n, a
ndot
her
natu
ral r
esou
rces
).
(Con
tinu
ed)
106
Fig
ure
6.4
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
Sel
ect
thre
e di
ffere
nt v
isua
l str
uctu
res
that
,ac
cord
ing
to t
he d
esig
n pr
inci
ples
we’
ve b
een
stud
ying
, ca
n ha
ve d
iffer
ent
effe
cts
on t
hevi
ewer
, su
ch a
s a
sens
e of
bal
ance
, an
xiet
y, o
rrh
ythm
.Cre
ate
sim
ple
draw
ings
tha
t yo
ube
lieve
exe
mpl
ify e
ach
stru
ctur
e an
d fin
d ou
t if
you
are
succ
essf
ul in
com
mun
icat
ing
wha
t yo
uin
tend
.For
exa
mpl
e, s
urve
y yo
ur c
lass
mat
es t
ote
ll yo
u w
hich
dra
win
g re
pres
ents
whi
ch e
ffect
.D
ecid
e if,
bas
ed o
n th
e re
sults
, yo
u ca
n ch
ange
the
desi
gn t
o im
prov
e yo
ur r
esul
ts.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
and
test
a h
ypot
hesi
sre
gard
ing
desi
gnpr
inci
ples
and
the
iref
fect
s on
the
vie
wer
.
Prin
cipl
es o
fde
sign
in a
rtV
isua
l Art
s5–
8U
nder
stan
ds h
ow d
iffer
ent
phys
ical
str
uctu
res
prod
uce
cert
ain
effe
cts
(e.g
., de
sign
elem
ents
, su
ch a
s lin
e, c
olor
,sh
ape;
prin
cipl
es s
uch
asre
petit
ion,
rhy
thm
, ba
lanc
e).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Imag
ine
a sc
enar
io in
whi
ch y
ou h
ave
a lim
ited
amou
nt o
f mon
ey a
nd a
re in
the
groc
ery
stor
ead
ding
item
s to
a s
hopp
ing
cart
.You
don
’t ha
ve a
calc
ulat
or, s
o yo
u’ve
got
to k
eep
a ru
nnin
g to
tal i
nyo
ur h
ead
of th
e co
sts
of th
e ite
ms
as y
ou a
ddth
em.D
evel
op tw
o or
mor
e te
chni
ques
for
men
tally
est
imat
ing
or c
alcu
latin
g th
e to
tals
as
you
go.Y
ou c
an e
ven
deve
lop
tech
niqu
es th
at u
seite
ms
in y
our
cart
to h
elp
you
keep
som
e tra
ck o
fyo
ur r
unni
ng to
tal.
How
wou
ld y
ou g
o ab
out
test
ing
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
you
r ap
proa
ches
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
ahy
poth
esis
reg
ardi
ngth
e be
st m
ath
stra
tegi
es t
o us
e to
solv
e a
spec
ific
estim
atio
n pr
oble
man
d te
st t
heir
rela
tive
effe
ctiv
enes
s.
Str
ateg
ies
for
solv
ing
asp
ecifi
c ty
pe o
fm
athe
mat
ics
prob
lem
Mat
h6–
8U
nder
stan
ds t
hat
diffe
rent
tech
niqu
es (
e.g.
, w
orki
ngba
ckw
ard
from
a s
olut
ion,
usin
g a
sim
ilar
prob
lem
typ
e,id
entif
ying
a p
atte
rn)
may
be
used
to
solv
e th
e sa
me
mat
hem
atic
al p
robl
em b
utth
at s
ome
of t
hose
tech
niqu
es m
ay b
e m
ore
effe
ctiv
e fo
r th
at p
artic
ular
prob
lem
tha
n ot
hers
.
Usi
ng ti
me
as a
mea
sure
is v
ery
usef
ul in
sci
ence
as in
dai
ly li
fe.W
e ca
n co
mpa
re th
e sp
eed
of tw
oth
ings
, lik
e m
arbl
es m
ovin
g do
wn
an in
clin
edpl
ane,
bec
ause
we
can
say
how
muc
h tim
e ea
chta
kes
to tr
avel
the
sam
e di
stan
ce.B
ut w
atch
esar
en’t
the
only
way
that
we
can
mea
sure
tim
e.W
e ca
n al
so u
se w
ater
:If w
e ca
n m
ake
it flo
w a
ta
stea
dy r
ate,
it a
llow
s us
to m
ake
com
paris
ons.
Cre
ate
a hy
poth
esis
abo
ut h
ow th
e flo
w o
f wat
erca
n be
con
trolle
d so
that
it c
an b
e us
ed to
mea
sure
tim
e.H
ow c
an y
ou te
st it
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
ahy
poth
esis
abo
ut h
oww
ater
mig
ht b
e us
edto
kee
p tr
ack
of t
ime
and
then
tes
t th
ehy
poth
esis
by
cons
truc
ting
the
devi
ce.
Ski
lls a
ndst
rate
gies
for
mea
surin
g tim
e
Sci
ence
3–5
Use
s si
mpl
e to
ols
and
equi
pmen
t (e
.g.,
ther
mom
eter
s, m
icro
scop
es,
calc
ulat
ors,
gra
duat
edcy
linde
rs)
to c
olle
ctsc
ient
ific
data
.
107
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng h
ow t
o us
e va
rious
sear
ch e
ngin
es.G
ener
ate
a hy
poth
esis
abo
utth
e m
ost
effic
ient
and
mos
t ac
cura
te r
esea
rch
engi
ne fo
r a
spec
ific
type
of
info
rmat
ion.
The
nte
st y
our
hypo
thes
is a
nd e
xpla
in y
our
findi
ngs.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to g
ener
ate
and
test
a h
ypot
hesi
s ab
out
the
use
of v
ario
usse
arch
eng
ines
.
Str
ateg
ies
for
usin
g a
varie
tyof
sea
rch
engi
nes
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8U
nder
stan
ds t
he u
ses
ofa
varie
ty o
f in
form
atio
nal
sear
ch e
ngin
es.
We’
ve b
een
stud
ying
var
ious
map
pro
ject
ions
.B
ased
on
wha
t yo
u’ve
lear
ned,
hyp
othe
size
abou
t w
hat
char
acte
ristic
of
a m
ap p
roje
ctio
nw
ould
pro
vide
you
the
gre
ates
t lik
elih
ood
of g
ettin
g th
e m
ost
accu
rate
dis
tanc
em
easu
rem
ent
betw
een
two
poin
ts a
t so
me
fixed
poi
nt o
n th
e ea
rth.
Wha
t pr
ojec
tion
wou
ldbe
leas
t lik
ely
to p
rovi
de a
ccur
ate
info
rmat
ion
for
the
sam
e lo
catio
ns?
Det
erm
ine
whe
ther
you
are
corr
ect
by c
ompa
ring
the
know
n di
stan
cebe
twee
n th
e tw
o po
ints
aga
inst
the
dis
tanc
eyo
u de
term
ine
thro
ugh
the
map
pro
ject
ions
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
ahy
poth
esis
abo
utw
hich
map
pro
ject
ion
will
pro
vide
mor
e an
dle
ss a
ccur
ate
data
abou
t th
e di
stan
cebe
twee
n tw
o pl
aces
and
test
tha
thy
poth
esis
thr
ough
mea
sure
men
t.
Str
ateg
ies
for
usin
g a
varie
tyof
map
s
Geo
grap
hy6–
8K
now
s di
stin
guis
hing
char
acte
ristic
s of
map
proj
ectio
ns,
incl
udin
gdi
stor
tion
on f
lat-
map
proj
ectio
ns,
and
iden
tifie
ssi
tuat
ions
in w
hich
eac
hm
ap m
ight
be
mor
e or
less
ben
efic
ial.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
The
Qw
erty
key
boar
d w
as d
esig
ned
to s
low
dow
n ty
pist
s be
caus
e ea
rly m
echa
nica
lty
pew
riter
s w
ere
not
wel
l-des
igne
d an
d w
ould
jam
eas
ily.C
ompu
ter
keyb
oard
s do
n’t
jam
,th
ough
, an
d A
ugus
t D
vora
k de
sign
ed a
keyb
oard
to
mak
e ty
ping
mor
e co
mfo
rtab
le a
nda
little
fast
er.C
ompa
re t
he t
wo
keyb
oard
desi
gns
and
gene
rate
a h
ypot
hesi
s th
at t
ests
the
usef
ulne
ss o
f hi
s de
sign
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
and
test
a h
ypot
hesi
sab
out
the
likel
yus
eful
ness
of
asp
ecifi
c ke
yboa
rdin
gin
vent
ion
in a
spe
cific
situ
atio
n.
Key
boar
ding
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8Ty
pes
with
som
eso
phis
ticat
ion,
dem
onst
ratin
gso
me
mem
oriz
atio
n of
key
loca
tion.
(Con
tinu
ed)
108
Fig
ure
6.4
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng a
num
ber
of s
tret
chin
gte
chni
ques
.Gen
erat
e an
d te
st a
hyp
othe
sis
abou
t th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of a
par
ticul
arte
chni
que
in a
par
ticul
ar s
ituat
ion.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
ahy
poth
esis
abo
ut t
heus
eful
ness
of
asp
ecifi
c st
retc
hing
tech
niqu
e.
Spe
cific
stre
tchi
ngte
chni
ques
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
6-8
Und
erst
ands
and
app
lies
stre
tchi
ng t
echn
ique
s in
appr
opria
te s
ituat
ions
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Kee
p a
log
of y
our
exer
cise
.Not
e th
e tim
e of
day,
how
long
bef
ore
and
afte
r a
mea
l, th
e ty
peof
mea
l, ho
w e
ffect
ive
the
exer
cise
see
med
to
be,
and
wha
teve
r ot
her
info
rmat
ion
you
thin
km
ight
be
help
ful.
At
the
end
of a
thr
ee-w
eek
perio
d, r
evie
w t
he d
ata
to g
ener
ate
ahy
poth
esis
abo
ut t
he b
est
cond
ition
s fo
rex
erci
se.I
mpl
emen
t an
exe
rcis
e pl
an b
ased
on
your
hyp
othe
ses.
Afte
r th
ree
wee
ks o
f yo
ur n
ewpl
an,
com
pare
you
r be
fore
and
afte
r lo
gs.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
and
test
a h
ypot
hesi
sre
gard
ing
the
cond
ition
s th
atar
e op
timal
for
pers
onal
exe
rcis
e.
Per
sona
lex
erci
sete
chni
ques
Hea
lth9–
12U
nder
stan
ds h
ow p
erso
nal
habi
ts r
elat
e to
gen
eral
heal
th a
nd h
ow t
hese
hab
itsca
n be
mod
ified
if n
eces
sary
to p
rom
ote
atta
inm
ent
ofhe
alth
goa
ls (
e.g.
, fo
llow
ing
a pe
rson
al n
utrit
ion
plan
to
redu
ce t
he r
isk
of h
igh
bloo
dpr
essu
re o
r ch
oles
tero
l lev
els
as w
ell a
s di
seas
e).
Sel
ect
mus
ic f
rom
tw
o di
ffere
nt g
enre
s or
styl
es.I
dent
ify w
hat
you
thin
k is
mos
t di
stin
ctiv
eab
out
each
sty
le s
o th
at y
ou c
an s
elec
t an
dpl
ay ju
st a
few
mea
sure
s th
at y
ou t
hink
cap
ture
the
diffe
renc
es.A
sk y
our
clas
smat
es t
o gu
ess
the
styl
e of
eac
h.H
ave
you
been
abl
e to
capt
ure
the
styl
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
gene
rate
ahy
poth
esis
abo
ut t
hech
arac
teris
tics
of a
mus
ical
sty
le a
ndch
eck
that
hyp
othe
sis
thro
ugh
a su
rvey
of
liste
ners
.
Per
form
ance
tech
niqu
esM
usic
3–5
Dem
onst
rate
s kn
owle
dge
ofm
usic
rep
rese
ntin
g di
vers
ege
nres
and
sty
les.
• What would happen if• How would you test that• How would you determine if• How can this be explained• Based on the experiment, what can be predicted
The most common formats for experimenting tasks are short and extendedwritten and oral constructed-response tasks.
Experimenting With Information
Details are sometimes used as the basis for hypothesis generation and testing.For example, the first experimenting task for details involves details about aspecific current event. Students must generate a hypothesis about how differentpeople might perceive this event and then gather data to test their hypothesis.Experimenting is particularly well suited to organizing ideas since these knowl-edge structures readily lend themselves to hypothesis generation. For example, thefirst experimenting task for organizing ideas involves generalizations about whypeople choose to live in certain places. Students must generate hypotheses andthen collect data to test these hypotheses.
Experimenting With Mental Procedures
Mental skills and processes can be used as the subject of experimenting tasks.For example, the first experimenting task for mental skills involves strategies forsolving a specific type of problem. Students must generate and test hypothesesabout the most efficient strategies for solving that particular problem type. Thefirst experimenting task for mental processes involves strategies for using a vari-ety of search engines. Students design an experiment to determine the most efficient search engine in a specific situation.
Experimenting With Psychomotor Procedures
Experimenting tasks for psychomotor skills and processes follow the samepattern as experimenting tasks for mental procedures. The first experimenting taskfor psychomotor skills involves generating and testing hypotheses for two key-boarding configurations. The first experimenting task for psychomotor processesinvolves generating and testing hypotheses regarding a personal exercise routine.
INVESTIGATING
Investigating involves examining a past, present, or future situation. Investigatingcan be likened to experimenting in that it involves hypothesis generation and testing.
Knowledge Utilization Objectives and Tasks 109
However, the data used in investigating are not gathered by direct observationas they are in experimenting. Rather, the data used to test hypotheses areassertions and opinions that have been made by others. In addition, the rules ofevidence for investigating tasks are different from those employed in experiment-ing inquiry. The rules of evidence for investigating are those governing the designof a logical argument. The rules of evidence for experimenting are those govern-ing the interpretation of direct observations. Investigating may be likened more toinvestigative reporting, whereas experimenting may be likened more to purescientific inquiry. Figure 6.5 lists investigating objectives and tasks across thedomains of knowledge.
The term investigate can be used in investigating tasks along with terms andphrases like the following:
• Research• Find out about• Take a position on• What are the differing features of• How did this happen• Why did this happen• What would have happened if
The most common format for investigating tasks is short or extended oral andwritten constructed-response tasks.
Investigating With Information
Knowledge of specific details and organizing ideas are commonly the impe-tus for an investigation. For example, the first investigating task for detailsinvolves facts about obtaining food during a specific period of time. To completethe task, students must examine what others have said about the issue. The firstinvestigating task for organizing ideas involves generalizations about people imi-tating characters in the media. Students are instructed to examine what others havesaid about this issue using information from the Internet along with other sources.
Investigating With Mental Procedures
Mental skills and processes are frequently the subject of investigating tasks.For example, the first investigating task for mental skills focuses on discoveringthe origins of base 10 computational algorithms. The first investigating taskinvolving mental processes addresses the process of using Internet databases.Students must examine early origins of such databases.
(Text continues on page 115)
110 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
111
Fig
ure
6.5
Inve
stig
atin
g O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
Sel
ect
thre
e ki
nds
of b
asic
food
s th
at y
ou e
atev
ery
day,
like
bre
ad,
milk
, an
d ve
geta
bles
.H
ow d
id a
fam
ily in
ear
ly A
mer
ica
obta
in t
hesa
me
kind
s of
food
? D
id t
his
chan
ge h
ow t
hey
spen
t th
eir
time?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
inve
stig
ate
how
acqu
iring
dai
ly fo
odpl
aced
gre
at d
eman
dson
fam
ilies
of
1800
s.
Det
ails
abo
utfa
mili
es o
f th
e18
00s
His
tory
3–4
Kno
ws
how
a fa
rm fa
mily
from
the
ear
ly 1
800s
expe
rienc
ed d
aily
life
(e.g
., w
ork,
clo
thin
g, t
ools
,fo
od,
and
food
pro
duct
ion)
.
We’
ve b
een
stud
ying
how
hum
an a
ctio
nsca
n im
pact
the
env
ironm
ent.
In 1
972,
2 m
illio
nol
d tir
es w
ere
drop
ped
a m
ile o
ff th
e co
ast
ofF
lorid
a, in
a m
ove
thou
ght
to b
enef
icia
l.N
owth
ere
is a
sig
nific
ant
effo
rt u
nder
way
to
rem
ove
all t
he t
ires
at c
onsi
dera
ble
expe
nse.
Det
erm
ine
why
the
pla
n w
as a
dopt
ed o
rigin
ally
, w
hyth
e tir
es m
ust
now
be
rem
oved
, an
d, w
ithth
e be
nefit
of
hind
sigh
t, w
hat
shou
ld h
ave
been
inve
stig
ated
bef
ore
the
initi
al d
ecis
ion
was
mad
e.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
inve
stig
ate
how
spe
cific
hum
ande
cisi
ons
can
sign
ifica
ntly
impa
ctth
e en
viro
nmen
t.
Det
ails
abo
ut a
spec
ific
hum
ande
cisi
on
Geo
grap
hy
9–12
Kno
ws
how
the
phy
sica
len
viro
nmen
t is
affe
cted
by c
hang
es in
hum
ante
chno
logy
or
beha
vior
(e.g
., ru
noff
and
sedi
men
tch
ange
s, s
oil a
nd a
ir qu
ality
degr
adat
ion,
hab
itat
dest
ruct
ion,
alte
ratio
nsin
the
hyd
rolo
gic
cycl
e,in
crea
ses
in w
orld
tem
pera
ture
s).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
We
know
tha
t pe
ople
lear
n ab
out
othe
rs in
man
y di
ffere
nt w
ays,
incl
udin
g ta
lkin
g w
ithot
hers
and
fro
m m
ass
med
ia,
like
tele
visi
onan
d ra
dio.
Is it
tru
e th
at p
eopl
e so
met
imes
imita
te p
eopl
e or
cha
ract
ers
they
see
inte
levi
sion
or
the
mov
ies?
Usi
ng t
he I
nter
net
and
othe
r so
urce
s, f
ind
out
wha
t ot
hers
hav
esa
id a
nd w
ritte
n ab
out
this
issu
e.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
inve
stig
ate
the
impa
ct t
hat
tele
visi
onch
arac
ters
can
hav
eon
indi
vidu
als.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t pe
ople
imita
ting
char
acte
rs in
the
med
ia
Beh
avio
ral
Stu
dies
3–5
Kno
ws
that
cha
ract
ers
seen
in t
he m
edia
are
som
etim
esim
itate
d.
(Con
tinu
ed)
112
Fig
ure
6.5
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
We
know
tha
t th
e so
urce
lang
uage
for
anE
nglis
h w
ord
or p
hras
e is
ofte
n as
soci
ated
with
som
e to
pics
but
not
oth
ers.
For
exa
mpl
e, in
med
icin
e w
e fin
d m
any
term
s or
phr
ases
tha
tha
ve t
heir
orig
in in
Lat
in o
r G
reek
.Wor
ds t
hat
nam
e fa
rm a
nim
als
tend
to
be f
rom
Old
Eng
lish
or A
nglo
-Sax
on—
cow
, de
er,
shee
p—bu
t th
ena
mes
for
the
mea
t fr
om t
hese
ani
mal
s of
ten
have
a F
renc
h or
igin
—be
ef,
veni
son,
mut
ton.
Exp
lore
fam
ilies
of
wor
ds t
o de
term
ine
if yo
uca
n fin
d an
y ot
her
rela
tions
hips
or
asso
ciat
ions
.C
ome
up w
ith e
vide
nce
for
your
wor
d fa
mily
and
sugg
est
a re
ason
tha
t th
e w
ords
sha
re a
com
mon
sou
rce
lang
uage
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
inve
stig
ate
wor
d or
igin
s to
iden
tify
prin
cipl
es o
rco
mm
onal
ities
in w
ord
fam
ilies
.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
wor
dor
igin
s
Lang
uage
Art
s6–
8
Und
erst
ands
the
mea
ning
of
unfa
mili
ar w
ords
by
usin
gw
ord
orig
ins
and
deriv
atio
ns(e
.g.,
Latin
and
Gre
ek r
oots
,m
eani
ngs
of fo
reig
n w
ords
used
in E
nglis
h, h
isto
rical
and
cont
empo
rary
influ
ence
son
wor
d m
eani
ngs)
.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng d
iffer
ent
base
s in
mat
hem
atic
s.O
f co
urse
, ba
se 1
0 is
the
one
we
use.
Usi
ng t
he I
nter
net
and
othe
r so
urce
s,de
scrib
e th
e ea
rly o
rigin
s of
bas
e10
mat
hem
atic
s.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
inve
stig
ate
the
orig
ins
of b
ase
10m
athe
mat
ics.
Com
puta
tiona
lal
gorit
hms
inth
e ba
se 1
0sy
stem
Mat
h6–
8K
now
s ho
w n
umbe
r sy
stem
sw
ith b
ases
oth
er t
han
10 a
rest
ruct
ured
(e.
g.,
base
60
for
telli
ng t
ime
and
mea
surin
gan
gles
, R
oman
num
eral
s fo
rda
tes
and
cloc
k fa
ces)
.
In t
he p
ast,
peop
le u
sed
diffe
rent
too
ls t
om
easu
re w
eigh
t.A
sk y
our
pare
nts
and
rela
tives
how
the
y m
easu
red
wei
ght
whe
n th
ey w
ere
youn
g an
d co
mpa
re w
hat
they
did
with
wha
tyo
u do
tod
ay.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to in
vest
igat
e ho
wsp
ecifi
c m
etho
ds o
fm
easu
ring
wei
ght h
ave
chan
ged
over
tim
e.
Spe
cific
mea
sure
men
tst
rate
gies
and
tool
s
Geo
grap
hy3–
5R
ecal
ls v
ario
us m
etho
ds a
ndto
ols
used
to
mea
sure
dist
ance
(e.
g.,
mile
s,ki
lom
eter
s, t
ime,
cos
t,pe
rcep
tion)
.
113
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
We
have
bee
n us
ing
a va
riety
of
type
s of
Inte
rnet
dat
abas
es.I
n fa
ct,
the
Inte
rnet
has
not
been
aro
und
that
long
.Wha
t w
ere
som
eof
the
ear
lier
vers
ions
of
Inte
rnet
dat
abas
es?
How
hav
e th
ey c
hang
ed?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
inve
stig
ate
the
early
orig
ins
ofIn
tern
et d
atab
ases
.
The
use
of I
nter
net
data
base
s
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8U
ses
mul
tiple
Int
erne
tda
taba
ses
in o
rder
to
expa
nd o
n is
sues
of in
tere
st.
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng v
ario
us u
ses
ofre
curr
ent
rela
tions
hips
to
mod
el r
eal-w
orld
prob
lem
s.U
sing
the
Int
erne
t an
d ot
her
sour
ces,
iden
tify
the
orig
ins
of t
his
idea
.W
ho f
irst
star
ted
usin
g th
e te
rm r
ecur
rent
rela
tions
hips
? W
hat
type
s of
rea
l-wor
ldpr
oble
ms
wer
e th
ey d
ealin
g w
ith?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
inve
stig
ate
the
orig
ins
of t
he c
once
ptof
rec
urre
nt r
elat
ions
.
The
pro
cess
of
mod
elin
g an
dso
lvin
g re
al-
wor
ld p
robl
ems
usin
g re
curr
ent
rela
tions
Mat
h9–
12U
ses
recu
rren
ce r
elat
ions
(i.e.
, fo
rmul
as e
xpre
ssin
g a
patte
rn in
whi
ch e
ach
term
isa
func
tion
of o
ne o
r m
ore
ofth
e pr
evio
us t
erm
s, a
s in
the
Fib
onac
ci s
eque
nce)
to
mod
el a
nd t
o so
lve
real
-wor
ldpr
oble
ms
(e.g
., ho
me
mor
tgag
es,
annu
ities
).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Com
pare
the
des
ign
of t
he s
trai
ght
and
narr
owsk
is o
f th
e 19
80s
with
the
par
abol
ic s
kis
ofto
day.
How
and
why
doe
s th
e de
sign
cha
nge
impa
ct t
he w
ay t
he s
kis
are
used
to
mak
e a
turn
? U
se a
ccou
nts
by e
xper
t sk
iers
to
answ
erth
is q
uest
ion.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
inve
stig
ate
how
and
why
cha
nges
insp
orts
equ
ipm
ent
can
impa
ct s
kill
requ
ired
in t
he s
port
.
Spe
cific
ski
ing
tech
niqu
esP
hysi
cal
Edu
catio
n9–
12
Use
s ad
vanc
ed s
port
-spe
cific
skill
s (e
.g.,
aqua
tics,
dan
ce,
indi
vidu
al a
nd t
eam
spo
rts)
.
(Con
tinu
ed)
114
Fig
ure
6.5
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Des
crib
e va
rious
tec
hniq
ues
peop
le u
se fo
rke
epin
g on
pitc
h.W
hich
one
see
ms
best
to
you?
Use
opi
nion
s ex
pres
sed
by p
rofe
ssio
nal
perf
orm
ers
to a
ddre
ss t
he is
sue.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to in
vest
igat
ete
chni
ques
for
keep
ing
on p
itch.
The
ski
ll of
keep
ing
onpi
tch
Mus
ic6–
8U
ses
brea
th c
ontr
ol,
expr
essi
on,
and
tech
nica
lac
cura
cy w
hen
sing
ing
(e.g
., us
es a
ppro
pria
tetim
bre,
into
natio
n, d
ictio
n,pi
tche
s, a
nd r
hyth
ms)
and
sing
s at
a le
vel t
hat
incl
udes
rang
e an
d ch
ange
s of
tem
po,
key,
and
met
er.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Iden
tify
a ru
le c
hang
e in
the
pas
t de
cade
of
prof
essi
onal
foot
ball
that
has
had
an
impa
ct in
the
way
tha
t ce
rtai
n pl
ays
are
exec
uted
or
whe
n th
ey a
re c
alle
d.W
hat
was
the
inte
ntio
nof
the
rul
e ch
ange
? H
as it
bee
n ef
fect
ive?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to in
vest
igat
e ho
wch
ange
s in
a s
port
’sru
les
can
have
an
impa
ct o
n pl
ay.
The
pro
cess
and
rule
sre
gard
ing
asp
ecifi
c sp
ort
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
9–12
Fol
low
s ap
prop
riate
rul
es fo
ra
sele
ct s
port
and
app
lies
offe
nsiv
e an
d de
fens
ive
stra
tegi
es.
Inve
stig
ate
the
proc
ess
for
mak
ing
an o
ilpa
intin
g du
ring
the
Ren
aiss
ance
and
how
artis
ts m
ake
them
tod
ay.W
hat
tech
niqu
es h
ave
rem
aine
d th
e sa
me
over
the
cen
turie
s, a
nd w
hydo
the
y co
ntin
ue t
o be
in u
se t
oday
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to in
vest
igat
e th
ech
arac
teris
tics
of a
rtm
edia
and
how
the
yha
ve c
hang
ed o
rre
mai
ned
the
sam
eov
er t
ime.
The
pro
cess
of
mak
ing
an o
ilpa
intin
g
Vis
ual A
rts
5–8
Und
erst
ands
how
com
mun
icat
ion
ofex
perie
nces
and
idea
s ca
nbe
affe
cted
by
diffe
rent
use
sof
art
med
ia,
tech
niqu
es,
and
proc
esse
s.
Investigating With Psychomotor Procedures
Psychomotor skills and processes can be the subject of investigating tasks.For example, the first investigating task for psychomotor skills asks students tocollect information about the impact of parabolic skis on the procedure of mak-ing turns. Students are asked to use opinions from expert skiers. The first exam-ple of an investigating task involving psychomotor processes addresses rules forplaying a specific sport. Students must examine how changes in these rules haveaffected the sport.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS FOR
KNOWLEDGE UTILIZATION OBJECTIVES AND TASKS
Decision-Making Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to select among alternatives• Use terms and phrases like the following: decide, select the best among the
following alternatives, which among the following would be best, what isthe best way, which of these is most suitable
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats• Use specific graphic organizers
Problem-Solving Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to overcome an obstacle to a goal• Use terms and phrases like the following: solve, how would you overcome,
adapt, develop a strategy to, figure out a way to, how will you reach yourgoal under these conditions
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Experimenting Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to generate and test hypotheses• Use terms and phrases like the following: generate and test, test the idea
that, what would happen if, how would you test it, how would you deter-mine if, how can this be explained, based on this explanation what canbe predicted
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Investigating Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to test hypotheses using what others have said or writtenas data as opposed to observational data they collect themselves
Knowledge Utilization Objectives and Tasks 115
• Use terms and phrases like the following: investigate, research, find outabout, take a position on, what are the defining features of, how did thishappen, why did this happen, what would have happened if
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats
116 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
117
CH A P T E R SE V E N
Metacognition Objectives and Tasks
The metacognitive processes oversee learning. There are four categoriesof metacognitive processes: (1) specifying goals, (2) process monitoring,
(3) monitoring clarity, and (4) monitoring accuracy.
SPECIFYING GOALS
The metacognitive process of specifying goals involves setting specific goals rela-tive to one’s understanding or skill at a specific type of knowledge and developinga plan for accomplishing the goals. Figure 7.1 lists specifying goals objectives andtasks for the various domains of knowledge.
The phrase set goals is frequently used in specifying goals, objectives, andtasks along with terms and phrases like the following:
• What would you like to accomplish• Identify something you want to
Specifying goals involves setting goals for specific types of knowledge andalso identifying how those goals might be accomplished. To demonstrate goal spec-ification, a student must not only articulate a goal relative to a specific knowledgecomponent but also articulate the specifics of a plan for accomplishing the goal.
The most common format for specifying goals tasks is short or extended writ-ten and oral constructed response. A graphic organizer like that in Figure 7.2 canbe used to aid students in the process of specifying goals.
Although very simple in nature, the graphic organizer in Figure 7.2requires students to identify a goal, outline a plan for accomplishing the goal,
118
Fig
ure
7.1
Spec
ifyi
ng G
oals
Obj
ectiv
es a
nd T
asks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
rel
ativ
e to
you
r un
ders
tand
ing
of t
he s
eque
nce
of e
vent
s le
adin
gto
the
Sec
ond
Wor
ld W
ar?
Wha
t w
ould
you
hav
e to
do
reac
hyo
ur g
oal?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
ago
al r
elat
ive
to u
nder
stan
ding
the
sequ
ence
of
even
ts in
Wor
ldW
ar I
I an
d id
entif
y ho
w it
can
be
acco
mpl
ishe
d.
Seq
uenc
e of
even
ts in
WW
II
U.S
.His
tory
7–8
Und
erst
ands
the
serie
s of
eve
nts
that
led
up to
Wor
ld W
ar II
(e.
g.,
the
lega
cy o
f Wor
ld W
ar I,
the
depr
essi
on in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes,
ethn
ic a
nd id
eolo
gica
l con
flict
s,im
peria
lism
, and
trad
ition
alpo
litic
al o
r ec
onom
ic r
ival
ries)
and
the
even
ts o
f the
war
itse
lf(e
.g.,
the
reas
ons
for
early
Axi
spo
wer
vic
torie
s be
twee
n 19
39an
d 19
42, h
ow H
itler
use
d th
ede
spai
r of
the
Ger
man
peo
ple
toris
e to
pow
er).
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
rel
ativ
e to
you
r un
ders
tand
ing
of t
he r
oles
and
res
pons
ibili
ties
of t
he d
iffer
ent
bran
ches
of
our
gove
rnm
ent?
Wha
t w
ould
you
hav
eto
do
to r
each
you
r go
al?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
ago
al r
elat
ive
to u
nder
stan
ding
the
thre
e br
anch
es o
fgo
vern
men
t an
d id
entif
y ho
wth
at g
oal c
an b
e ac
com
plis
hed.
Det
ails
rega
rdin
gth
e th
ree
bran
ches
of
gove
rnm
ent
Civ
ics
6–8
Und
erst
ands
the
mai
n po
wer
san
d fu
nctio
ns o
f ea
ch b
ranc
hof
gov
ernm
ent
in a
sys
tem
of
shar
ed p
ower
s (e
.g.,
legi
slat
ive,
exec
utiv
e, ju
dici
al)
and
the
wor
king
rel
atio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
the
bran
ches
.
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
rel
ativ
e to
you
r un
ders
tand
ing
of h
ow p
eopl
e ac
t di
ffere
ntly
in a
grou
p fr
om h
ow t
hey
act
whe
n th
eyar
e on
the
ir ow
n? W
hat
wou
ld y
ouha
ve t
o do
rea
ch y
our
goal
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
ago
al r
elat
ive
to u
nder
stan
ding
how
mem
bers
of
a gr
oup
beha
vean
d id
entif
y ho
w t
hat
goal
can
be a
ccom
plis
hed.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t ho
wm
embe
rs o
f a
grou
p be
have
Beh
avio
ral
Stu
dies
3–5
Und
erst
ands
tha
t in
divi
dual
sca
n be
influ
ence
d to
do
thin
gsth
ey w
ould
not
oth
erw
ise
do(g
ood
or b
ad)
whe
n th
ey a
rem
embe
rs o
f a
grou
p.
119
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Wha
t is
a go
al y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
rel
ativ
e to
you
r un
ders
tand
ing
of h
ow th
e pr
inci
ples
of e
nerg
ytr
ansf
er in
and
out
of t
heat
mos
pher
e he
lp e
xpla
in v
aria
tion
inw
eath
er a
nd c
limat
e? W
hat w
ould
you
have
to d
o re
ach
your
goa
l?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
ago
al r
elat
ive
to u
nder
stan
ding
the
tran
sfer
of
ener
gy in
and
out
of t
he a
tmos
pher
e an
d id
entif
yho
w t
hat
goal
can
be
acco
mpl
ishe
d.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
the
tran
sfer
of
ener
gy
Sci
ence
9–12
Und
erst
ands
how
wea
ther
and
clim
ate
are
affe
cted
by
heat
and
ener
gy t
rans
fer
in a
nd o
ut o
f th
eat
mos
pher
e (e
.g.,
radi
atio
n,co
nduc
tion,
con
vect
ion–
adve
ctio
n).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
rel
ativ
e to
you
r ab
ility
to
use
spec
ific
func
tions
in a
GP
S d
evic
e?H
ow m
ight
you
rea
ch t
his
goal
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
ago
al r
elat
ive
to t
he a
bilit
y to
use
spec
ific
func
tions
in a
GP
Sde
vice
and
iden
tify
how
tha
t go
alca
n be
rea
ched
.
Use
of
spec
ific
func
tions
in a
GP
S d
evic
e
Geo
grap
hy9–
12U
nder
stan
ds t
he e
lem
ents
and
uses
of
geog
raph
icte
chno
logi
es (
e.g.
, ge
ogra
phic
info
rmat
ion
syst
ems
[GIS
] an
dsa
telli
te-p
rodu
ced
imag
ery)
.
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
rel
ativ
e to
you
r ab
ility
to p
erfo
rm b
asic
men
tal
com
puta
tions
? H
ow m
ight
you
reac
h th
is g
oal?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
a go
al r
elat
ive
to t
he a
bilit
y to
perf
orm
men
tal c
alcu
latio
ns a
ndid
entif
y ho
w t
hat
goal
can
be
reac
hed.
Per
form
ing
men
tal
calc
ulat
ions
Mat
h3–
5P
erfo
rms
basi
c m
enta
l add
ition
and
subt
ract
ion
com
puta
tions
invo
lvin
g w
hole
num
bers
.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
abo
ut y
our
abili
ty t
o be
tter
unde
rsta
nd w
hat
you
are
read
ing?
How
mig
ht y
ou r
each
thi
s go
al?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
a go
al r
elat
ive
to t
he a
bilit
y to
com
preh
end
text
s an
d id
entif
yho
w t
hat
goal
can
be
reac
hed.
The
pro
cess
of
com
preh
endi
ngte
xt
Lang
uage
Art
sK
–2
Use
s or
gani
zatio
nal f
eatu
res
(e.g
., pi
ctur
e ca
ptio
ns, t
itle,
head
ings
, sto
ry s
truc
ture
, sto
ryto
pic)
to a
id u
nder
stan
ding
and
mak
e pr
edic
tions
abo
ut c
onte
nt(e
.g.,
actio
n, e
vent
s, r
esol
utio
ns).
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
rel
ativ
e to
you
r ab
ility
to
use
a va
riety
of
sent
ence
s to
com
mun
icat
e yo
ur t
houg
hts?
How
mig
ht y
ou r
each
thi
s go
al?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
ago
al r
elat
ive
to u
sing
a v
arie
ty o
fse
nten
ce t
ypes
in a
com
posi
tion
and
iden
tify
how
tha
t go
al c
anbe
rea
ched
.
The
pro
cess
of u
sing
ava
riety
of
sent
ence
sw
hen
writ
ing
Lang
uage
Art
s6–
8
Use
s al
l sen
tenc
e ty
pes
fluid
lyw
ith a
n ey
e fo
r el
abor
atin
gid
eas
(e.g
., si
mpl
e, c
ompo
und,
and
com
plex
sen
tenc
es;p
aral
lel
stru
ctur
e, s
uch
as s
imila
rgr
amm
atic
al fo
rms
orju
xtap
osed
item
s).
(Con
tinu
ed)
120
Fig
ure
7.1
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
rel
ativ
e to
you
r ab
ility
to
mas
ter
a se
rve
or p
ass
in a
favo
rite
spor
t? H
ow m
ight
you
rea
chth
is g
oal?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
a go
al r
elat
ive
to t
he a
bilit
y to
mas
ter
a se
rve
or p
ass
in a
spec
ific
spor
t an
d id
entif
y ho
wth
at g
oal c
an b
e re
ache
d.
The
ski
ll of
pass
ing
orse
rvin
g
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
mov
emen
tsas
soci
ated
with
hig
hly
skill
edat
hlet
es (
e.g.
, w
hat
mov
es m
ake
a su
cces
sful
ten
nis
serv
e).
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
abo
ut u
sing
a c
ompu
ter
keyb
oard
? H
ow m
ight
you
rea
chth
is g
oal?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
ago
al r
elat
ive
to u
sing
a c
ompu
ter
keyb
oard
and
iden
tify
how
tha
tgo
al c
an b
e re
ache
d.
Key
boar
ding
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8Ty
pes
with
pro
gres
sing
prof
icie
ncy,
sho
win
g so
me
key
mem
oriz
atio
n.
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
abo
ut u
sing
the
cor
rect
pron
unci
atio
n in
Spa
nish
? H
owm
ight
you
rea
ch t
his
goal
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
a go
al r
egar
ding
cor
rect
pron
unci
atio
n in
Spa
nish
and
iden
tify
how
tha
t go
al c
an b
ere
ache
d.
The
ski
ll of
usin
g co
rrec
tpr
onun
ciat
ion
For
eign
Lang
uage
K–4
Use
s la
ngua
ge m
echa
nics
,co
nven
tions
and
sty
le (
e.g.
,gr
amm
ar,
spel
ling,
voc
abul
ary,
dial
ect,
slan
g, id
iom
s, h
umor
,pr
onun
ciat
ion,
into
natio
n, t
one,
stre
ss,
stru
ctur
e) a
ppro
pria
te fo
rdi
ffere
nt a
udie
nces
(e.
g.,
peer
s,te
ache
rs)
and
setti
ngs
(e.g
.,fo
rmal
, in
form
al).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
abo
ut p
erfo
rmin
g an
inst
rum
enta
l pie
ce w
hile
oth
ers
sing
or p
lay
cont
rast
ing
part
s? H
owm
ight
you
rea
ch t
his
goal
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
ago
al r
egar
ding
an
inst
rum
enta
lpi
ece
as a
ccom
pani
men
t an
did
entif
y ho
w t
hat
goal
can
be
reac
hed.
The
pro
cess
of
perfo
rmin
g an
inst
rum
enta
lpi
ece
Mus
ic3–
5P
erfo
rms
inst
rum
enta
l par
ts w
ithot
hers
in a
n or
ches
tral
ike
setti
ng(e
.g.,
sim
ple
rhyt
hmic
or
mel
odic
ostin
atos
, co
ntra
stin
g rh
ythm
iclin
es,
harm
onic
pro
gres
sion
san
d ch
ords
).
Wha
t is
a g
oal y
ou h
ave
or m
ight
have
abo
ut a
chie
ving
a s
peci
ficef
fect
in p
aint
ing?
How
mig
ht y
oure
ach
this
goa
l?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
set
a go
al r
elat
ive
to a
chie
ving
asp
ecifi
c ef
fect
in p
aint
ing
and
iden
tify
how
tha
t go
al c
an b
ere
ache
d.
The
pro
cess
of a
chie
ving
asp
ecifi
c ef
fect
whe
n pa
intin
g
Vis
ual A
rts
5–8
Und
erst
ands
how
com
mun
icat
ion
of e
xper
ienc
es a
nd id
eas
can
beaf
fect
ed b
y di
ffere
nt u
ses
of a
rtm
edia
, tec
hniq
ues,
and
proc
esse
s.
Metacognition Objectives and Tasks 121
My plan: ____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Figure 7.2 Graphic Organizer for Specifying Goals
My goal:
Resources I will need:
and identify the resources necessary for executing the plan. Across all thedomains of knowledge, it is the student’s response to the question regarding the manner in which the goal will be accomplished that provides insight into the level at which the student is employing the metacognitive process of speci-fying goals. For example, a response in which the student notes, “I will have towork harder to accomplish this goal” does not truly address the metacognitiveprocess of goal setting. Rather, the student should identify a clear objective, arough time line, necessary resources and the like.
Specifying Goals With Information
Specifying goals tasks for details and organizing ideas involve setting goalsfor specific details and organizing ideas along with a plan for accomplishing those
goals. For example, the first specifying goals task for details addresses detailsabout World War II. Students must set a goal relative to increasing their knowl-edge regarding this information and establish a plan for doing so. The first speci-fying goals task for organizing ideas deal with setting goals regardinggeneralizations about how members of a group behave.
Specifying Goals With Mental Procedures
Specifying goals tasks for mental skills and processes involve setting goals forspecific mental skills and processes along with a plan for accomplishing those goals.For example, the first specifying goals task for mental skills involves use of specificfunctions on a GPS device. Students must set a goal relative to these skills and estab-lish a plan for accomplishing the goal. The first specifying goals task for mentalprocesses involves setting goals regarding the process of comprehending text.
Specifying Goals With Psychomotor Procedures
Specifying goals tasks for psychomotor skills and processes involve settinggoals for specific psychomotor skills and processes along with a plan for accom-plishing those goals. For example, the first specifying goals task for psychomotorskills involves the skill of passing or serving in a specific sport. Students must seta goal for improving their performance in these skills and then establish a plan foraccomplishing the goal. The first specifying goals task for psychomotor processesinvolves setting goals relative to performing an instrumental piece.
PROCESS MONITORING
Process monitoring commonly involves determining how effectively a plan foraccomplishing a goal is being accomplished and how effectively a procedure isbeing carried out in real time, particularly when a goal has been established for theprocedure. The goals addressed in process monitoring might be relatively long-termgoals established by the metacognitive process of specifying goals or they might berelatively short-term goals established for a specific situation. Figure 7.3 presentsprocess monitoring objectives and tasks across the various domains of knowledge.
The term monitor is commonly used in process monitoring tasks along withterms and phrases like the following:
• Evaluate• Determine how well• Determine how effectively
(Text continues on page 129)
122 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
123
Fig
ure
7.3
Proc
ess
Mon
itori
ng O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng a
spec
ts o
fec
onom
ics
rela
ted
to in
tend
ed a
ndun
inte
nded
con
sequ
ence
s.A
s w
e’ve
lear
ned,
the
ter
m e
xter
nalit
ies
desc
ribes
unin
tend
ed c
onse
quen
ces
that
mig
ht b
ebe
nefic
ial o
r ha
rmfu
l to
othe
rs.S
et a
goal
reg
ardi
ng y
our
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
this
ter
m.A
s yo
u un
dert
ake
this
, ob
serv
eho
w y
ou r
efin
e yo
ur u
nder
stan
ding
.W
hat
wor
ks b
est
for
you?
Def
initi
ons,
exam
ples
, or
act
ual c
ases
? If
in t
hepr
oces
s yo
u fin
d yo
urse
lf co
nfus
ed,
wha
t do
you
thi
nk m
ight
hav
e go
new
rong
in y
our
appr
oach
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to m
onito
r ho
w w
ell h
e or
she
is r
efin
ing
his
or h
erun
ders
tand
ing
rela
tive
toth
e te
rm e
xter
nalit
ies
base
don
a p
erso
nal g
oal h
e or
she
has
set.
A s
peci
ficec
onom
ics
term
Eco
nom
ics
9–12
Kno
ws
that
ext
erna
litie
sca
nbe
def
ined
as
unin
tent
iona
lef
fect
s (g
ood
or b
ad)
that
resu
lt w
hen
prod
uctio
n or
cons
umpt
ion
of a
par
ticul
argo
od o
r se
rvic
e af
fect
s pe
ople
who
are
not
dire
ctly
invo
lved
in th
e m
arke
t exc
hang
e(e
.g.,
a ne
gativ
e ex
tern
ality
occu
rs in
pro
duct
ion
whe
nla
rge
com
pani
es e
xplo
itw
orke
rs in
poo
r co
untr
ies
tom
ake
chea
per
prod
ucts
;apo
sitiv
e ex
tern
ality
inpr
oduc
tion
occu
rs w
hen
drug
sm
ade
to tr
eat o
ne m
edic
alco
nditi
on a
re fo
und
to h
elp
trea
t ano
ther
as
wel
l).
The
re a
re m
any
type
s of
terr
ain—
mar
sh,
alpi
ne, a
nd tu
ndra
, jus
t to
nam
e a
few
.S
ee if
you
can
dev
elop
a p
erso
nal
syst
em, a
sch
ema,
or
cate
gorie
s th
atw
ill h
elp
you
bette
r un
ders
tand
the
diffe
renc
es a
mon
g th
ese
term
s an
d w
hyth
ey p
rovi
de u
sefu
l dis
tinct
ions
.As
you
gain
a b
ette
r un
ders
tand
ing,
wat
ch w
hat
it is
you
do
that
see
ms
to b
e m
ost h
elpf
ulan
d w
hat d
oesn
’t se
em to
wor
k.C
an y
ousa
y w
hat w
orks
, wha
t doe
sn’t,
and
why
?
Bas
ed o
n a
pers
onal
ly s
etgo
al,
the
stud
ent
will
be
able
to m
onito
r ho
w w
ell h
e or
she
is r
efin
ing
his
or h
erun
ders
tand
ing
abou
t th
edi
ffere
nces
am
ong
term
sus
ed t
o de
scrib
e te
rrai
n.
Spe
cific
geog
raph
yte
rms
Geo
grap
hy9–
12U
nder
stan
ds t
he a
dvan
tage
san
d di
sadv
anta
ges
of u
sing
plac
es fo
r di
ffere
nt a
ctiv
ities
base
d on
the
ir ph
ysic
alch
arac
teris
tics
(e.g
., flo
odzo
ne,
fore
st,
tund
ra,
eart
hqua
ke z
one,
riv
ercr
ossi
ng).
(Con
tinu
ed)
124
Fig
ure
7.3
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
It’s
a tr
uism
tha
t tr
ansp
orta
tion
and
com
mun
icat
ion
can
have
a s
igni
fican
tim
pact
on
how
peo
ple
live
and
rela
te t
oon
e an
othe
r.S
et a
goa
l reg
ardi
ng y
our
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
thi
s ge
nera
lizat
ion.
As
you
deve
lop
the
exam
ples
, id
entif
y w
hat
help
s yo
u un
ders
tand
the
se id
eas
bette
r.W
hen
you
find
exam
ples
tha
t do
n’t
help
your
und
erst
andi
ng,
see
if yo
u ca
nde
scrib
e w
hat
it is
abo
ut t
he e
xam
ples
that
don
’t se
rve
the
purp
ose.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
how
wel
l he
or s
heis
mee
ting
a pe
rson
algo
al r
egar
ding
lear
ning
gene
raliz
atio
ns a
bout
tran
spor
tatio
n an
dco
mm
unic
atio
n.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
ttr
ansp
orta
tion
and
com
mun
icat
ion
Geo
grap
hy3–
5K
now
s ho
w u
pdat
es in
tran
spor
tatio
n an
dco
mm
unic
atio
n te
chno
logy
have
affe
cted
rel
atio
nshi
psbe
twee
n pe
ople
or
com
mun
ities
in d
iffer
ent
loca
tions
.
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
We’
ve b
een
disc
ussi
ng s
ome
of t
hesc
ienc
e as
soci
ated
with
glo
bal w
arm
ing.
We
lear
ned
of t
he p
rinci
ple
that
war
m a
irho
lds
mor
e m
oist
ure
than
coo
l air.
Set
ago
al a
bout
lear
ning
mor
e ab
out
this
idea
in t
erm
s of
its
impl
icat
ions
for
glob
alw
arm
ing
and
clim
ate.
In o
ther
wor
ds,
wha
t im
pact
doe
s th
is p
rinci
ple
sugg
est
if te
mpe
ratu
re is
ris
ing
acro
ss t
he g
lobe
?A
s yo
u se
ek t
o le
arn
abou
t th
is,
keep
aw
are
abou
t w
hat
help
s yo
uun
ders
tand
—w
hat
way
s yo
u fin
d he
lpyo
u m
ake
the
conn
ectio
ns—
and
also
any
appr
oach
es y
ou u
se t
hat
do n
othe
lp y
ou u
nder
stan
d th
e pr
oble
m.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
a go
al h
e or
she
has
set
rega
rdin
g un
ders
tand
ing
the
prin
cipl
e th
at w
arm
air
hold
s m
ore
moi
stur
e th
anco
ol a
ir an
d its
impl
icat
ions
for
clim
ate.
A p
rinci
ple
rega
rdin
gth
e am
ount
of m
oist
ure
air
hold
sat
diff
eren
tte
mpe
ratu
res
Sci
ence
6–8
Und
erst
ands
the
ele
men
tsof
the
wat
er c
ycle
(e.g
., ev
apor
atio
n,co
nden
satio
n, p
reci
pita
tion,
runo
ff, p
erco
latio
n) a
nd t
heir
effe
cts
on t
he c
limat
e an
dw
eath
er p
atte
rns.
125
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
The
yea
rs 1
864
and
1865
wer
e so
me
of th
e m
ost e
vent
ful i
n th
e C
ivil
War
.C
onst
ruct
a ti
me
line
that
org
aniz
esth
ese
even
ts a
nd s
et s
tand
ards
reg
ardi
ngth
e in
form
atio
n yo
u tim
e lin
e w
ill c
onta
in.
How
doe
s th
is p
roce
ss o
f org
aniz
ing
help
you
bette
r un
ders
tand
the
impa
ct th
ese
even
ts h
ad o
n th
e pe
ople
of t
hat t
ime?
Con
side
r w
heth
er th
is ti
me
line
has
som
edi
sadv
anta
ges.
For
exam
ple,
mig
ht it
giv
eth
e m
isim
pres
sion
that
eac
h ev
ent
caus
ed th
e ev
ent t
hat f
ollo
wed
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
how
wel
l his
or
her
time
line
for
the
Civ
il W
arha
s m
et t
he s
tand
ard
heor
she
has
est
ablis
hed.
Use
of
atim
e lin
eU
.S.H
isto
ry7–
8K
now
s th
e ev
ents
tha
tsh
aped
the
Civ
il W
ar a
nd it
sou
tcom
e (e
.g.,
diffe
renc
esbe
twee
n th
e ec
onom
ic,
tech
nolo
gica
l, an
d hu
man
reso
urce
s of
the
Uni
on a
ndC
onfe
dera
te s
ides
;the
impa
ct o
f th
e E
man
cipa
tion
Pro
clam
atio
n).
Tran
slat
ing
stor
y pr
oble
ms
into
sym
bolic
form
s is
an
impo
rtan
t st
ep t
o fin
ding
aso
lutio
n.R
evie
w t
he s
ever
al s
tory
prob
lem
s pr
ovid
ed,
focu
sing
less
on
the
answ
er t
han
the
way
tha
t yo
u th
ink
abou
t th
e st
ory
in o
rder
to
iden
tify
the
varia
bles
and
how
the
y ar
e re
late
d.S
et a
goa
l for
you
r un
ders
tand
ing
ofth
is p
roce
ss.I
s th
ere
an a
ppro
ach
that
seem
s to
wor
k be
tter
than
ano
ther
?C
heck
you
r fo
rmul
as a
gain
st t
he o
nes
prov
ided
.Wha
t w
orke
d an
d w
hat
didn
’t?D
o yo
u kn
ow w
hy?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
how
wel
l he
or s
heha
s m
et a
per
sona
l goa
lre
gard
ing
his
or h
erun
ders
tand
ing
of t
he s
kill
ofre
pres
entin
g st
ory
prob
lem
ssy
mbo
lical
ly.
Rep
rese
ntin
gst
ory
prob
lem
ssy
mbo
lical
ly
Mat
h3–
5Tr
ansl
ates
pro
blem
situ
atio
nsin
to a
var
iety
of
form
s(e
.g.,
a gr
aph
to a
sym
bolic
exp
ress
ion)
.
(Con
tinu
ed)
126
Fig
ure
7.3
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
You’
ve b
een
prov
ided
with
a s
heet
divi
ded
in th
ree
colu
mns
.The
left-
mos
tco
lum
n ha
s fiv
e ro
ws,
eac
h w
ith th
esa
me
fore
ign
lang
uage
pas
sage
.Sta
rtin
gw
ith th
e fir
st b
lank
col
umn
on th
e to
p ro
w,
prov
ide
a ro
ugh
tran
slat
ion.
Und
erlin
eth
ose
wor
ds in
the
pass
age
of th
e fir
stco
lum
n th
at h
elpe
d yo
u co
me
to th
istr
ansl
atio
n.In
the
third
, far
rig
ht c
olum
n,m
ake
any
note
s ab
out w
hat w
ords
or
phra
ses
are
still
unc
lear
.For
eac
h ro
w,
and
for
as m
any
row
s as
nec
essa
ry,
refin
e yo
ur tr
ansl
atio
n in
the
seco
ndco
lum
n, u
nder
linin
g th
e ne
w p
arts
of t
hepa
ssag
e th
at y
ou h
ave
addr
esse
d, a
ndm
akin
g no
tes
in th
e th
ird c
olum
n ab
out
your
pro
gres
s.Fo
r ex
ampl
e, in
the
first
row
, you
mig
ht m
ake
a no
te a
bout
how
you
used
the
voca
bula
ry w
ords
you
kno
wto
dra
ft yo
ur fi
rst t
rans
latio
n.B
y th
ela
st r
ow, y
ou m
ight
be
talk
ing
abou
tco
nnec
ting
wor
ds o
r un
ders
tand
ing
how
phra
ses
are
linke
d to
geth
er.B
efor
e yo
uac
tual
ly b
egin
the
proc
ess,
set
ape
rson
al g
oal f
or y
ours
elf a
nd th
en s
eeho
w w
ell y
ou m
et y
our
goal
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
his
or h
er p
rogr
ess
in m
eetin
g a
pers
onal
goa
lre
gard
ing
tran
slat
ing
afo
reig
n la
ngua
ge p
assa
ge.
The
pro
cess
of t
rans
latin
ga
fore
ign
lang
uage
pass
age
For
eign
Lang
uage
5–8
Und
erst
ands
the
con
tent
of v
ario
us a
ppro
pria
teso
urce
s on
fam
iliar
top
ics
(e.g
., pe
rson
al le
tters
,br
ochu
res,
illu
stra
ted
new
spap
er a
nd m
agaz
ine
artic
les,
adv
ertis
emen
ts).
127
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Sel
ect
one
of t
he b
ooks
we
have
in o
urcl
ass
libra
ry a
nd u
se a
ll th
e m
eani
ngcl
ues
we
have
bee
n le
arni
ng—
the
title
,th
e to
pic,
the
pic
ture
s an
d pi
ctur
eca
ptio
ns—
to h
elp
you
unde
rsta
nd t
hest
ory.
Afte
r yo
u re
ad t
he s
tory
, w
e w
illdi
scus
s ho
w a
ll th
ese
clue
s he
lped
you
unde
rsta
nd t
he s
tory
bet
ter,
or if
the
ydi
dn’t,
why
the
y di
dn’t.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
how
wel
l he
or s
he is
usin
g m
eani
ng c
lues
to
unde
rsta
nd a
sto
ry.
The
pro
cess
of
usin
g m
eani
ngcl
ues
toun
ders
tand
a st
ory
Lang
uage
Art
sK
–2
Use
s te
xtua
l clu
es(e
.g.,
capt
ions
, tit
le,
head
ings
, st
ory
stru
ctur
e)to
aid
com
preh
ensi
on a
ndm
ake
pred
ictio
ns a
bout
cont
ent
(e.g
., ac
tion,
even
ts,
reso
lutio
n).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Impr
ovis
e a
harm
oniz
ing
part
tha
t is
styl
istic
ally
app
ropr
iate
for
a sp
ecifi
cso
ng.S
et a
goa
l for
you
r pe
rfor
man
cebe
fore
you
beg
in.R
ecor
d yo
urim
prov
isat
ion
and
liste
n to
it,
notin
g th
ese
ctio
ns t
hat
wer
e su
cces
sful
and
tho
seth
at w
ere
less
suc
cess
ful.
How
wel
l did
you
mee
t yo
ur g
oal?
Can
you
det
erm
ine
wha
t te
chni
ques
wer
e m
ost
usef
ul?
Try
the
task
aga
in t
o se
e if
your
impr
ovis
atio
n is
bet
ter
or m
ore
appr
opria
te fo
r th
e m
usic
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
how
wel
l he
or s
heis
lear
ning
to
impr
ovis
eha
rmon
y th
at is
app
ropr
iate
for
a sp
ecifi
c st
yle
of m
usic
.
Har
mon
izin
gw
ithin
a s
peci
ficty
pe o
f m
usic
Mus
ic9–
12H
arm
oniz
es in
appr
opria
te s
tyle
. (Con
tinu
ed)
128
Fig
ure
7.3
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
On
your
nex
t sk
i run
, se
lect
one
asp
ect
of y
our
skiin
g as
a fo
cus,
suc
h as
you
ror
ient
atio
n to
the
fall
line,
the
sha
pe o
fea
ch c
arve
, or
you
r st
ance
com
ing
into
and
out
of a
tur
n.S
et a
spe
cific
goa
l for
your
self.
Wha
t do
you
obs
erve
abo
ut t
hesk
ill t
hat
you
do w
ell,
and
wha
t m
ight
you
need
to
wor
k m
ore
on?
How
did
your
atte
ntio
n to
the
tas
k he
lp o
r di
stra
ctfr
om y
our
exec
utio
n of
the
ski
ll?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to m
onito
r ho
w w
ell h
e or
she
mee
ts a
per
sona
l goa
lfo
r ex
ecut
ing
a sp
ecifi
csk
iing
skill
.
A s
port
-spe
cific
skill
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
9–12
Use
s ap
prop
riate
ski
lls in
sele
cted
spo
rts
or a
ctiv
ities
(e.g
., sw
imm
ing,
bal
let,
hiki
ng,
tenn
is,
base
ball)
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
As
you
star
t th
e ne
xt a
rt p
roje
ct,
keep
ajo
urna
l tha
t id
entif
ies
your
initi
al p
lans
for
prod
ucin
g th
e ar
t pi
ece,
wha
t te
chni
ques
or p
roce
sses
you
use
d an
d w
hy,
and
whe
ther
you
had
to
mak
e ch
ange
s in
your
app
roac
h to
mee
t yo
ur g
oal.
Des
crib
e w
hat
you
lear
ned
from
thi
spr
oces
s th
at m
ight
hel
p yo
u ne
xt t
ime
you
begi
n a
proj
ect.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
how
wel
l he
or s
hem
eets
a g
oal r
elat
ive
toex
ecut
ing
the
proc
esse
sne
cess
ary
to p
rodu
ce a
nar
t pi
ece.
The
pro
cess
of p
rodu
cing
a pi
ece
of a
rt
Vis
ual A
rts
5–8
Kno
ws
how
the
exp
ress
ion
ofex
perie
nces
and
idea
s ca
nbe
sha
ped
usin
g th
e qu
aliti
esan
d ch
arac
teris
tics
ofdi
ffere
nt a
rt m
edia
.
Cho
ose
thre
e di
ffere
nt d
ance
ele
men
tsw
e ha
ve le
arne
d an
d co
mbi
ne t
hem
into
a sm
ooth
seq
uenc
e th
at s
uits
the
mus
icpr
ovid
ed.B
efor
e yo
u be
gin,
set
ape
rson
al g
oal f
or w
hat
you
wan
t to
acco
mpl
ish.
Try
diffe
rent
seq
uenc
es t
ofin
d w
hich
see
m t
o w
ork
best
.Des
crib
ew
hy y
ou m
ade
your
fin
al c
hoic
es.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
mon
itor
how
wel
l he
or s
here
ache
s a
pers
onal
goa
lre
lativ
e to
com
bini
ng d
ance
sequ
ence
s th
at a
re s
moo
than
d su
it th
e m
usic
pro
vide
d.
The
pro
cess
of
com
bini
ngda
nce
sequ
ence
s
Dan
ce5–
8U
nder
stan
ds m
ovem
ent
elem
ents
obs
erve
d in
dan
cean
d un
ders
tand
s ap
prop
riate
danc
e vo
cabu
lary
(e.
g.,
leve
l,di
rect
ion)
.
Process monitoring tasks are frequently extended in their duration, particu-larly if the focus is a long-term goal. In such cases, they require students to keeptrack of learning over time and report on how well they have met their long-termgoals. The most common response format for process monitoring tasks is short orextended written or oral constructed response.
Process Monitoring With Information
Process monitoring tasks for information involve monitoring the extent towhich goals are being met in terms of understanding specific details and organiz-ing ideas. For example, the first process monitoring task for details in Figure 7.3addresses a specific economics term. To complete the task, students must monitortheir progress in meeting a specific goal they have set for learning that term. Thefirst process monitoring task for organizing ideas addresses generalizations abouttransportation and communication. Again students set personal goals regardingtheir understanding and then monitor their progress toward those goals.
Process Monitoring With Mental Procedures
To elicit process monitoring for mental and psychomotor procedures, tasksmust be designed in such a way that students can monitor how well they are meet-ing goals relative to the execution of these procedures. For example, the firstprocess monitoring task for mental skills involves using a time line. Students mustarticulate standards for their time lines and the extent to which the finished productmeets their standards. The first process monitoring task for mental processesinvolves the process of translating a foreign language passage. Students set explicitgoals for translating the passage and then determine how well their goals were met.
Process Monitoring With Psychomotor Procedures
Process monitoring for psychomotor procedures follows the same pattern asprocess monitoring with mental procedures. The first process monitoring task forpsychomotor skills involves harmonizing within a specific type of music. Studentsmust record their attempts at harmonizing so that they might analyze how wellthey have met their goals. The first process monitoring task for psychomotorprocesses involves producing a piece of art. Goals are set, and progress towardsthose goals is monitored.
MONITORING CLARITY
As its name implies, monitoring clarity involves determining the extent to whichan individual is clear about specific aspects of knowledge. Clarity is defined here
Metacognition Objectives and Tasks 129
as being free from indistinction or ambiguity. Stated in more positive terms, onewho is clear about knowledge can recognize the distinctions important to thatknowledge and ascribe precise meaning to each important distinction.
Figure 7.4 presents monitoring clarity objectives and tasks across the variousdomains of knowledge.
Commonly terms and phrases like the following are employed in monitoringclarity objectives and tasks:
• What are you clear about• What are you unclear about• How could you better understand
The most common format for monitoring clarity tasks is short or extendedwritten and oral constructed-response formats.
Across all domains of knowledge, the more precise students can be about theirareas of lack of clarity, the more they are exercising the metacognitive process ofmonitoring clarity. For example, one level of monitoring for clarity regarding themental process of using WordPerfect® would be demonstrated by the followingstudent response:
“I get confused when I try to center things.”
However, a much deeper level of metacognitive awareness would be exhibitedby the following response:
“I don’t understand how you can go back and center a line in the middle ofa document without losing all the margins that you have already set up.”
Below we consider monitoring clarity tasks across the domains of knowledge.
Monitoring Clarity With Information
Monitoring clarity tasks for the domain of information involve identifyinghow clear a student is about specific details and organizing ideas. For example,the first monitoring clarity task for details involves details about the humanskeletal structure. Students must determine their level of clarity about the specificrole it plays in growth and survival. The first monitoring clarity task for organiz-ing ideas addresses clarity regarding generalizations about specific substances.
(Text continues on page 135)
130 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
131
Fig
ure
7.4
Mon
itori
ng C
lari
ty O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
Thi
nk a
bout
the
ske
leta
l str
uctu
reof
the
hum
an b
ody.
Are
you
cle
arab
out
the
spec
ific
role
it p
lays
ingr
owth
and
sur
viva
l? W
hat
is n
otcl
ear
to y
ou?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
deta
ils a
bout
the
skel
etal
str
uctu
re a
bout
whi
ch h
e or
she
has
diffi
culty
mak
ing
dist
inct
ions
.
Det
ails
abo
utth
e hu
man
skel
etal
stru
ctur
e
Sci
ence
3–5
Und
erst
ands
tha
t th
e gr
owth
,su
rviv
al,
and
repr
oduc
tion
of li
ving
orga
nism
s de
pend
upo
n di
stin
ctbo
dy s
truc
ture
s an
d bo
dy s
yste
ms
(e.g
., on
e bo
dy s
truc
ture
isco
nduc
ive
to s
wim
min
g w
hile
anot
her
is c
ondu
cive
to
flyin
g).
We
have
stu
died
the
Age
of
Dis
cove
ry a
nd n
oted
tha
t th
at p
erio
dis
sig
nific
ant
for
the
exch
ange
of
flora
, fa
una,
and
pat
hoge
ns.W
hat
aspe
cts
abou
t th
is e
xcha
nge
are
uncl
ear
to y
ou?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y de
tails
abo
utth
e A
ge o
f D
isco
very
abou
t w
hich
he
or s
heha
s di
fficu
lty m
akin
gdi
stin
ctio
ns.
Det
ails
abo
utth
e A
ge o
fD
isco
very
Wor
ld H
isto
ry7–
8K
now
s th
e ef
fect
s of
the
inte
ract
ions
of fl
ora,
faun
a, a
nd p
atho
gens
on
both
loca
l and
glo
bal p
opul
atio
ns(e
.g.,
how
the
dise
ase
mic
roor
gani
sms
the
Pilg
rims
brou
ght d
evas
tate
din
dige
nous
pop
ulat
ions
;pop
ulat
ion
trend
s an
d gr
owth
in th
e A
mer
icas
,E
urop
e, a
nd E
ast A
sia
in th
e si
xtee
nth
and
seve
ntee
nth
cent
urie
s, o
rigin
san
d ro
utes
of f
lora
and
faun
aex
chan
ged
acro
ss th
e w
orld
).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
Do
you
know
whi
ch s
ubst
ance
s ar
ehe
lpfu
l and
whi
ch a
re h
arm
ful?
Som
e su
bsta
nces
, lik
e pr
escr
iptio
ndr
ugs,
can
be
help
ful f
or s
ome
peop
le b
ut h
arm
ful f
or o
ther
s.W
hich
subs
tanc
es a
re y
ou c
onfu
sed
abou
t?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
thos
e as
pect
s of
harm
ful a
nd h
elpf
ulsu
bsta
nces
abo
ut w
hich
he o
r sh
e is
unc
lear
.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t sp
ecifi
csu
bsta
nces
Hea
lthK
–2U
nder
stan
ds h
ow t
o te
ll th
edi
ffere
nce
betw
een
help
ful
and
harm
ful s
ubst
ance
s.
(Con
tinu
ed)
132
Fig
ure
7.4
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
Tens
ions
bet
wee
n in
divi
dual
free
dom
s an
d rig
hts
and
natio
nal
secu
rity
are
not
acad
emic
.In
the
cour
se o
f U
.S.h
isto
ry t
o th
e pr
esen
tda
y, t
here
are
diff
erin
g vi
ews
as t
ow
hen
or e
ven
whe
ther
it is
acce
ptab
le t
o gi
ve u
p ce
rtai
n rig
hts
for
secu
rity.
Are
you
cle
ar a
bout
whe
re t
he li
ne is
for
you?
Exp
lain
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
ose
aspe
cts
of t
he t
ensi
on b
etw
een
indi
vidu
al f
reed
om a
ndna
tiona
l sec
urity
abo
utw
hich
he
or s
he is
unce
rtai
n.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
indi
vidu
alfr
eedo
ms
and
secu
rity
Civ
ics
9–12
Kno
ws
how
U.S
.con
stitu
tiona
lva
lues
and
prin
cipl
es a
ffect
U.S
.fo
reig
n po
licy
(e.g
., a
com
mitm
ent
to t
he s
elf-
dete
rmin
atio
n of
nat
ions
)an
d un
ders
tand
s th
e st
rain
s th
at a
recr
eate
d am
ong
U.S
.val
ues
and
inte
rest
s as
we
face
the
nec
essi
tyof
inte
rnat
iona
l pol
itics
(e.
g.,
aco
mm
itmen
t to
hum
an r
ight
s an
d th
ere
quire
men
ts o
f na
tiona
l sec
urity
).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Con
side
r th
e di
ffere
nt w
ays
that
dat
aca
n be
rep
rese
nted
.How
can
chan
ges
of s
cale
for
diffe
rent
repr
esen
tatio
ns a
ffect
the
imm
edia
tem
essa
ge c
omm
unic
ated
? Is
itcl
ear
how
the
sam
e da
ta c
an b
ein
terp
rete
d di
ffere
ntly
bec
ause
of
the
man
ner
of p
rese
ntat
ion?
Exp
lain
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y ar
eas
ofun
cert
aint
y ab
out
how
the
use
of s
cale
can
affe
ctda
ta p
rese
ntat
ion.
Spe
cific
ski
llsin
volv
ed in
sele
ctin
g an
dus
ing
a sc
ale
topr
esen
t da
ta
Mat
h6–
8U
nder
stan
ds t
hat
tabl
es,
grap
hs,
and
sym
bols
can
all
be u
sed
to r
epre
sent
the
sam
e se
t of
dat
a an
d th
at t
hese
diffe
rent
met
hods
ofte
n co
nvey
diffe
rent
mes
sage
s (e
.g.,
varia
tion
insc
ale
can
alte
r a
visu
al m
essa
ge).
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng h
ow to
thin
kab
out t
he b
egin
ning
and
end
ing
ofw
ords
—pr
efix
es a
nd s
uffix
es—
tohe
lp fi
gure
out
wha
t the
wor
ds m
ean.
Are
you
cle
ar w
hy th
is is
use
ful a
ndw
hy s
omet
imes
it is
not
use
ful?
Go
thro
ugh
the
prov
ided
wor
d lis
t and
see
if yo
u ar
e cl
ear
abou
t whe
n it
wor
ks, w
hen
it do
esn’
t, an
d w
hy.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
whe
n he
or
she
isun
clea
r w
heth
er a
pre
fixor
suf
fix c
an b
e he
lpfu
l in
deco
ding
a w
ord
mea
ning
.
A s
peci
ficde
codi
ng s
kill
Lang
uage
Art
sK
–2D
ecod
es w
ords
by
usin
g ba
sic
stru
ctur
al a
naly
sis
(e.g
., sy
llabl
es,
pref
ixes
, su
ffixe
s, b
asic
roo
ts a
ndro
ot w
ords
, sp
ellin
g pa
ttern
s).
133
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
How
is t
he c
arto
gram
diff
eren
t fr
omot
her
them
atic
map
s? W
hy w
ould
you
choo
se it
ove
r ot
her
type
s of
map
to
repr
esen
t da
ta?
Wha
tch
arac
teris
tics
of a
car
togr
am d
oyo
u ne
ed t
o be
com
e cl
eare
r ab
out?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
unce
rtai
nty
heor
she
has
reg
ardi
ng t
hebe
st u
se o
f a
cart
ogra
mto
rep
rese
nt d
ata.
The
var
ious
proc
esse
sfo
r m
odel
ing
them
atic
map
s
Geo
grap
hy6–
8U
ses
them
atic
map
s (e
.g.,
patte
rns
of p
opul
atio
n an
d di
seas
e,ve
geta
tion,
eco
nom
ic fe
atur
es)
and
unde
rsta
nds
the
elem
ents
and
uses
of
cart
ogra
ms.
We
use
perm
utat
ion
and
com
bina
tion
to s
olve
cou
ntin
gpr
oble
ms.
Are
you
cle
ar a
bout
whi
chsh
ould
be
used
whe
n? W
hat
don’
tyo
u un
ders
tand
abo
ut h
ow t
hey
can
be u
sed
to s
olve
pro
blem
s?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
unce
rtai
nty
heor
she
has
reg
ardi
ng t
heus
e of
per
mut
atio
ns a
sop
pose
d to
com
bina
tions
to s
olve
cou
ntin
gpr
oble
ms.
The
pro
cess
of u
sing
perm
utat
ions
and
com
bina
tions
to
solv
e co
untin
gpr
oble
ms
Mat
h9–
12U
nder
stan
ds c
ount
ing
proc
edur
esan
d re
ason
ing
(e.g
., ho
w t
o fin
d th
enu
mbe
r of
way
s to
arr
ange
obj
ects
in a
set
, us
e of
per
mut
atio
ns a
ndco
mbi
natio
ns t
o so
lve
coun
ting
prob
lem
s).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
For
a s
port
tha
t yo
u en
joy
that
requ
ires
strik
ing
a ba
ll, c
onsi
der
wha
t yo
u kn
ow a
bout
the
idea
l han
dan
d fo
ot p
ositi
on a
nd fo
llow
-thr
ough
.W
hat
aspe
cts
are
you
not
clea
rab
out?
Are
the
re a
dvan
tage
s to
appr
oach
es y
ou m
ight
not
be
usin
g?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
thos
e as
pect
s of
the
prop
er fo
rm fo
r st
rikin
ga
ball
abou
t w
hich
he
orsh
e is
unc
lear
.
The
ski
ll of
strik
ing
a ba
llw
ithin
a s
peci
ficsp
ort
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
mov
emen
t as
soci
ated
with
hig
hly
skill
ed a
thle
tes
(e.g
.,m
oves
tha
t m
ake
a su
cces
sful
hit
in b
aseb
all).
We
need
to
mak
e su
re t
hat
we
use
smoo
th t
rans
ition
s fr
om r
unni
ng a
ndju
mpi
ng.T
hink
thr
ough
wha
t it
take
sto
ens
ure
that
the
pro
cess
issm
ooth
.Is
ther
e so
met
hing
you
’reno
t cl
ear
abou
t?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
thos
e as
pect
s of
tran
sitio
ns b
etw
een
sequ
entia
l mot
or s
kills
abou
t w
hich
he
or s
he is
unce
rtai
n.
The
ski
ll of
tran
sitio
ning
betw
een
spec
ific
mot
or s
kills
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
K–2
Tran
sitio
ns b
etw
een
mot
or s
kills
used
in a
seq
uenc
e (e
.g.,
goin
gfr
om r
unni
ng in
to a
slid
e). (C
onti
nued
)
134
Fig
ure
7.4
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
For
a s
peci
fic n
et o
r in
vasi
on g
ame
that
you
pla
y, c
onsi
der
the
stra
tegi
esyo
u us
e, fo
r ex
ampl
e, fo
r pr
even
ting
an o
ppon
ent
from
ste
alin
g th
e ba
ll in
bask
etba
ll or
pla
cing
the
bal
l aw
ayfr
om a
n op
pone
nt in
a r
acke
t sp
ort.
Con
side
r w
heth
er t
hese
str
ateg
ies
are
alw
ays
good
, re
gard
less
of
the
type
of
oppo
nent
.How
can
you
be
clea
rer
abou
t w
hen
thes
e st
rate
gies
are
best
use
d?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y ar
eas
ofun
cert
aint
y ab
out
stra
tegy
use
durin
g in
vasi
onga
mes
.
The
pro
cess
of
play
ing
inva
sion
gam
es
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–6
Use
s be
ginn
ing
stra
tegi
es fo
r ne
tan
d in
vasi
on g
ames
(e.
g.,
keep
ing
the
ball
goin
g, k
eepi
ng t
he b
all a
way
from
an
oppo
nent
, pr
even
ting
anop
pone
nt f
rom
ste
alin
g th
e ba
ll).
Con
side
r th
e ch
alle
nge
of in
tera
ctin
gas
an
inve
nted
cha
ract
er in
an
impr
ovis
ed s
crip
t.A
re y
ou c
lear
abou
t w
hat
wou
ld c
hang
e in
the
impr
ovis
atio
n an
d w
hat
char
acte
ristic
s yo
u sh
ould
mai
ntai
nto
kee
p th
e ch
arac
ter
unifi
ed?
Exp
lain
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
thos
e as
pect
s of
impr
ovis
atio
n ab
out
whi
chhe
or
she
is u
ncer
tain
.
The
phy
sica
las
pect
s of
the
proc
ess
ofim
prov
isat
ion
The
atre
5–8
Pla
ys a
cha
ract
er in
bot
h im
prov
ised
and
scrip
ted
situ
atio
ns.
Monitoring Clarity With Mental Procedures
Monitoring clarity tasks for the domain of mental procedures involve iden-tifying how clear a student is about specific mental skills and processes. Forexample, the first monitoring clarity task for mental skills requires students toidentify their level of certainty regarding how the use of scale can affect data pre-sentation. The first monitoring clarity task for mental processes involves clarityregarding various processes for reading thematic maps.
Monitoring Clarity With Psychomotor Procedures
Monitoring clarity tasks for the domain of psychomotor procedures involveidentifying how clear a student is about specific psychomotor skills and processes.For example, the first monitoring clarity task for psychomotor skills requiresstudents to identify their level of clarity regarding the skill of striking a ball withina specific sport. The first monitoring clarity task for psychomotor processesinvolves clarity relative to the process of playing invasion games.
MONITORING ACCURACY
Monitoring accuracy involves determining the extent to which an individual iscorrect in terms of his understanding of specific knowledge. Monitoring accuracyis distinct from, but related to, monitoring clarity. That is, a student could be clearabout some aspects of knowledge—have no ambiguity or lack of distinction—butin fact be inaccurate. It is important to contrast the metacognitive process ofmonitoring accuracy with the analysis process of analyzing errors since they bothaddress inaccuracies and errors. Analyzing errors involves the errors made byothers as well as oneself. Monitoring accuracy deals exclusively with one’s owninaccuracies or errors. In addition, monitoring accuracy involves checking one’sassumptions regarding accuracy. For example, a student might believe he or sheis accurate in his or her understanding of the position of a political candidate.However, when executing the metacognitive process of monitoring accuracy, heor she would actually check to determine if the assumptions about the candidate’sposition are in fact accurate. Error analysis does not involve this “checking one’sassumptions” aspect.
Figure 7.5 lists tasks for monitoring accuracy across the three knowledgedomains of knowledge.
As Figure 7.5 illustrates, a critical aspect of monitoring accuracy is defending orverifying one’s judgment of accuracy. This implies that students must not only makejudgments about their accuracy but also must provide evidence for this judgment.
(Text continues on page 140)
Metacognition Objectives and Tasks 135
136
Fig
ure
7.5
Mon
itori
ng A
ccur
acy
Obj
ectiv
es a
nd T
asks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fact
s, T
ime
sequ
ence
s
We
have
dis
cuss
ed t
he d
istin
ctio
nbe
twee
n th
e te
rms
true
cor
rela
tion
and
belie
vabl
e co
rrel
atio
n.W
hat
aspe
cts
abou
t th
is d
istin
ctio
n do
you
belie
ve?
Che
ck t
o m
ake
sure
you
unde
rsta
nd a
ccur
atel
y.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y an
d de
fend
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
heis
acc
urat
e ab
out
the
term
s tr
ue c
orre
latio
nan
dbe
lieva
ble
corr
elat
ion.
Spe
cific
mat
hem
atic
ste
rmin
olog
y
Mat
h9–
12U
nder
stan
ds t
he b
asic
con
cept
of
corr
elat
ion
(e.g
., a
true
cor
rela
tion
vers
us a
bel
ieva
ble
corr
elat
ion;
how
to
know
whe
n tw
o va
riabl
esar
e co
rrel
ated
).
We’
ve le
arne
d th
at fo
reig
n vo
cabu
lary
wor
ds c
an b
e ea
sy to
lear
n w
hen
they
are
rel
ated
to E
nglis
h w
ords
, as
Spa
nish
frut
ais
to E
nglis
h fr
uit.
But
fals
e co
gnat
es, s
omet
imes
cal
led
fals
e fr
iend
s, m
ake
it di
fficu
lt to
rem
embe
r th
e tr
ue m
eani
ng o
f aw
ord.
For
exam
ple,
Spa
nish
ass
istir
mea
ns to
atte
nd.T
he E
nglis
h w
ord
assi
stis
ayu
dar
in S
pani
sh.A
ttach
edis
a li
st o
f ter
ms
that
incl
ude
both
true
and
fals
e co
gnat
es.W
hich
can
you
iden
tify
corr
ectly
? H
ow d
o yo
u kn
owyo
u ar
e co
rrec
t?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y an
d ex
plai
nw
hy h
e or
she
bel
ieve
sa
spec
ific
wor
d to
be
atr
ue o
r a
fals
e co
gnat
e.
Spe
cific
fore
ign
lang
uage
term
inol
ogy
For
eign
Lang
uage
K–4
Kno
ws
com
mon
cog
nate
s an
dex
pres
sion
s in
bot
h th
e la
ngua
gebe
ing
stud
ied
and
any
nativ
ela
ngua
ges.
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
Sel
ect a
rec
ent d
ecis
ion
that
you
have
mad
e or
you
hav
e w
atch
edso
meo
ne e
lse
mak
e.Id
entif
y w
heth
eryo
u ar
e ac
cura
te in
you
r id
entif
icat
ion
of th
e op
port
unity
cos
t for
this
deci
sion
.How
do
you
know
you
are
accu
rate
? C
heck
you
r un
ders
tand
ing.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
and
defe
nd h
is o
rhe
r ac
cura
cy in
pro
vidi
ngan
exa
mpl
e of
an
oppo
rtun
ity c
ost.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
top
port
unity
cos
t
Eco
nom
ics
6–8
Und
erst
ands
the
nec
essi
tyof
opp
ortu
nity
cos
ts a
nd t
hat
effe
ctiv
e ec
onom
ic d
ecis
ion
mak
ing
incl
udes
com
parin
g th
eco
sts
and
bene
fits
asso
ciat
edw
ith o
ther
pos
sibl
e ch
oice
s.
137
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
Are
you
acc
urat
e ab
out
iden
tifyi
ngex
ampl
es in
dai
ly li
fe o
f co
nduc
tion,
conv
ectio
n, a
nd r
adia
tion?
How
are
you
sure
tha
t th
ese
are
valid
exam
ples
? C
heck
you
r re
ason
ing.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
and
defe
nd h
is o
rhe
r ac
cura
cy in
sel
ectin
gda
ily-li
fe il
lust
ratio
ns o
fco
nduc
tion,
con
vect
ion
and
radi
atio
n.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
cond
uctio
n,co
nvec
tion,
and
radi
atio
n
Sci
ence
6–8
Kno
ws
that
con
vect
ion,
con
duct
ion,
and
radi
atio
n ar
e al
l way
s th
at h
eat
ener
gy f
low
s fr
om w
arm
er m
ater
ials
or r
egio
ns t
o co
oler
one
s.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
The
pro
blem
pre
sent
ed t
o yo
ure
quire
d th
e us
e of
a s
peci
ficm
etho
d of
indi
rect
mea
sure
men
t.W
hat
part
s of
the
pro
cess
do
you
know
you
man
aged
cor
rect
ly?
How
do y
ou k
now
you
wer
e co
rrec
t?C
heck
the
ste
ps t
hat
you
have
use
d.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
and
defe
nd t
heex
tent
to
whi
ch h
e or
she
unde
rsta
nds
spec
ific
tech
niqu
es fo
r in
dire
ctm
easu
rem
ent.
Spe
cific
tech
niqu
esre
gard
ing
indi
rect
mea
sure
men
t
Mat
h9–
12S
elec
ts a
nd u
ses
an a
ppro
pria
tem
etho
d of
mea
sure
men
t (d
irect
or
indi
rect
) fo
r a
part
icul
ar s
ituat
ion
(e.g
., us
es p
rope
rtie
s of
sim
ilar
tria
ngle
s to
mea
sure
indi
rect
lyth
e he
ight
of
an o
bjec
t).
For
thr
ee o
f th
e m
ultip
le c
hoic
eite
ms,
you
had
to
estim
ate
the
answ
er.W
ere
you
corr
ect
in t
hese
lect
ion
and
use
of y
our
estim
atio
nst
rate
gy?
How
do
you
know
? C
heck
your
str
ateg
y.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
and
expl
ain
why
the
estim
atio
n st
rate
gyhe
or
she
sele
cted
was
used
cor
rect
ly.
Spe
cific
estim
atio
nst
rate
gies
Mat
h3–
5E
stim
ates
com
puta
tions
usi
ngsp
ecifi
c st
rate
gies
(e.
g.,
fron
t-en
des
timat
ion,
rou
ndin
g) a
nd c
heck
sac
cura
cy.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
To w
hat
exte
nt a
re y
ou c
orre
ct in
your
use
of
the
GP
S a
cros
s th
em
any
diffe
rent
situ
atio
ns w
e ha
vebe
en s
tudy
ing?
How
do
you
know
you
have
use
d it
corr
ectly
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y an
d de
fend
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he c
orre
ctly
use
d a
GP
S d
evic
e in
a v
arie
tyof
situ
atio
ns.
The
gen
eral
proc
ess
ofus
ing
a G
PS
devi
ce
Geo
grap
hy9–
12U
nder
stan
ds t
he e
lem
ents
and
uses
of
geog
raph
ic t
echn
olog
ies
(e.g
., ge
ogra
phic
info
rmat
ion
syst
ems
(GIS
) an
d sa
telli
te-
prod
uced
imag
ery)
.
(Con
tinu
ed)
138
Fig
ure
7.5
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Whe
n yo
u re
view
ed t
head
vert
isem
ents
tha
t w
ere
pres
ente
d,to
wha
t ex
tent
wer
e yo
u ac
cura
te in
your
iden
tific
atio
n of
exa
gger
ated
clai
ms,
glit
terin
g ge
nera
litie
s, o
rot
her
atte
mpt
s to
per
suad
e yo
u?H
ow d
o yo
u kn
ow y
ou w
ere
accu
rate
? P
rovi
de e
vide
nce
for
your
con
clus
ions
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
and
defe
nd t
heex
tent
to
whi
ch h
e or
she
can
spot
str
ateg
ies
used
in a
dver
tisem
ents
to
pers
uade
the
con
sum
er.
The
pro
cess
of
pers
uasi
on in
adve
rtis
ing
Lang
uage
Art
s6–
8K
now
s m
etho
ds u
sed
in v
isua
lm
edia
to
conv
ince
or
appe
al t
o a
part
icul
ar a
udie
nce
(e.g
., pr
oduc
tion
tech
niqu
es,
such
as
desi
gnin
g a
new
s pr
ogra
m w
ith a
n ey
e fo
ren
tert
ainm
ent;
pers
uasi
vete
chni
ques
, su
ch a
s us
e of
bia
sed
info
rmat
ion
or e
xagg
erat
ed c
laim
s,po
rtra
yal o
f ap
peal
ing
lifes
tyle
s an
dsp
ecta
cula
r ge
nera
litie
s).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
As
you
mad
e yo
ur p
rese
ntat
ion
in S
pani
sh,
did
you
pron
ounc
eea
ch w
ord
corr
ectly
? H
ow d
o yo
ukn
ow t
he w
ord
was
pro
noun
ced
corr
ectly
? R
eexa
min
e ho
w y
oupr
onou
nce
wor
ds.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
toid
entif
y an
d ex
plai
n w
hyth
e S
pani
sh w
ords
he
orsh
e us
ed in
a p
rese
ntat
ion
wer
e pr
onou
nced
cor
rect
ly.
The
ski
ll of
pron
ounc
ing
asp
ecifi
c w
ord
For
eign
Lang
uage
K–4
Use
s la
ngua
ge m
echa
nics
,co
nven
tions
and
sty
le (
e.g.
,gr
amm
ar,
spel
ling,
sen
tenc
est
ruct
ure,
voc
abul
ary,
dia
lect
, sl
ang
or id
iom
s;pr
onun
ciat
ion,
into
natio
n,to
ne,
stre
ss)
appr
opria
te fo
r a
varie
tyof
aud
ienc
es (
e.g.
, pe
ers,
tea
cher
s)an
d se
tting
s (e
.g.,
form
al,
info
rmal
).
As
you
form
lette
rs o
f th
e al
phab
et,
whi
ch d
o yo
u fo
rm c
orre
ctly
?W
hich
lette
rs n
eed
mor
e w
ork?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y w
hich
lette
rs o
fth
e al
phab
et h
e or
she
form
s co
rrec
tly.
The
ski
ll of
writ
ing
spec
ific
lette
rs o
f th
eal
phab
et
Lang
uage
Art
sP
reK
Writ
es o
r co
pies
fam
iliar
wor
ds(e
.g.,
own
nam
e, p
et’s
nam
e).
139
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Whe
n yo
u m
ake
your
cla
sspr
esen
tatio
n, h
ow w
ell a
re y
ou u
sing
the
right
ton
e of
voi
ce a
nd v
olum
e?H
ow d
o yo
u kn
ow?
Do
you
follo
w t
heru
les
of e
ffect
ive
disc
ussi
on w
e ha
vebe
en s
tudy
ing?
How
do
you
know
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
whe
ther
he
or s
hem
odul
ates
ton
e of
voi
cean
d vo
lum
e w
hen
mak
ing
a pr
esen
tatio
n.
The
pro
cess
of
mod
ulat
ing
tone
and
voic
e w
hen
mak
ing
apr
esen
tatio
n
Lang
uage
Art
sK
–2U
ses
appr
opria
te v
olum
e, p
hras
ing,
and
into
natio
n fo
r va
rious
situ
atio
nsre
quiri
ng o
ral c
omm
unic
atio
n (e
.g.,
smal
l gro
up s
ettin
gs,
info
rmal
disc
ussi
ons,
cla
ss d
iscu
ssio
ns,
orpr
esen
tatio
ns).
Hav
e so
meo
ne r
ecor
d a
vide
o as
you
perf
orm
a s
port
tha
t aw
ards
scor
e po
ints
(su
ch a
s gy
mna
stic
s,ho
rse
jum
ping
, or
div
ing)
.Rev
iew
your
vid
eota
ped
perf
orm
ance
agai
nst
wha
t yo
u be
lieve
d yo
uw
ere
acco
mpl
ishi
ng d
urin
g th
epe
rfor
man
ce.W
ere
you
accu
rate
inyo
ur ju
dgm
ents
? W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
Pro
vide
evi
denc
e fo
r yo
urco
nclu
sion
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y an
d de
fend
judg
men
ts m
ade
upon
view
ing
a re
cord
edpe
rfor
man
ce a
gain
st t
heju
dgm
ents
he
or s
he m
ade
durin
g th
e pe
rfor
man
ce.
The
pro
cess
of
perf
orm
ing
asp
ecifi
c sp
ort
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
9–12
Use
s ad
vanc
ed s
kills
tai
lore
d to
sele
cted
spo
rts
or a
ctiv
ities
(e
.g.,
swim
min
g, d
ance
, hi
king
,te
nnis
, ba
seba
ll).
Terms and phrases commonly used in monitoring accuracy objectives andtasks include the following:
• About what do you believe you are accurate?• About what do you believe you might be inaccurate?
The most common format for monitoring accuracy is short or extended writ-ten and oral constructed-response tasks.
It is worth noting again that across all domains of knowledge, a criticalaspect of monitoring accuracy tasks is that students must verify whether theinformation they believed to be accurate is in fact accurate. Consequently, mon-itoring accuracy tasks involve reviewing and checking information previouslypresented. As we’ve mentioned before, this is not the case with the analysisprocess of analyzing errors.
Monitoring Accuracy With Information
Monitoring accuracy tasks in the domain of information require students todetermine how accurate they are about specific details and organizing ideas. Forexample, the first monitoring accuracy task for details involves specific terminol-ogy. To complete this task, students must review what has been presented aboutthese terms and compare that information with their current understanding of theterms. The first monitoring accuracy task for organizing ideas involves the per-ceived accuracy of generalizations about opportunity cost.
Monitoring Accuracy With Mental Procedures
Monitoring accuracy tasks in the domain of mental procedures require studentsto determine how accurately they execute specific mental skills and processes. Forexample, the first monitoring accuracy task for mental skills involves a specific skillregarding indirect measurement. Students must determine how accurately they exe-cute the component parts of this skill. The first monitoring accuracy task for mentalprocedures involves the accuracy of the general process for using a GPS device.
It is important to distinguish monitoring accuracy for procedures with processmonitoring for procedures. As described previously in this chapter, the metacog-nitive skill of process monitoring involves a specific goal. Students must set spe-cific goals regarding a procedure, and then monitor the extent to which these goalsare being met. The metacognitive process of monitoring accuracy does not neces-sarily involve a goal on the part of the students. Rather it simply involves studentsjudging how accurately the steps in a procedure are being executed and checkingthe validity of their understanding regarding those steps.
140 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Monitoring Accuracy With Psychomotor Procedures
Monitoring accuracy in the domain of psychomotor procedures follows thesame pattern as monitoring accuracy with mental procedures. It requires studentsto judge how accurately they execute specific psychomotor skills and processesand check the accuracy of their judgments. For example, the first monitoring accu-racy task for psychomotor skills involves the skill of pronouncing specific words.Students must judge if they are executing this procedure accurately and examinethe validity of their judgments. Again this differs from the metacognitive skill ofprocess monitoring because a personal goal is not involved. It differs from ana-lyzing errors because it goes beyond simply examining the results of a procedure.The first monitoring accuracy task for psychomotor processes involves the processof modulating tone and voice while making a presentation.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS FOR
METACOGNITIVE OBJECTIVES AND TASKS
Specifying Goals Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to set goals and establish a plan for accomplishing thosegoals
• Use terms and phrases like the following: set goals, what would you like toaccomplish, identify something you want to
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Process Monitoring Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to determine how effectively goals are being met relativeto the knowledge domains; goals may be set via the metacognitive processof specifying goals or for a specific situation
• Use terms and phrases like the following: monitor, evaluate, determine howwell, determine how effectively
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Monitoring Clarity Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to determine the extent to which they are free from ambi-guity and indistinction about specific aspects of knowledge
• Use terms and phrases like the following: what are you sure about, what areyou unsure about, how could you better understand
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Metacognition Objectives and Tasks 141
Monitoring Accuracy Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to determine the extent to which they are accurate abouttheir understanding of knowledge; involves reexamining assumptions aboutwhat is correct or accurate
• Use terms and phrases such as the following: about what do you believeyou are accurate, about what do you believe you are inaccurate
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response tasks
142 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
143
CH A P T E R EI G H T
Self-System Objectives and Tasks
Self- system thinking involves determining and analyzing one’s motivation tolearn new content. As described in Chapter 2, self-system thinking involves
four aspects: (1) examining importance, (2) examining efficacy, (3) examiningemotional response, and (4) examining motivation.
Examining Importance
The self-system process of examining importance involves analyzing theextent to which one believes that learning specific knowledge is important andthen examining one’s beliefs relative to that issue. If an individual does not per-ceive a specific piece of knowledge as important at a personal level, he or she willprobably not be highly motivated to learn it.
Figure 8.1 lists objectives and tasks for the self-system process of examiningimportance across the three knowledge domains.
Examining importance goes beyond simply identifying how important learn-ing specific knowledge is perceived to be. It also involves examining and defend-ing the logic underlying one’s thinking. Obviously this latter part of the process ismore applicable to older students. Students at the lower grade levels might beexpected to articulate how important they perceive something to be and providesome reason for this perception, but they might not be expected to analyze theirthinking.
Examining importance objectives or any other type of self-system process arealmost never explicit in standards or benchmark statements. As discussed in thenext chapter, a district or school would have to elect to make self-system goalsan overt part of the curriculum. They will probably not find a mandate to do so intheir state and national standards documents.
(Text continues on page 148)
144
Fig
ure
8.1
Exa
min
ing
Impo
rtan
ce O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fa
cts,
Tim
ese
quen
ces
How
impo
rtan
t do
you
thi
nk it
is t
hat
you
know
how
oth
er c
hild
ren’
s liv
es in
the
cul
ture
we
are
stud
ying
diff
er f
rom
you
r ow
n? E
ach
of y
our
grou
ps h
as s
tudi
ed a
spe
cific
fam
ily in
asp
ecifi
c co
untr
y an
d co
mm
unic
ated
with
the
m.
Why
do
you
thin
k it
mig
ht b
e im
port
ant
toun
ders
tand
how
diff
eren
t th
eir
hous
es,
food
and
toy
s ar
e? D
oes
your
thi
nkin
gm
ake
sens
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
e pe
rson
alim
port
ance
he
or s
hepl
aces
on
lear
ning
how
othe
r ch
ildre
n’s
lives
are
diffe
rent
fro
m h
is o
r he
row
n an
d an
alyz
es t
here
ason
ing
behi
nd t
hat
judg
men
t.
Fact
s ab
out
how
spe
cific
fam
ilies
live
For
eign
Lang
uage
K–4
Und
erst
ands
util
itaria
nfo
rms
of t
he s
tudi
edcu
lture
(e.
g.,
toys
, cl
othe
s,ho
mes
, ty
pica
l die
t,cu
rren
cy)
and
com
pare
sth
em t
o th
ose
in o
ne’s
nativ
e cu
lture
.
How
impo
rtan
t do
you
thi
nk it
is t
hat
you
unde
rsta
nd t
he k
inds
of
conf
licts
tha
t ar
ise
betw
een
valu
es a
nd p
rinci
ples
—fo
r ex
ampl
e,th
e sp
ecifi
c co
nflic
ts b
etw
een
the
maj
ority
rule
and
the
min
ority
rig
hts
we
have
bee
nst
udyi
ng?
Why
do
you
thin
k it
mig
ht b
eim
port
ant
to u
nder
stan
d th
ese
conf
licts
?D
oes
your
thi
nkin
g m
ake
sens
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
e pe
rson
alim
port
ance
he
or s
hepl
aces
on
unde
rsta
ndin
gsp
ecifi
c co
nflic
ts th
at a
rise
betw
een
valu
es a
ndpr
inci
ples
and
ana
lyze
s th
ere
ason
ing
behi
nd th
atju
dgm
ent.
Fact
s ab
out
spec
ific
conf
licts
Civ
ics
6–8
Und
erst
ands
pas
t co
nflic
tsbe
twee
n fu
ndam
enta
lva
lues
and
prin
cipl
es (
e.g.
,co
nflic
ts b
etw
een
one
pers
on’s
rig
hts
and
the
com
mon
goo
d, c
onfli
cts
betw
een
maj
ority
rul
ean
d m
inor
ity r
ight
s).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
How
impo
rtan
t do
you
thi
nk it
is t
hat
you
unde
rsta
nd t
hat
scie
nce
cann
ot a
nsw
er a
llqu
estio
ns a
nd t
hat
tech
nolo
gy c
anno
t so
lve
all
hum
an p
robl
ems
or m
eet
all h
uman
nee
ds?
Why
do
you
thin
k it
is im
port
ant
to u
nder
stan
dth
is?
Do
you
thin
k yo
ur r
easo
ns a
re v
alid
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
e pe
rson
alim
port
ance
he
or s
hepl
aces
on
unde
rsta
ndin
gth
at s
cien
ce a
nd te
chno
logy
cann
ot s
olve
all
prob
lem
s or
mee
t all
hum
an n
eeds
and
anal
yzes
the
reas
onin
gbe
hind
that
judg
men
t.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t th
elim
itatio
ns o
fsc
ienc
e an
dte
chno
logy
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8U
nder
stan
ds t
hat
scie
nce
and
tech
nolo
gy h
ave
limita
tions
.
145
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
How
impo
rtan
t do
you
thi
nk it
is t
hat
you
unde
rsta
nd t
he p
rope
rtie
s an
dre
latio
nshi
ps a
mon
g ge
omet
ricfig
ures
? W
hy d
o yo
u th
ink
it is
impo
rtan
t to
und
erst
and
them
? D
oes
your
thi
nkin
g re
pres
ent
a st
rong
argu
men
t?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
e pe
rson
alim
port
ance
he
or s
he p
lace
son
und
erst
andi
ng t
hepr
oper
ties
and
rela
tions
hips
amon
g fig
ures
and
ana
lyze
sth
e re
ason
ing
behi
nd t
hat
judg
men
t.
Prin
cipl
esab
out
the
rela
tions
hip
amon
gge
omet
ricfig
ures
Mat
h9–
12S
olve
s m
athe
mat
ical
and
re
al-w
orld
pro
blem
s by
usi
ngpr
oper
ties
of f
igur
es a
nd t
here
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
them
(e.g
., us
es u
nder
stan
ding
of
arc,
cho
rd,
tang
ents
, an
dpr
oper
ties
of c
ircle
s to
dete
rmin
e th
e ra
dius
).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng a
spe
cific
set
of s
teps
for
appl
ying
a s
peci
fic e
vent
in h
isto
ry t
o ou
r ow
n liv
es.E
xpla
inw
hy y
ou b
elie
ve t
his
to b
e an
impo
rtan
t sk
ill o
r w
hy y
ou d
o no
t.H
ow v
alid
is y
our
thin
king
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
dete
rmin
e ho
w im
port
ant
he o
rsh
e th
inks
it is
to
be a
ble
tore
late
eve
nts
from
his
tory
to
his
or h
er o
wn
life.
The
ski
ll of
rela
ting
asp
ecifi
chi
stor
ical
even
t to
one
’sow
n lif
e
His
toric
alU
nder
stan
ding
9–12
Und
erst
ands
how
to
refr
ain
from
bel
ievi
ng t
hat
spec
ific
less
ons
lear
ned
in t
he p
ast
will
alw
ays
appl
y to
pro
blem
s in
the
pres
ent.
How
impo
rtan
t is
it t
hat
you
real
ize
whe
n yo
u ar
e in
an
emer
genc
ysi
tuat
ion
and
wha
t yo
u sh
ould
do
abou
t it?
Why
do
you
thin
k it
isim
port
ant
or n
ot im
port
ant?
Can
you
prov
ide
an e
xam
ple
to s
how
why
you
are
corr
ect?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
e pe
rson
alim
port
ance
he
or s
he p
lace
son
bei
ng a
ble
to id
entif
y an
emer
genc
y si
tuat
ion.
The
ski
ll of
reco
gniz
ing
an e
mer
genc
ysi
tuat
ion
Hea
lthK
–2U
nder
stan
ds h
ow t
o re
cogn
ize
emer
genc
y si
tuat
ions
and
how
to
resp
ond
(e.g
., us
es a
tele
phon
e to
obt
ain
assi
stan
ce;
iden
tifie
s an
d ob
tain
s as
sist
ance
from
pol
ice
offic
ers,
fire
fig
hter
san
d tr
uste
d ad
ults
;tre
ats
com
mon
inju
ries,
suc
h as
scra
tche
s, b
ruis
es a
ndsu
nbur
ns).
(Con
tinu
ed)
146
Fig
ure
8.1
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
How
impo
rtan
t is
it t
hat
you
are
able
to p
lan
and
cond
uct
a si
mpl
ein
vest
igat
ion,
incl
udin
g sy
stem
atic
obse
rvat
ions
and
rea
chin
g a
logi
cal
conc
lusi
on?
Why
do
you
thin
k it
is o
ris
not
impo
rtan
t? C
an y
ou p
rovi
dere
ason
s fo
r yo
ur c
oncl
usio
ns?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
e pe
rson
alim
port
ance
he
or s
he p
lace
son
pla
nnin
g an
d co
nduc
ting
an in
vest
igat
ion
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
tha
tju
dgm
ent.
The
pro
cess
of
plan
ning
and
cond
uctin
g a
sim
ple
inve
stig
atio
n
Sci
ence
3–5
Des
igns
and
car
ries
out
sim
ple
inve
stig
atio
ns (
e.g.
, fo
rmul
ates
a sp
ecifi
c sc
ient
ific
ques
tion,
mak
es a
ppro
pria
teob
serv
atio
ns,
deve
lops
logi
cal
conc
lusi
ons)
.
How
impo
rtan
t is
it t
hat
you
are
able
to s
umm
ariz
e an
d pa
raph
rase
info
rmat
iona
l tex
ts,
such
as
conv
eyin
gth
e m
ain
idea
s an
d cr
itica
l det
ails
?W
hy d
o yo
u th
ink
you
are
corr
ect?
Exp
lain
you
r th
inki
ng.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
e pe
rson
alim
port
ance
he
or s
he p
lace
s on
sum
mar
izin
g an
d pa
raph
rasi
ngin
form
atio
nal t
exts
and
ana
lyze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
that
judg
men
t.
The
pro
cess
of
sum
mar
izin
gan
dpa
raph
rasi
ngin
form
atio
nal
text
Lang
uage
Art
s6–
8
Use
s su
mm
ary
and
para
phra
sing
to e
nhan
ceun
ders
tand
ing
of in
form
atio
n in
text
(e.
g., a
rran
ges
info
rmat
ion
in a
logi
cal o
rder
;con
veys
mai
nid
eas,
ess
entia
l det
ails
, and
unde
rlyin
g m
eani
ng;u
ses
own
wor
ds o
r qu
oted
mat
eria
ls;
pres
erve
s au
thor
’s p
ersp
ectiv
e).
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
We
have
bee
n pr
actic
ing
scal
es o
nou
r re
ed in
stru
men
ts.D
o yo
u th
ink
this
is im
port
ant
to d
o? W
hy o
rw
hy n
ot?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
expl
ain
why
he
or s
he t
hink
spl
ayin
g a
scal
e on
a r
eed
inst
rum
ent
is im
port
ant
orw
hy it
is n
ot.
Pla
ying
asi
mpl
e sc
ale
on a
ree
din
stru
men
t
Mus
icK
–2P
lays
sca
les
on a
bas
icin
stru
men
t.
How
impo
rtan
t is
it t
hat
you
can
use
art
mat
eria
ls s
afel
y an
d re
spon
sibl
y?W
hy d
o yo
u th
ink
it is
impo
rtan
t or
not
impo
rtan
t? C
an y
ou p
rovi
de s
ome
good
rea
sons
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to id
entif
y th
e pe
rson
alim
port
ance
he
or s
he p
lace
son
usi
ng a
rt m
ater
ials
saf
ely
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
gbe
hind
tha
t ju
dgm
ent.
Usi
ng a
rtm
ater
ials
safe
ly
Vis
ual A
rts
K–4
Use
s ar
t m
ater
ials
and
too
lssa
fely
and
app
ropr
iate
ly.
147
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
How
impo
rtan
t do
you
thi
nk it
is t
hat
you
follo
w t
he r
ules
and
pro
cedu
res
for
the
phys
ical
-act
ivity
set
tings
we
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng?
Do
you
thin
k th
isis
nec
essa
ry o
r un
nece
ssar
y? E
xpla
inyo
ur r
easo
ning
.How
wel
l hav
e yo
uth
ough
t th
is t
hrou
gh?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
pers
onal
impo
rtan
ce h
e or
she
pla
ces
on fo
llow
ing
the
rule
s an
dpr
oced
ures
for
phys
ical
-act
ivity
setti
ngs
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
tha
tju
dgm
ent.
Fol
low
ing
the
rule
s an
dpr
oced
ures
for
phys
ical
activ
ityse
tting
s
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Kno
ws
why
the
rul
es a
ndpr
oced
ures
in s
ettin
gs o
fph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity a
re im
port
ant.
How
impo
rtan
t is
it t
o us
e di
ffere
ntvo
ice
leve
ls d
epen
ding
on
wha
tse
tting
you
are
in,
like
a sm
all-g
roup
disc
ussi
on o
r a
repo
rt t
o th
e cl
ass?
Can
you
pro
vide
goo
d re
ason
s fo
ryo
ur a
nsw
er?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
pers
onal
impo
rtan
ce h
e or
she
pla
ces
on u
sing
app
ropr
iate
voi
cele
vels
dep
endi
ng o
n th
ese
tting
and
ana
lyze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
tha
tju
dgm
ent.
The
pro
cess
of u
sing
ava
riety
of
voic
e le
vels
acro
ssdi
ffere
ntse
tting
s
Lang
uage
Art
sK
–2
Adj
usts
vol
ume,
phr
asin
g, a
ndin
tona
tion
acco
rdin
g to
the
situ
atio
n at
han
d (e
.g.,
smal
lgr
oup
setti
ngs,
info
rmal
disc
ussi
ons
or c
lass
disc
ussi
ons,
cla
sspr
esen
tatio
ns).
Terms and phrases like the following are commonly used in examining impor-tance objectives and tasks:
• How important is it to you• Why do you think it might be important• Can you provide some reasons why it is important• How logical is your thinking
The common format for examining importance tasks is short or extended writ-ten and oral constructed-response formats.
Examining Importance With Information
Examining importance tasks for the domain of information involve determin-ing how important it is to learn details and organizing ideas and analyzing thelogic of those perceptions. For example, the first examining importance task fordetails involves facts about specific families. Students first identify how importantthey believe this information to be. Then they consider the logic of their thinking.The first examining importance task for organizing ideas involves perceptions ofimportance relative to generalizations about science and technology.
Examining Importance With Mental Procedures
Examining importance tasks for the domain of mental procedures involvedetermining how important it is to learn specific mental skills and processes andanalyzing the logic of those perceptions. For example, the first examining impor-tance task for mental skills involves the skill of relating a specific historic eventto one’s own life. In this case, the teacher has provided students with a series ofsimple steps or rules to follow. Students must first determine if they perceive thisto be an important skill and then analyze their thinking. The first examiningimportance task for mental processes involves perceptions of importance relativeto the process of planning and conducting simple investigations.
Examining Importance With Psychomotor Procedures
Examining importance tasks for the domain of psychomotor proceduresinvolve determining how important it is to learn psychomotor skills and processesand analyzing the logic of these perceptions. For example, the first examiningimportance task for psychomotor skills involves playing a simple scale on aninstrument. Students must identify how important they believe it is to learn howto play scales on a real instrument and then defend their logic. The first examin-ing importance task for psychomotor processes involves perceptions of impor-tance regarding the process of using art materials safely.
148 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
EXAMINING EFFICACY
The self-system process of examining efficacy involves examining the extent towhich individuals believe they can improve their understanding or competencerelative to a specific type of knowledge. It also involves examining their thinkingon the issue. If individuals do not believe they can change their competence rela-tive to a specific piece of knowledge, they will probably not be motivated to learnit, even if they perceive it as important. Figure 8.2 lists objectives and tasks forexamining efficacy across the three knowledge domains.
Terms and phrases like the following are commonly used in examining effi-cacy objectives and tasks:
• Can you improve• How well do you think you can do• How well can you learn• How good are you at• How logical is your thinking
The most common format for examining efficacy tasks is short or extendedwritten and oral constructed-response formats.
Examining Efficacy With Information
Examining efficacy tasks for the domain of information involve identifyingbeliefs about one’s ability to learn details and organizing ideas and then examin-ing the logic of these beliefs. For example, the first examining efficacy task fordetails involves details about specific international conflicts. Students must deter-mine how capable they believe themselves to be to improve their understanding ofthese details. They must also explain and defend their thinking. The first examin-ing efficacy task for organizing ideas involves perceptions of efficacy regardinggeneralizations about how geography has influenced history.
Examining Efficacy With Mental Procedures
Examining efficacy tasks for the domain of mental procedures involve identi-fying beliefs about one’s ability to improve competence at mental skills andprocesses and analyzing the reasoning behind these perceptions. For example, thefirst examining efficacy task for mental skills involves the skill of interpreting spe-cific nonverbal skills. Students must determine if they believe they can get betterat this skill and the reasons that they believe so. The first examining efficacy taskfor mental processes involves perceptions of efficacy regarding the process oftranslating data into maps, graphs, and charts.
(Text continues on page 154)
Self-System Objectives and Tasks 149
150
Fig
ure
8.2
Exa
min
ing
Eff
icac
y O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fa
cts,
Tim
ese
quen
ces
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng t
he I
raq
war
.D
o yo
u th
ink
you
can
impr
ove
your
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
tha
t w
ar?
Why
or
why
not?
Exp
lain
you
r th
inki
ng.H
ow w
ell
supp
orte
d ar
e yo
ur c
oncl
usio
nsab
out
this
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erun
ders
tand
ing
of t
he I
raq
war
can
be im
prov
ed a
nd a
naly
zehi
s or
her
thi
nkin
g.
Det
ails
abo
ut a
spec
ific
inte
rnat
iona
lco
nflic
t
Soc
ial
Stu
dies
9–12
Kno
ws
spec
ific
deta
ilsre
gard
ing
spec
ific
inte
rnat
iona
lco
nflic
ts.
We
have
bee
n st
udyi
ng t
hede
velo
pmen
t of
the
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
.C
an y
ou d
eepe
n yo
ur u
nder
stan
ding
of t
he s
igni
fican
t ev
ents
tha
t he
lped
shap
e th
e S
upre
me
Cou
rt in
firs
t fe
wde
cade
s of
the
new
nat
ion?
Wha
tre
ason
s do
you
hav
e fo
r be
lievi
ng t
his?
How
val
id is
you
r th
inki
ng?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erun
ders
tand
ing
of t
hede
velo
pmen
t of
the
Sup
rem
eC
ourt
can
be
impr
oved
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
thes
e be
liefs
.
Det
ails
rega
rdin
g th
ede
velo
pmen
tof
the
U.S
.S
upre
me
Cou
rt
His
tory
9–12
Kno
ws
how
the
U.S
.Sup
rem
eC
ourt
was
est
ablis
hed
and
the
sign
ifica
nt e
vent
s th
at le
d to
its
crea
tion
( e.
g.,
Chi
ef J
ustic
eM
arsh
all,
Art
icle
III
of t
heC
onst
itutio
n, J
udic
iary
Act
of
1789
, M
arbu
ry v
.Mad
ison
).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
We
have
see
n ex
ampl
es o
f ho
wph
ysic
al g
eogr
aphy
has
influ
ence
dm
ajor
his
toric
eve
nts.
Do
you
belie
veyo
u ca
n co
me
to a
bet
ter
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
thi
s ge
nera
lizat
ion?
Wha
t re
ason
s do
you
hav
e fo
r th
inki
ngyo
u ca
n or
can
not
impr
ove
your
unde
rsta
ndin
g? H
ow g
ood
are
thes
ere
ason
s?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he o
r sh
e be
lieve
s hi
s or
her
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
how
geog
raph
y ha
s in
fluen
ced
hist
ory
can
be im
prov
ed a
ndan
alyz
e th
e re
ason
ing
behi
ndth
ese
belie
fs.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t ho
wge
ogra
phy
has
influ
ence
dhi
stor
y
Geo
grap
hy6–
8U
nder
stan
ds h
ow m
ajor
his
toric
even
ts a
nd m
ovem
ents
hav
ebe
en a
ffect
ed b
y bo
th h
uman
and
geog
raph
ic fa
ctor
s (e
.g.,
the
cour
ses
and
outc
omes
of p
hysi
cal c
onfli
ct,
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of
the
sla
vetr
ade
in N
orth
and
Sou
thA
mer
icas
, th
e pr
ofita
bilit
y of
the
tria
ngle
tra
de d
ue t
o th
elo
catio
ns o
f w
ind
and
ocea
ncu
rren
ts,
the
effe
cts
of v
ario
usla
nd s
urve
y sy
stem
s us
ed in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes)
.
151
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
The
mot
ions
of
the
eart
h an
d m
oon
expl
ain
man
y ph
enom
ena
on e
arth
.C
an y
ou r
each
a b
ette
r un
ders
tand
ing
of t
he p
rinci
ples
tha
t ac
coun
t fo
rec
lipse
s an
d tid
es?
Why
do
you
ordo
n’t
you
belie
ve y
ou c
an h
ave
a be
tter
unde
rsta
ndin
g th
an y
ou d
o no
w?
Exp
lain
and
def
end
your
thi
nkin
g.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
toid
entif
y th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
he o
r sh
e be
lieve
s hi
s or
her
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
how
phen
omen
a on
ear
th c
an b
eex
plai
ned
by th
e m
otio
ns o
f the
eart
h an
d m
oon
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
thes
e be
liefs
.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
the
mot
ions
of
the
eart
h
Sci
ence
6–8
Und
erst
ands
how
phe
nom
ena
on e
arth
are
affe
cted
by
the
cycl
es a
nd m
otio
ns o
f th
e su
nan
d th
e m
oon
(e.g
., da
y an
dni
ght,
the
seas
ons
of t
he y
ear,
the
moo
n’s
phas
es,
eclip
ses,
tides
).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
We
have
bee
n di
scus
sing
how
to
inte
rpre
t tw
o co
mm
on n
onve
rbal
cue
sus
ed in
con
vers
atio
n.C
an y
ou im
prov
eyo
ur a
bilit
y to
inte
rpre
t th
ese
spec
ific
nonv
erba
l cue
s? W
hy d
o yo
u th
ink
you
can
or c
an’t?
How
wel
l hav
e yo
uth
ough
t th
roug
h th
is is
sue?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erco
mpe
tenc
e in
inte
rpre
ting
spec
ific
nonv
erba
l clu
es c
an b
eim
prov
ed a
nd a
naly
ze t
here
ason
ing
for
that
bel
ief.
The
ski
ll of
inte
rpre
ting
spec
ific
nonv
erba
lcu
es
Lang
uage
Art
s3–
5
Und
erst
ands
non
verb
al c
ues
used
dur
ing
the
cour
se o
f a
conv
ersa
tion.
Thi
s ye
ar w
e ha
ve b
een
lear
ning
how
to a
dd a
nd s
ubtr
act
frac
tions
with
unlik
e de
nom
inat
ors.
Can
you
impr
ove
your
abi
lity
in t
his
skill
? W
hy d
o yo
uth
ink
you
can
or c
anno
t? E
xpla
in y
our
thin
king
.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erco
mpe
tenc
e in
add
ing
and
subt
ract
ing
frac
tions
with
unl
ike
deno
min
ator
s ca
n be
impr
oved
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g fo
rth
at b
elie
f.
Add
ing
and
subt
ract
ing
frac
tions
Mat
h6–
8A
dds
and
subt
ract
s fr
actio
nsw
ith li
ke a
nd u
nlik
ede
nom
inat
ors.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
We
have
bee
n w
orki
ng w
ith v
ario
usw
ays
to t
rans
late
prim
ary
data
into
map
s, g
raph
s, a
nd c
hart
s.H
ow w
ell
have
you
mas
tere
d th
is p
roce
ss o
ftr
ansl
atio
n? D
o yo
u th
ink
you
can
impr
ove
your
app
roac
h? E
xpla
in t
here
ason
ing
behi
nd y
our
answ
er.D
oes
your
thi
nkin
g m
ake
sens
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erco
mpe
tenc
e in
tra
nsla
ting
data
into
map
s, g
raph
s, a
nd c
hart
sca
n be
impr
oved
and
ana
lyze
the
reas
onin
g fo
r th
at b
elie
f.
Tran
slat
ing
data
into
map
s,gr
aphs
, an
dch
arts
Geo
grap
hy9–
12Tr
ansl
ates
dat
a in
to u
sefu
lm
aps,
cha
rts,
and
gra
phs
(e.g
.,ch
arts
dev
elop
ed fr
om c
ensu
sda
ta fo
cusi
ng o
n sp
ecifi
cin
form
atio
nal t
opic
s, c
arto
gram
sde
pict
ing
the
rela
tive
size
s of
Eur
opea
n co
untr
ies
base
d on
thei
r ur
ban
popu
latio
ns).
(Con
tinu
ed)
152
Fig
ure
8.2
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
We
have
logg
ed t
he r
esul
ts o
f a
rece
ntph
ysic
al-f
itnes
s as
sess
men
t an
dle
arne
d ho
w t
o in
terp
ret
them
in o
rder
to d
evel
op in
divi
dual
fitn
ess
goal
s.H
oww
ell d
o yo
u un
ders
tand
the
info
rmat
ion
and
how
wel
l can
you
dev
elop
a f
itnes
sgo
al b
ased
on
wha
t yo
u un
ders
tand
—ca
n yo
u be
mor
e ef
fect
ive?
Why
do
you
belie
ve y
ou c
an o
r ca
n’t
impr
ove?
Exp
lain
you
r th
inki
ng.H
ow g
ood
is y
our
thin
king
on
this
issu
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erco
mpe
tenc
e in
usi
ng f
itnes
sas
sess
men
t in
form
atio
n to
deve
lop
pers
onal
fitn
ess
goal
sca
n be
impr
oved
and
ana
lyze
the
reas
onin
g fo
r th
at b
elie
f.
Usi
ng f
itnes
sas
sess
men
tin
form
atio
n
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Und
erst
ands
how
to
crea
tefit
ness
goa
ls a
nd p
lans
bas
edon
info
rmat
ion
inte
rpre
ted
from
a fit
ness
ass
essm
ent.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
We
have
bee
n pr
actic
ing
prop
erfin
gerin
g fo
r th
e co
mpu
ter
keyb
oard
.D
o yo
u th
ink
you
can
get
bette
r at
thi
s?W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erco
mpe
tenc
e in
fin
gerin
g fo
r th
eco
mpu
ter
keyb
oard
can
be
impr
oved
and
ana
lyze
the
reas
onin
g fo
r th
at b
elie
f.
Spe
cific
keyb
oard
ing
skill
s
Tech
nolo
gy3–
5U
ses
prop
er f
inge
ring
(fro
m t
heho
me
row
) an
d pr
oper
pos
ture
whi
le u
sing
the
com
pute
rke
yboa
rd.
We
have
bee
n pr
actic
ing
spec
ific
clim
bing
tec
hniq
ues.
Sel
ect
one
tech
niqu
e yo
u ar
e ha
ving
diff
icul
ty w
ith.
Can
you
get
bet
ter
at t
his?
Why
or
why
not
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erco
mpe
tenc
e in
a s
peci
ficcl
imbi
ng t
echn
ique
can
be
impr
oved
and
exp
lain
his
or
her
thin
king
.
A s
peci
ficcl
imbi
ngte
chni
que
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
K–2
Dev
elop
s m
uscu
lar
stre
ngth
and
endu
ranc
e by
par
ticip
atin
gin
spe
cific
act
iviti
es (
e.g.
,w
eigh
t lif
ting,
clim
bing
).
153
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
We’
ve le
arne
d th
at e
ven
nonv
erba
lsi
gns
can
com
mun
icat
e a
grea
t de
al t
oth
e au
dien
ce.C
an y
ou im
prov
e yo
urey
e co
ntac
t, ge
stur
es,
and
post
ure
whe
n yo
u pr
esen
t? W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
Why
do
you
thin
k yo
ur b
elie
fs a
bout
your
self
are
accu
rate
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erco
mpe
tenc
e in
usi
ng n
onve
rbal
tech
niqu
es c
an b
e im
prov
edan
d an
alyz
e th
e re
ason
ing
for
that
bel
ief.
The
pro
cess
of u
sing
nonv
erba
lco
mm
unic
atio
nte
chni
ques
Lang
uage
Art
s3–
5
Ski
llful
ly c
omm
unic
ates
nonv
erba
lly (
e.g.
, ey
e co
ntac
t,ha
nd g
estu
res,
faci
alex
pres
sion
s).
Iden
tify
offe
nsiv
e or
def
ensi
vest
rate
gies
in a
spo
rt y
ou e
ngag
e in
ofte
n.H
ow w
ell d
o yo
u ex
ecut
e th
ese
stra
tegi
es?
Can
you
get
bet
ter?
Exp
lain
why
or
why
not
and
def
end
your
rea
soni
ng.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
he
or s
he b
elie
ves
his
or h
erco
mpe
tenc
e in
offe
nsiv
e or
defe
nsiv
e st
rate
gies
can
be
impr
oved
and
ana
lyze
the
reas
onin
g fo
r th
at b
elie
f.
Offe
nsiv
e or
defe
nsiv
est
rate
gies
in a
spec
ific
spor
t
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
7–8
Use
s ba
sic
offe
nsiv
e an
dde
fens
ive
stra
tegi
es in
an
indi
vidu
al o
r te
am s
port
.
Examining Efficacy With Psychomotor Procedures
Examining efficacy tasks for the domain of psychomotor procedures involveidentifying beliefs about one’s ability to improve competence at psychomotorskills and processes and analyzing the reasoning behind these perceptions. Forexample, the first examining efficacy task for psychomotor skills involves specifickeyboarding skills. Students must determine if they believe they can improve theircompetence at these psychomotor skills and explain and defend their thinkingbehind their beliefs. The first examining efficacy task for psychomotor processesinvolves perceptions of efficacy regarding the process of using nonverbal commu-nication techniques.
EXAMINING EMOTIONAL RESPONSE
The process of examining emotional response involves identifying what emotions,if any, are associated with specific knowledge, whether these emotions interferewith learning, and the logic behind those associations. As described in Chapter 2,negative affect can dampen a student’s motivation to learn or improve at some-thing, even if the student believes that the knowledge is important and that he orshe has the requisite ability and resources. Figure 8.3 lists objectives and tasks forexamining emotional response across the three knowledge domains.
The key feature of this type of self-system thinking is the identification ofthe logic underlying emotional responses. There is no necessary attempt to changethese associations—only to understand them. This said, an argument can bemade that awareness of one’s emotional associations provides the opportunity forsome control over them.
Terms and phrases like the following are commonly used with examiningemotional response objectives and tasks:
• What are your feelings about• What is the logic underlying these feelings• How reasonable is your thinking
The common format for examining emotional response tasks is short orextended written and oral constructed-response formats.
Examining Emotional Response With Information
Examining emotional response tasks for the domain of information involveidentifying any emotions associated with details and organizing ideas and thelogic behind these associations. For example, the first examining emotionalresponse task for details involves facts regarding a specific political issue.Students are asked to identify any emotions associated with the political issue and
(Text continues on page 158)
154 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
155
Fig
ure
8.3
Exa
min
ing
Em
otio
n O
bjec
tives
and
Tas
ks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fa
cts,
Tim
ese
quen
ces
Wha
t em
otio
ns d
o yo
u ha
ve, i
f any
,ab
out t
he s
ourc
es o
f a s
peci
fic p
oliti
cal
conf
lict t
hat w
e ha
ve b
een
stud
ying
,w
heth
er th
ey a
re h
isto
rical
—su
ch a
sth
ose
asso
ciat
ed w
ith s
lave
ry, w
ithex
tend
ing
civi
l rig
hts
to a
ll A
mer
ican
s—or
mor
e re
cent
, suc
h as
imm
igra
tion
and
the
war
in Ir
aq?
Wha
t do
you
thin
kgi
ves
rise
to th
ese
emot
ions
? D
oes
your
thin
king
mak
e se
nse?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
asso
ciat
ed w
ith a
spe
cific
polit
ical
issu
e an
d an
alyz
e th
ere
ason
ing
behi
nd t
hose
emot
ions
.
The
det
ails
rega
rdin
ga
spec
ific
polit
ical
issu
e
Civ
ics
6–8
Kno
ws
abou
t bo
th p
ast
and
pres
ent
polit
ical
con
flict
s in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
(e.g
.,sl
aver
y, c
ivil
right
s, s
uffr
age,
the
role
of
relig
ion
in t
heU
.S.g
over
nmen
t, ev
ents
lead
ing
to t
he c
reat
ion
of t
heco
untr
y an
d it’
s bi
coas
tal
expa
nsio
n).
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
u ha
veab
out
spec
ific
hum
an-c
ause
d ch
ange
sth
at a
re t
akin
g pl
ace
in d
iffer
ent
regi
ons
acro
ss t
he U
nite
d S
tate
s an
dw
hat
thes
e ch
ange
s m
ight
mea
n fo
rth
e fu
ture
? S
elec
t a
spec
ific
chan
ge t
ore
act
to.W
hat
kind
of
thin
king
on
your
part
do
thes
e em
otio
ns s
ugge
st?
How
reas
onab
le is
you
r th
inki
ng?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
asso
ciat
ed w
ith s
peci
fichu
man
-cau
sed
chan
ges
indi
ffere
nt r
egio
ns o
f th
e U
nite
dS
tate
s an
d an
alyz
e th
ere
ason
ing
behi
nd t
hose
emot
ions
.
The
det
ails
rega
rdin
gsp
ecifi
chu
man
-cau
sed
chan
ges
indi
ffere
ntre
gion
s of
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
Geo
grap
hy3–
5U
nder
stan
ds t
he p
oten
tial
impa
ct t
hat
chan
ges
caus
edby
hum
ans
can
have
on
diffe
rent
reg
ions
(e.
g.,
the
rein
trod
uctio
n of
wol
ves
into
wild
life
pres
erve
s in
Mon
tana
).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
u ha
veab
out
the
fact
tha
t pr
imar
y an
dse
cond
ary
sour
ces
refle
ct t
he m
otiv
es,
inte
rest
s an
d bi
ases
of
thei
r au
thor
san
d m
ay c
ontr
adic
t ea
ch o
ther
? W
hat
thin
king
mig
ht g
ive
rise
to t
hese
emot
ions
? Is
it lo
gica
l?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
asso
ciat
ed w
ith c
ontr
adic
tions
amon
g pr
imar
y an
d se
cond
ary
sour
ces
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
tho
seem
otio
ns.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t pr
imar
yan
d se
cond
ary
sour
ces
His
toric
alU
nder
stan
ding
7–8
Und
erst
ands
the
mot
ives
,in
tere
sts
and
poss
ible
bia
ses
in d
iffer
ent
prim
ary
and
seco
ndar
y so
urce
s (e
.g.,
lette
rs,
phot
os,
info
rmat
ion
from
new
spap
ers
and
mag
azin
es,
eyew
itnes
sac
coun
ts o
r he
arsa
y).
(Con
tinu
ed)
156
Fig
ure
8.3
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
u ha
vew
hen
you
cons
ider
the
con
cept
of
extin
ctio
n? D
o yo
u co
nsid
er it
in t
erm
sof
its
impo
rtan
ce in
bio
logi
cal
evol
utio
n, o
r do
you
thi
nk o
f it
diffe
rent
ly?
Is y
our
thin
king
logi
cal?
Why
or
why
not
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
asso
ciat
ed w
ith t
he c
once
pt o
fex
tinct
ion
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
tho
seem
otio
ns.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
extin
ctio
n
Sci
ence
6–8
Und
erst
ands
ext
inct
ion
and
how
impo
rtan
t its
effe
ct o
nbi
olog
ical
evo
lutio
n is
(e.
g.,
whe
n an
env
ironm
ent
chan
ges,
not
all s
peci
es a
re a
ble
toad
apt;
man
y of
the
spe
cies
tha
tha
ve li
ved
on t
he e
arth
hav
esu
ffere
d ex
tinct
ion)
.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
u ha
veab
out
aski
ng q
uest
ions
in o
rder
to
broa
den
a cl
assr
oom
dis
cuss
ion?
Wha
t is
the
thi
nkin
g be
hind
thi
s?D
oes
your
thi
nkin
g m
ake
sens
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
asso
ciat
ed w
ith a
skin
gqu
estio
ns in
the
cla
ssro
om a
ndan
alyz
e th
e re
ason
ing
behi
ndth
ose
emot
ions
.
The
ski
ll of
aski
ngqu
estio
ns in
clas
s
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12
Enr
iche
s cl
assr
oom
disc
ussi
ons
by a
skin
gqu
estio
ns.
We
have
bee
n pr
actic
ing
a te
chni
que
for
hand
ling
the
stre
ss o
f do
ing
poor
lyon
a c
lass
ass
ignm
ent.
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
u ha
ve a
bout
thi
s st
rate
gy?
Wha
t th
inki
ng g
ives
ris
e to
the
seem
otio
ns?
How
logi
cal i
s th
at t
hink
ing?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
asso
ciat
ed w
ith le
arni
ngst
rate
gies
for
copi
ng w
ith t
hest
ress
of
doin
g po
orly
on
a cl
ass
assi
gnm
ent
and
exam
ine
the
thin
king
beh
ind
thos
e em
otio
ns.
The
ski
ll of
copi
ng w
ithth
e st
ress
of
doin
g po
orly
on a
cla
ssas
sign
men
t
Hea
lth6–
8K
now
s st
rate
gies
for
copi
ngw
ith t
he s
tres
s of
doi
ng p
oorly
on a
cla
ss a
ssig
nmen
t.
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
uas
soci
ate
with
res
pond
ing
to q
uest
ions
and
feed
back
afte
r a
pres
enta
tion
you
have
giv
en—
for
exam
ple,
cla
rifyi
ng a
ndde
fend
ing
your
idea
s or
exp
andi
ng o
na
topi
c? W
hat
thin
king
giv
es r
ise
toth
ese
emot
ions
? D
oes
it se
em lo
gica
l?W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
asso
ciat
ed w
ith s
eeki
ngfe
edba
ck t
o re
vise
apr
esen
tatio
n an
d an
alyz
e th
elo
gic
behi
nd t
hose
em
otio
ns.
The
pro
cess
of r
evis
ing
apr
esen
tatio
n
Lang
uage
Art
s9–
12
Rev
ises
a p
rese
ntat
ion
byre
spon
ding
to
ques
tions
and
feed
back
(e.
g.,
elab
orat
es o
n a
topi
c, c
larif
ies
and
defe
nds
idea
s, u
ses
logi
cal a
rgum
ents
and
logi
cal o
rgan
izat
ion,
eval
uate
s ov
eral
l ach
ieve
men
t,se
ts f
utur
e go
als)
.
157
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
u ha
vew
hen
you
are
pres
ente
d a
prob
lem
situ
atio
n th
at y
ou m
ust
tran
slat
e in
toan
othe
r fo
rm—
oral
, w
ritte
n, c
oncr
ete,
or s
ome
othe
r fo
rm?
Wha
t is
the
logi
cbe
hind
the
se e
mot
ions
? D
oes
it m
ake
sens
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
ass
ocia
ted
with
tra
nsla
ting
a pr
oble
msi
tuat
ion
from
one
form
into
anot
her
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
tho
se e
mot
ions
.
The
pro
cess
of t
rans
latin
ga
prob
lem
situ
atio
n in
tova
rious
form
s
Mat
h6–
8U
ses
oral
, w
ritte
n, c
oncr
ete,
pict
oria
l, an
d gr
aphi
cal f
orm
s to
repr
esen
t pr
oble
m s
ituat
ions
and
tran
slat
es a
mon
gth
ese
form
s.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
u ha
veab
out
lear
ning
and
mas
terin
g a
spec
ific
adva
nced
ski
ll in
you
r sp
ort?
Wha
t do
you
thi
nk c
ause
s th
ese
emot
ions
? Is
you
r th
inki
ngre
ason
able
?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
ass
ocia
ted
with
lear
ning
and
mas
terin
gad
vanc
ed s
kills
in a
cho
sen
spor
tan
d an
alyz
e th
e re
ason
ing
behi
ndth
ose
emot
ions
.
An
adva
nced
skill
in a
spec
ific
spor
t
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
9–12
Use
s ad
vanc
ed s
kills
asso
ciat
ed w
ith s
elec
t sp
orts
or a
ctiv
ities
(e.
g.,
swim
min
g,da
nce,
clim
bing
, te
nnis
,la
cros
se).
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
u th
ink
ofw
hen
you
are
requ
ired
to p
aral
lel p
ark
in d
river
’s e
duca
tion?
Wha
t is
the
thin
king
beh
ind
thes
e as
soci
atio
ns?
Doe
s yo
ur t
hink
ing
mak
e se
nse?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
ass
ocia
ted
with
lear
ning
to
para
llel p
ark
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
thos
e em
otio
ns.
The
ski
ll of
para
llel
park
ing
Driv
er’s
Edu
catio
n9–
12
App
lies
the
skill
s an
dpr
oces
ses
for
driv
ing
in a
cong
este
d ar
ea.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Sel
ect
one
of t
he n
ew s
port
s w
e ha
vebe
en s
tudy
ing.
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y,do
you
hav
e w
hen
you
thin
k ab
out
lear
ning
tha
t sp
ort?
Wha
t is
the
reas
onin
g be
hind
you
r re
actio
n?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
ass
ocia
ted
with
lear
ning
a n
ew s
port
and
anal
yze
the
thin
king
beh
ind
thos
eem
otio
ns.
The
pro
cess
of le
arni
ng a
new
spo
rt
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–6
Impr
oves
phy
sica
l per
form
ance
by m
akin
g us
e of
info
rmat
ion
prov
ided
by
both
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
sou
rces
(e.
g.,
self-
asse
ssm
ent,
peer
, an
dco
ach
revi
ew).
Wha
t em
otio
ns,
if an
y, d
o yo
uas
soci
ate
with
the
pro
cess
of
prod
ucin
g an
art
wor
k th
at r
efle
cts
your
per
sona
l bel
iefs
? W
hat
reas
ons
are
ther
e fo
r th
ese
asso
ciat
ions
?D
o th
ey m
ake
sens
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
any
emot
ions
ass
ocia
ted
with
pro
duci
ng a
n ar
twor
k an
dan
alyz
e th
e re
ason
ing
behi
ndth
ose
emot
ions
.
The
pro
cess
of p
rodu
cing
a w
ork
of a
rt
Vis
ual
Art
s9–
12
Atte
mpt
s to
car
ry o
ut p
erso
nal
inte
ntio
ns in
art
wor
k.
the reasoning behind these associations. The first examining emotional responsetask for organizing ideas involves emotional responses relative to generalizationsabout primary and secondary sources.
Examining Emotional Response With Mental Procedures
Examining emotional response tasks for the domain of mental proceduresinvolve identifying emotions associated with mental skills and processes and thelogic behind these associations. For example, the first examining emotional responsetask for mental skills addresses specific skills for asking questions in class. Here theteacher has provided students with a few question-asking techniques. Students areasked to identify emotions associated with these techniques and the logic behindthese associations. The first examining emotional response task for mental processesinvolves emotional responses relative to the process of revising a presentation.
Examining Emotional Response With Psychomotor Procedures
Examining emotional response tasks for the domain of psychomotor proceduresinvolve identifying emotions associated with psychomotor skills and processes andthe logic behind these associations. For example, the first examining emotionalresponse task for psychomotor skills addresses a specific advanced skill in a specificsport. Students identify any associated emotions and the logic behind these emo-tions. The first examining emotional response task for psychomotor processesinvolves emotional responses regarding the process of learning a new sport.
EXAMINING MOTIVATION
The final type of self-system thinking involves examining overall motivation toimprove one’s understanding of or competence in a specific type of knowledge.As described in Chapter 2, overall motivation is a composite of the other threeaspects of self-system thinking: perceptions of importance, perceptions of effi-cacy, and emotional response. Examining motivation can be considered an“omnibus” self-system process incorporating the other three aspects of the self-system. Figure 8.4 lists objectives and tasks for examining motivation across thethree knowledge domains.
Ideally, when students respond to tasks like those in Figure 8.4, they considerall three self-system components that can affect motivation. They comment on theimportance they ascribe to the knowledge, the level of efficacy they perceive, andany emotions they associate with the knowledge. They also explain which of thesethree factors dominates their motivation. Of course the sophistication of students’
(Text continues on page 163)
158 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
159
Fig
ure
8.4
Exa
min
ing
Mot
ivat
ion
Obj
ectiv
es a
nd T
asks
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Det
ails
:Te
rms,
Fa
cts,
Tim
ese
quen
ces
How
inte
rest
ed a
re y
ou in
lear
ning
mor
e ab
out
the
loca
tion
of y
our
scho
ol,
hom
e, a
nd s
tate
? W
hy a
reyo
u in
tere
sted
or
not
inte
rest
ed?
Are
your
rea
sons
goo
d re
ason
s?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
loca
tion
of h
is o
r he
r sc
hool
, ho
me,
and
stat
e.
Det
ails
abo
utsc
hool
, ho
me,
and
stat
e
Geo
grap
hyK
–2Lo
cate
s fa
mili
ar p
lace
s,su
ch a
s sc
hool
, ho
me,
and
neig
hbor
hood
, as
wel
l as
larg
er a
reas
, su
ch a
s on
e’s
own
com
mun
ity,
stat
e, a
ndco
untr
y.
Eac
h of
us
has
sele
cted
a d
iffer
ent
snac
k fo
od t
o st
udy.
How
inte
rest
edar
e yo
u in
lear
ning
abo
ut t
he s
nack
you
have
sel
ecte
d? W
hy d
o yo
u ha
veth
is le
vel o
f in
tere
st?
Doe
s yo
urth
inki
ng m
ake
sens
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
a s
peci
ficty
pe o
f sn
ack
food
and
pro
vide
som
e re
ason
s fo
r th
ispe
rcep
tion.
Det
ails
abo
ut a
spec
ific
snac
kfo
od
Hea
lth3–
5U
nder
stan
ds h
ow t
o pr
actic
ehe
alth
ful e
atin
g (e
.g.,
eatin
gve
geta
bles
rat
her
than
pota
to c
hips
, ea
ting
a va
riety
of n
utrit
ious
food
s, e
atin
gpe
riodi
cally
thr
ough
out
the
day
to a
ssis
t en
ergy
leve
lsan
d su
stai
n gr
owth
).
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Gen
eral
izat
ion
Do
you
have
an
inte
rest
in le
arni
ngho
w h
isto
rical
acc
ount
s ca
n ch
ange
,ba
sed
on n
ewly
unc
over
ed r
ecor
dsan
d in
terp
reta
tions
? Ye
s or
no?
Exp
lain
you
r re
ason
ing.
Doe
s it
mak
ego
od s
ense
? W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
toid
entif
y hi
s or
her
leve
l of
mot
ivat
ion
to in
crea
seun
ders
tand
ing
of h
ow h
isto
rical
acco
unts
can
cha
nge,
bas
edon
new
info
rmat
ion,
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g fo
r th
isle
vel o
f mot
ivat
ion.
Gen
eral
izat
ions
abou
t his
toric
alac
coun
ts
His
toric
alU
nder
stan
ding
7–8
Kno
ws
that
his
toric
alin
terp
reta
tions
and
acc
ount
sch
ange
, du
e to
rec
ently
disc
over
ed d
ocum
ents
or
fact
s an
d ch
angi
ng p
oliti
cs.
(Con
tinu
ed)
160
Fig
ure
8.4
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Info
rmat
ion:
Org
aniz
ing
Prin
cipl
e
How
wou
ld y
ou d
escr
ibe
your
leve
l of
mot
ivat
ion
for
unde
rsta
ndin
g ho
wel
emen
ts a
re a
rran
ged
in t
he p
erio
dic
tabl
e? W
hy d
o yo
u th
ink
you
are
mot
ivat
ed t
his
way
? Is
you
r th
inki
ngre
ason
able
? E
xpla
in.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
how
ele
men
tsar
e ar
rang
ed in
the
per
iodi
cta
ble
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g fo
r th
is le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n.
Prin
cipl
esre
gard
ing
the
perio
dic
tabl
e
Sci
ence
9–12
Kno
ws
the
arra
ngem
ent
ofel
emen
ts in
the
per
iodi
cta
ble
and
know
s th
atpa
ttern
s ap
pear
with
in t
heta
ble,
illu
stra
ting
elem
ents
with
sim
ilar
prop
ertie
s (e
.g.,
num
bers
of
prot
ons,
neut
rons
, an
d el
ectr
ons;
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
atom
icnu
mbe
r an
d at
omic
mas
s).
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
How
inte
rest
ed a
re y
ou in
bei
ng g
ood
at fo
llow
ing
the
rule
s of
con
vers
atio
nw
e ha
ve b
een
stud
ying
, lik
e ta
king
turn
s an
d ra
isin
g yo
ur h
and
to s
peak
in c
lass
? W
hy a
re y
ou in
tere
sted
?A
re t
here
goo
d re
ason
s to
be
inte
rest
ed?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
com
pete
nce
in fo
llow
ing
the
rule
s of
con
vers
atio
n an
dpr
ovid
e so
me
reas
ons
for
this
thi
nkin
g.
Spe
cific
rul
esof
con
vers
atio
nLa
ngua
geA
rts
K–2
Adh
eres
to
conv
entio
ns o
fco
nver
satio
n an
d di
scus
sion
(e.g
., lis
tens
, ta
kes
turn
s,ra
ises
han
d to
spe
ak,
stay
son
top
ic).
Are
you
mot
ivat
ed t
o be
abl
e to
use
asp
read
shee
t to
upd
ate
and
add
data
?W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
Doe
s yo
ur t
hink
ing
mak
e se
nse?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
com
pete
nce
in u
sing
asp
read
shee
t to
upd
ate
and
add
data
and
ana
lyze
the
logi
c of
his
or h
er t
hink
ing.
Upd
atin
g an
dad
ding
dat
a to
a sp
read
shee
t
Tech
nolo
gy6–
8U
ses
a sp
read
shee
t to
mak
ech
ange
s to
dat
a.
161
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
Men
tal
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
Wha
t is
you
r le
vel o
f in
tere
st in
bei
ngab
le t
o ac
cura
tely
use
the
conv
entio
ns o
f S
pani
sh w
e ar
est
udyi
ng,
espe
cial
ly w
hen
it co
ncer
nsus
ing
the
right
lang
uage
for
diffe
rent
setti
ngs,
suc
h as
soc
ial a
ndac
adem
ic?
Why
? A
re t
here
goo
dre
ason
s be
hind
you
r th
inki
ng?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
com
pete
nce
in u
sing
the
conv
entio
ns o
f S
pani
sh a
ndan
alyz
e th
e re
ason
ing
for
this
leve
l of
mot
ivat
ion.
The
pro
cess
of u
sing
the
conv
entio
nsof
a fo
reig
nla
ngua
gedu
ring
conv
ersa
tion
For
eign
Lang
uage
5–8
Use
s la
ngua
ge m
echa
nics
,co
nven
tions
and
sty
le (
e.g.
,co
mpl
ex g
ram
mat
ical
stru
ctur
es,
slan
g, id
iom
s,po
lite
and
info
rmal
form
s an
dst
atus
indi
cato
rs,
vern
acul
ardi
alec
ts a
nd d
ictio
n)ap
prop
riate
to
soci
al,
acad
emic
and
cer
emon
ial
audi
ence
s.
How
str
ongl
y ar
e yo
u m
otiv
ated
to b
e ab
le t
o us
e th
e re
ctan
gula
rco
ordi
nate
sys
tem
to
mod
el a
nd t
oso
lve
prob
lem
s? W
hy?
How
logi
cal
is y
our
thin
king
? E
xpla
in.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
com
pete
nce
in u
sing
the
rect
angu
lar
coor
dina
te s
yste
man
d an
alyz
e th
e re
ason
ing
for
this
leve
l of
mot
ivat
ion.
Usi
ngre
ctan
gula
rco
ordi
nate
s to
solv
e pr
oble
ms
Mat
h6–
8M
odel
s an
d so
lves
pro
blem
sus
ing
the
rect
angu
lar
coor
dina
te s
yste
m.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Ski
ll
Do
you
wan
t to
lear
n th
e pr
oper
war
m-u
p an
d co
ol-d
own
exer
cise
s?W
hat
are
your
rea
sons
? A
re t
here
ason
s yo
u ha
ve id
entif
ied
good
reas
ons?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
com
pete
nce
in t
he u
se o
fw
arm
-up
and
cool
-dow
nex
erci
ses
and
prov
ide
reas
ons
for
his
or h
er t
hink
ing.
War
m-u
p an
dco
ol-d
own
exer
cise
s
Phy
sica
lE
duca
tion
3–5
Kno
ws
how
to
prop
erly
war
mup
and
coo
l dow
n an
dkn
ows
why
bot
h ar
ene
cess
ary.
(Con
tinu
ed)
162
Fig
ure
8.4
(Con
tinue
d)
Task
Obj
ectiv
eK
now
ledg
eFo
cus
Sub
ject
,G
rade
Ben
chm
ark
Sta
tem
ent
How
mot
ivat
ed a
re y
ou t
o in
crea
seyo
ur s
kill
at u
sing
the
bru
sh s
trok
esw
e ha
ve b
een
stud
ying
? W
hat
reas
ons
do y
ou h
ave
for
bein
g th
ism
otiv
ated
? D
o th
ese
reas
ons
mak
ego
od s
ense
? D
efen
d yo
ur p
ositi
on.
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
com
pete
nce
in u
sing
par
ticul
arbr
ush
stro
kes
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g fo
r th
is le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n.
Spe
cific
bru
shst
roke
sV
isua
l Art
s9–
12C
arrie
s ou
t in
tent
ions
inar
twor
k us
ing
conf
iden
cean
d se
nsiti
vity
as
wel
l as
skill
, te
chni
que,
and
pro
cess
.
Psy
chom
otor
Pro
cedu
re:
Pro
cess
How
inte
rest
ed a
re y
ou in
bei
ng a
ble
to r
ead
stor
ies
alou
d sm
ooth
ly a
ndw
ith g
ood
expr
essi
on?
Why
do
you
thin
k yo
u ar
e in
tere
sted
or
not
inte
rest
ed?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
com
pete
nce
in r
eadi
ng fa
mili
arst
orie
s al
oud
and
anal
yze
the
reas
onin
g fo
r th
is le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n.
The
pro
cess
of
read
ing
a st
ory
alou
d
Lang
uage
Art
sK
–2
Flu
ently
and
exp
ress
ivel
yre
ads
pass
ages
alo
ud f
rom
stor
ies,
poe
ms,
and
assi
gned
pas
sage
s (e
.g.,
read
s w
ith r
hyth
m,
flow
,m
eter
, te
mpo
, pi
tch,
ton
e,in
tona
tion)
.
How
wou
ld y
ou d
escr
ibe
your
inte
rest
in b
eing
abl
e to
per
form
you
rin
stru
men
t on
pitc
h, in
rhy
thm
.and
with
an
appr
opria
te t
empo
? W
hy d
oyo
u fe
el t
his
way
? D
oes
your
thi
nkin
gm
ake
sens
e?
The
stu
dent
will
be
able
to
iden
tify
his
or h
er le
vel o
fm
otiv
atio
n to
incr
ease
com
pete
nce
in p
erfo
rmin
g on
asp
ecifi
c m
usic
al in
stru
men
t an
dan
alyz
e th
e re
ason
ing
for
this
leve
l of
mot
ivat
ion.
Pla
ying
am
usic
alin
stru
men
t
Mus
ic3–
5P
erfo
rms
with
atte
ntio
n to
pitc
h an
d rh
ythm
and
use
sap
prop
riate
dyn
amic
s an
dtim
bre
whi
le m
aint
aini
ng a
stea
dy t
empo
.
responses is dependent on their age and maturity. Whereas older students might beexpected to provide a detailed explanation of the factors affecting their motivation,primary students would be expected to provide a simple statement of their level ofmotivation and a basic reason or two for this perception.
Objectives and tasks for examining motivation are expressed in many ways,although common phrases include the following:
• How interested are you• How motivated are you• How would you explain your level of interest• How reasonable is your thinking
The common format for examining motivation tasks is short or extended writ-ten and oral constructed response. Graphic organizers like that depicted in Figure8.5 can be used by students to aid in their response to examining motivation tasks.
The graphic organizer in Figure 8.5 has a place for students to list their per-ceptions of importance, their perceptions of efficacy, and their perceptions of emo-tional response. This cues them to three major factors in motivation. There is alsoa section in the graphic organizer cueing them to explain how these three factorsinteract to enhance or decrease their motivation.
Self-System Objectives and Tasks 163
Figure 8.5 Graphic Organizer for Motivation
How important is this Do I think I can do What emotions do Ito me? Why? this? Why? associate with this?
Why?
My overall motivation
Explain ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________
Examining Motivation With Information
Examining motivation tasks for the domain of information involve identifyingone’s level of motivation to learn details and organizing ideas and then analyzingthe reasons for the identified level of motivation. For example, the first examiningmotivation task for details involves details about school, home, and state. Studentsmust determine whether they are interested in learning about these details as wellas the reasons for their identified level of motivation. The first examining motiva-tion task for organizing ideas involves perceptions of motivation relative to gen-eralizations about historical accounts.
Examining Motivation With Mental Procedures
Examining motivation tasks for the domain of mental procedures involveidentifying one’s level of motivation to learn mental skills and processes and thenanalyzing the reasons for the identified level of motivation. For example, the firstexamining motivation task for mental skills involves specific rules of conversa-tion. Students must identify their interest in learning these rules and the reasonsbehind their level of interest. The first examining motivation task for mentalprocesses involves perceptions of motivation relative to the process of using con-ventions in foreign language.
Examining Motivation With Psychomotor Procedures
Examining motivation tasks for the domain of psychomotor proceduresinvolve identifying one’s level of motivation to learn psychomotor skills andprocesses and then analyzing the reasons for the identified level of motivation. Forexample, the first examining motivation task for psychomotor skills involves spe-cific warm-up and cool-down exercises. Students identify their level of motivationfor learning these psychomotor skills and the reasons behind the identified level.The first examining motivation task for psychomotor processes involves percep-tions of motivation relative to the process of reading a story aloud.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS FOR
SELF-SYSTEM OBJECTIVES AND TASKS
Examining Importance Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to identify the extent to which they perceive learning spe-cific knowledge to be important and analyze the logic of their perceptions
• Use terms and phrases like the following: how important is it to you, whydo you think it might be important, can you provide some reason why it isimportant, how logical is your thinking
• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats
164 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Examining Efficacy Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to identify the extent to which they believe they can learnor get better at specific knowledge and analyze the logic of their beliefs
• Use terms and phrases like the following: can you improve, how well doyou think you can do, how well can you learn, how good are you at, howlogical is your thinking
• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Examining Emotional Response Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to identify emotions associated with knowledge andanalyze the logic behind these emotions
• Use terms and phrases like the following: what are your feelings about,what is the logic underlying your thinking, how reasonable is your thinking
• Use short and extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Examining Motivation Objectives and Tasks
• Require students to identify their level of motivation for learning specifictypes of knowledge and the logic behind the identified level of motivation.Ideally students include their perception of importance, efficacy, and emo-tional response in their analyses.
• Use terms and phrases like the following: how interested are you, howmotivated are you, how would you explain your level of interest, how rea-sonable is your thinking
• Use short or extended written and oral constructed-response formats
Self-System Objectives and Tasks 165
167
CH A P T E R NI N E
The New Taxonomy as a Scalefor Student Performance
chomotor procedures) for each of the six levels of the New The previous eight chapters have addressed objectives and tasks across the
three domains of knowledge (information, mental procedures, and psy-Taxonomy. In effect
the New Taxonomy represents a tacit scale of student performance. Objectives andassessment tasks could be designed across all six levels of the New Taxonomy fora knowledge component that is the focus of a particular unit of instruction or a par-ticular grading period. To illustrate, assume that a district, school, or teacher hasidentified information about the solar system as the focus of instruction at theeighth grade. Figure 9.1 lists potential objectives and tasks regarding the solar system for all six levels of the New Taxonomy.
Figure 9.1 illustrates that it is possible to generate objectives and tasks for spe-cific types of knowledge at a specific grade level for all six levels of the NewTaxonomy. Here the knowledge focus is information about the solar system at theeighth grade. For each level of the New Taxonomy, specific objectives and sam-ple tasks have been articulated. Using these guidelines, teachers could constructtheir own tasks or use those designed by the school or district to determine eachstudent’s position on the six levels of the New Taxonomy for this particular topic.This is probably not advisable for at least two reasons.
First, as described in the New Taxonomy (Marzano & Kendall, 2007), themetacognitive and self-system processes are meant to be addressed as an integralpart of academic content. Unfortunately, this perception is not commonly sharedthroughout K–12 education. However, metacognitive and self-system skills arebecoming accepted as a viable type of supporting or complimentary curriculum toacademic content. We discuss this later in this chapter.
The second reason for not using all six levels of the New Taxonomy as a scale formeasuring students is that within a school system, different grade levels focus on verydifferent types of knowledge. For example, at the eighth-grade level, the expectation
168 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 9.1 Complete Articulation of New Taxonomy Regarding Information
Knowledge About the Solar System
New TaxonomyLevel Objective Sample Task
Level 6— The student will be able How would you describe your level of interestSelf-System: to analyze his or her to learn more about the solar system? WhatExamining motivation to learn about are your reasons for this level of motivation?Motivation the solar system. How logical is your thinking?
Level 5— The student will be able Identify something about the solar systemMetacognition: to identify aspects of the about which you are confused. Develop a planMonitoring solar system about which to clear up your confusion.Clarity he or she is not clear.
Level 4— The student will be able Select one of the current discoveries aboutKnowledge to investigate the gradual the solar system we have studied in class.Utilization: growth of knowledge Investigate how the discovery came about andInvestigating about the solar system. how it changed our thinking about the solar
system.
Level 3— The student will be able Identify two planets in our solar system andAnalysis: to identify similarities and compare them on two or more characteristicsMatching differences between
various planets in thesolar system.
of your choice.
Level 2— The student will be able Explain what you consider to be the mostComprehension: to explain the critical important features of our solar system in termsIntegrating features of the solar
system.of understanding how it operates.
Level 1—Retrieval:Recognizing andRecalling
The student will be ableto recognize and recallimportant details aboutthe solar system.
Briefly explain the following terms:
• Planetary rings• Light year• Astronomical unit
Determine if the following statements aretrue or false:
1. The path of objects traveling around thesun follows a law of planetary motiondiscovered by German astronomerJohannes Kepler in the early 1600s.
2. There are seventy-three known moonsin the solar system.
3. Jupiter is a dwarf planet.
4. The term celestial object does notinclude earth.
5. Mercury has fifteen planetary rings.
6. The moon is about one-third the size ofearth.
7. Venus is the coldest planet in the solarsystem.
8. Astronomers most often measuredistances within the solar system inastronomical units.
for students might be that they can analyze information about the topic of the solarsystem—in the parlance of the New Taxonomy, the expectation is that studentsdemonstrate competence in matching, classifying, analyzing errors, generalizing, andspecifying regarding information about the solar system. At the fifth-grade level, theexpectation might be that students can comprehend the important characteristics of thesolar system—in New Taxonomy terms, the expectation is that they demonstrate com-petence in integrating and symbolizing information about the solar system. At thethird-grade level, the expectation might be that students can retrieve basic informationabout the solar system—they can recognize and recall basic facts about the solar sys-tem. Thus it would be impractical and unwise to expect students to exhibit all levelsof the New Taxonomy for all topics at each grade level. For measurement purposes,what is needed is a flexible scale that can translate the New Taxonomy into reasonableexpectations and be easily used by teachers to design and score assessments.
A FLEXIBLE SCALE TO USE WITH THE NEW TAXONOMY
In a series of works, Marzano (2006; Marzano & Haystead, 2008) has a developeda scale that can be used to design and score assessments based on the first four levels of the New Taxonomy. That scale is depicted in Figure 9.2.
The New Taxonomy as a Scale for Student Performance 169
Figure 9.2 Scale for Use With the First Four Levels of the New Taxonomy
Score 4.0: In addition to Score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications thatgo beyond what was taught.
Score 3.5: In addition to Score 3.0 performance, partial success at inferences and applicationsthat go beyond what was taught.
Score 3.0: No major errors or omissions regarding any of the information and/or processes(simple or complex) that were explicitly taught.
Score 2.5. No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes and partialknowledge of the more complex ideas and processes.
Score 2.0: No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes butmajor errors or omissions regarding the more complex ideas and processes.
Score 1.5: Partial knowledge of the simpler details and processes but major errors or omissionsregarding the more complex ideas and processes.
Score 1.0: With help, a partial understanding of some of the simpler details and processesand some of the more complex ideas and processes.
Score 0.5: With help, a partial understanding of some of the simpler details and processes butnot the more complex ideas and processes.
Score 0.0: Even with help, no understanding or skill demonstrated.
© Copyright 2004. Marzano & Associates. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.
The scale in Figure 9.2 is generic. It is intended to be rewritten for specificgrade level expectations using the New Taxonomy. To illustrate, assume that atfifth grade students are expected to comprehend the critical characteristics of thesolar system. That is, the stated objective for fifth grade students is this: “Thestudent will be able to explain the critical characteristics of the solar system.” Thisexpectation would be placed at score 3.0 in the scale. To determine score level 2.0,one simply moves down one level of the New Taxonomy. In effect the objectivefor score level 2.0 would be, “The student will be able to recall important detailsabout the solar system.” To determine score level 4.0, one moves up one level inthe New Taxonomy. In effect, the objective for score level 4.0 would be, “Thestudent will be able to analyze information about the solar system.” As discussed,below score 4.0, objectives are more general in nature. With these three referencepoints identified, a scale specific to the topic of the solar system for the fifth gradecan be written. This is depicted in Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3 is a scale written specifically for the fifth-grade target objectivesfor the solar system. Note that for score 3.0 and 2.0, rather specific guidance isprovided that allows teachers to generate and score assessments. We address thisin the next section. Score value 4.0 is less specific because it involves inferencesand applications that go beyond what was directly taught in class. Here teachersare provided guidance as to the type of inferences and applications students areexpected to make. In this case, those inferences and applications address theanalysis processes of the New Taxonomy.
Now consider a different grade level using the same general content—thesolar system. Assume that at third grade, the target objective is that studentswill be able to retrieve important information about the solar system. Again thiswould occupy score 3.0 on the scale. To define score 2.0, one would movedown a level on the New Taxonomy. However, retrieval is the lowest level ofthe New Taxonomy. In such cases, one looks for a hierarchic structure within agiven taxonomic level. In this case, recognition is a lower level than recall.Recall then, is the expectation at score value 3.0; recognition is the expectationat score value 2.0. To define score value 4.0, one moves up one level in the NewTaxonomy, to comprehension. Again a specific scale would be written. This isdepicted in Figure 9.4.
This scale, although on the same general topic as that depicted in Figure 9.3,is quite different in that score values 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 involve recognition, recall,and integration, respectively, whereas in Figure 9.3, score values 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0involve recall, integration and analysis, respectively.
As the foregoing examples illustrate, when a grade-level statement of studentexpectations is specific enough to be placed on the New Taxonomy, a scale can beconstructed using the generic scale in Figure 9.2. The grade-level expectation isplaced in score value 3.0. Score value 2.0 is defined using one level down in the
170 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
The New Taxonomy as a Scale for Student Performance 171
Figure 9.3 Scale for the Topic of the Solar System at the Fifth Grade
Score 4.0 In addition to score 3.0, in-depth inferences and applications that involveidentifying implied similarities and differences, classifying, analyzing errors,generalizing, and specifying.
Score 3.5 In addition to score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications withpartial success.
Score 3.0 While engaged in tasks that address the topic of the solar system, the studentdemonstrates comprehension of critical characteristics of the solar system,such as
• Basic interactions between the sun and planets in the solar system(e.g., explains why the planets stay in orbit around the sun)
• Basic distinctions between the sun and planets in the solar system (e.g.,shape, size, characteristics of rings, characteristics of moons, distance fromthe sun)
The student exhibits no major errors or omissions.
Score 2.5 No major errors or omissions regarding the score 2.0 elements and partialknowledge of the score 3.0 elements.
Score 2.0 No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes,such as
• Recalling specific terminology, such as� Planetary rings� Light-year� Astronomical unit
• Recalling isolated details, such as� The moon is about one-third the size of earth.� Astronomers most often measure distances within the solar system in
astronomical units.� Objects around the sun travel according to a law of planetary motion
discovered by German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the early 1600s.� The term celestial object does not include earth.
However, the student exhibits major errors or omissions with score 3.0elements.
Score 1.5 Partial knowledge of the score 2.0 elements but major errors or omissions regardingthe score 3.0 elements.
Score 1.0 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 elements andsome of the score 3.0 elements.
Score 0.5 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 elements but not thescore 3.0 elements.
Score 0.0 Even with help, no understanding or skill demonstrated.
New Taxonomy and score value 4.0 is defined using one level up on the NewTaxonomy. When recall is the focus of score value 3.0, recognition is used as thefocus of score value 2.0.
172 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 9.4 Scale for the Topic of the Solar System at the Third Grade
Score 4.0 In addition to score 3.0, in-depth inferences and applications that involveidentifying critical versus noncritical aspects of the solar system.
Score 3.5 In addition to score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applications withpartial success.
Score 3.0 While engaged in tasks that address the topic of the solar system, thestudent demonstrates recall of important information about the solar system,such as
• There are eight planets in our solar system.• The earth is the third planet from the sun.• The earth is assumed to be the only planet that supports life.• There are many solar systems in the universe.• There are four gas giant planets in our solar system.• There are three dwarf planets in our solar system.• There are four inner planets and four outer planets in our solar system.
The student exhibits no major errors or omissions.
Score 2.5 No major errors or omissions regarding the score 2.0 elements and partialknowledge of the score 3.0 elements.
Score 2.0 No major errors or omissions regarding the simpler details and processes,such as
• Recognizing isolated details, such as� Our planet is called Earth.� The sun is a star.� Each planet orbits the sun.� Mercury is the name of the planet closest to the sun.� Earth is the only planet with just one moon.
However, the student exhibits major errors or omissions with score 3.0elements.
Score 1.5 Partial knowledge of the score 2.0 elements but major errors or omissions regardingthe score 3.0 elements.
Score 1.0 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 elements andsome of the score 3.0 elements.
Score 0.5 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 elements but not thescore 3.0 elements.
Score 0.0 Even with help, no understanding or skill demonstrated.
DESIGNING AND SCORING ASSESSMENTS
Once a scale has been constructed for a grade-level expectation, assessments canbe constructed and scored. Again consider the scale in Figure 9.4. There recog-nition is the focus of score value 2.0. Based on the scale, the teacher can designrecognition items like the following:
Determine if the following statements are true or false:
• The sun orbits Earth.• Mercury appears blue when viewed through a telescope.• Saturn has rings.• Earth is between Venus and Mars.• We live on the third planet from the Sun.
These true–false items are recognition items because students are providedwith statements about the solar system and must recognize whether each statementis correct. Forced-choice items, like true–false, matching, and multiple choice,are commonly used for recognition items. (For a detailed discussion of commonrecognition items, see Marzano, 2006.)
The focus of score value 3.0 is recall. The teacher might design items likethe following for score value 3.0:
Briefly answer the following:
• What are the different planets in the solar system? Start from the sun andidentify each planet from the first to the last.
• Pick three planets and describe some of the important things we’ve learnedabout each.
Recall items require students to produce accurate information as opposed tosimply recognizing it when it is provided. Consequently, recall items typically useshort constructed-response formats. (For a discussion, see Chapter 3.)
The focus of score value 4.0 is integration. Here students must distinguishbetween critical versus noncritical elements for a given topic. An item like thefollowing would elicit this type of thinking:
We have learned about earth’s ability to support life. Pick three characteris-tics we have studied and explain why they are critical to support life on earth.
Here students must go beyond simply recalling information that has beentaught. They must explain why certain characteristics are important to a specificphenomenon—the ability of earth to support life.
The three types of items generated by the teacher would be put together toform the assessment depicted in Figure 9.5.
To score the assessment in Figure 9.5, a teacher would first address each itemand determine if a student’s response received full credit (possibly signified by +),no credit (possibly signified by 0), or partial credit (possibly signified by P). Theteacher then examines the pattern of response across score 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 itemsand tasks. To understand how best to interpret response patterns, it is useful tobegin with the score value of 3.0.
The New Taxonomy as a Scale for Student Performance 173
174 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 9.5 Assessment Based on Third-Grade Scale for the Solar System
Section I: For each item, identify whether it is true or false:
1. The sun orbits Earth.
2. Mercury appears blue when viewed through a telescope.
3. Saturn has rings.
4. Earth is between Venus and Mars.
5. We live on the third planet from the sun.
Section II: Briefly answer the following:
1. What are the different planets in the solar system? Start from the sun and identify eachplanet from the first to the last.
2. Pick three planets and describe some of the important things we’ve learned about each.
Section III: We have learned about earth’s ability to support life. Pick three characteristics we havestudied and explain why they are critical to support life on earth.
• A score of 3.0 indicates that a student has answered all items or tasks cor-rectly that involve simpler details and processes (all score 2.0 items andtasks) as well as all items and tasks that involve more complex ideas andprocesses that were explicitly taught (all score 3.0 items and tasks). Ineffect, the score of 3.0 is the fulcrum of the scale. It represents the instruc-tional goal for a specific topic.
• A score of 2.0 indicates that the student has answered all items and taskscorrectly that involve simpler details and processes (all score 2.0 items andtasks), but has missed all items and tasks that involve more complex ideasand processes (all score 3.0 items and tasks).
• If a student has answered all items and tasks correctly regarding simpler detailsand processes (score 2.0 items and tasks) and some items and tasks correctlyinvolving more complex ideas and processes (score 3.0 items and tasks) or hasreceived partial credit on those items and tasks, a score of 2.5 is assigned.
• A score of 1.5 is assigned if a student receives partial credit on the score 2.0items and tasks but misses all other types of items.
• A score of 1.0 is assigned if a student misses all items and tasks on anassessment but with help from the teacher demonstrates partial credit on thescore 2.0 and score 3.0 items and tasks.
• A score of 0.5 is assigned if the student misses all items and tasks but withhelp demonstrates partial credit on the score 2.0 items and tasks (but doesnot demonstrate partial credit on the score 3.0 items and tasks).
• A score of 0.0 indicates that even with help, the student cannot answer anyitems or perform any tasks correctly.
• At the top end of the scale, a score of 4.0 is assigned if a student answersall items and tasks correctly (score 4.0 items and tasks, score 3.0 items andtasks, and score 2.0 items and tasks).
• A score of 3.5 is assigned if a student answers score 2.0 and score 3.0 itemsand tasks correctly and receives partial credit on score 4.0 items and tasks.
To illustrate, assume that a particular student answered all items correctly inSections I and II of the assessment depicted in Figure 9.5 but did not answer theitem in Section III correctly. The student would receive a score of 3.0 on theassessment. Had the student received partial credit on the items in Section III, hisor her score would have been 3.5. If the student had answered all items correctlyin Section I and answered some of the items correctly in Section II or received par-tial credit on some of these items, he or she would have received a score of 2.5. Ifthe student answered no items correctly on the assessment but upon a discussionwith the teacher was able to partially answer some questions in Section I andSection II with prompting, the student’s score would be 1.0. For a more detaileddiscussion of various types of score patterns see Marzano (2006).
One of the advantages to scoring assessments using the scale presented in thischapter is that it is particularly useful in tracking student progress over time. Toillustrate, consider Figure 9.6.
The New Taxonomy as a Scale for Student Performance 175
Topic: Solar System
4
3
2
1
0a b c d e f g
a. October 6
b. October 12
c. October 20
d. October 29
e. November 8
f.
g.
Figure 9.6 Tracking Student Progress
Figure 9.6 depicts five scores for a particular student over time on the topic of thesolar system. Assume that all assessments were similar to that shown in Figure 9.5.The student’s scores have been graphed by the teacher and the student. This allowsthe teacher and student to examine growth over time. This particular student startedwith a score of 1.0—the student answered no questions on the test without help, butwith help was able to receive partial credit on some score 2.0 and 3.0 items. By thefourth and fifth assessments, the student was able to independently answer score 2.0and 3.0 items thus receiving a score of 3.0 on both assessments. Marzano (2006) hasdemonstrated how this type of graphing of student progress fulfills some of the defin-ing features of formative assessment. It allows students to see their growth over timeand provides assessment information about status at a particular point in time.
THE UNIQUE ROLE OF METACOGNITIVE
AND SELF-SYSTEM PROCESSES
It is certainly possible to incorporate metacognitive and self-system processesinto a scale like those depicted in Figure 9.3 and 9.4. Indeed if score 3.0 on ascale focuses on a knowledge utilization process such as investigation, it wouldmake logical sense for score value 4.0 to address a metacognitive process likeexamining accuracy or examining clarity. And if score value 3.0 on a scalefocuses on a metacognitive process such as examining accuracy or examiningclarity, it would make logical sense for score value 4.0 to address a self-systemprocess like examining motivation. This notwithstanding, K–12 educators typi-cally want to isolate academic content as the centerpiece of the curriculum. Thisis evidenced by the current emphasis on national and state academic standards(for a discussion, see Marzano and Haystead, 2008). Consequently, districts andschools might reasonably elect to consider the metacognitive and self-systemprocesses as a separate type of curriculum. This is in keeping with current dis-cussions of personal and social skills. There is growing evidence that when sucha curriculum is combined with a sound academic curriculum, students benefitboth in terms of learning academic content as well as learning personal and socialskills. Specifically, a meta-analysis by Durlak and Weissberg (2007) indicatesthat when skills like those in the metacognitive and self-system components ofthe New Taxonomy are taught in tandem with academic skills, both can beenhanced. They explain that “the association between academic performanceand personal and social development is of great interest to educators, researchers,and policy makers” (p. 18). It should be noted that Durlak and Weissbergdefine personal and social development in a much broader manner than wedefine metacognition and self-system thinking; however, an examination of thetypes of skills they consider within their framework of personal and social devel-opment demonstrates that many of their personal skills are closely related to whatwe refer to in the later two categories of the New Taxonomy.
176 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
According to Durlak and Weissberg (2007), one important aspect of teachingmetacognitive and self-system skills (i.e., personal skills) is to provide studentswith explicit models and practice in those skills. They note,
New skill cannot be acquired immediately. It takes time and effort todevelop new behaviors and often more complicated skills must be brokendown into smaller steps and sequentially mastered. Therefore, a coordi-nated sequence of activities is required that links the learning steps andprovides youth with opportunities to connect these steps. (p. 10)
In terms of the metacognitive and self-system processes listed in the NewTaxonomy, these findings imply that teachers should teach specific strategies formetacognitive and self-systems skills. Consider, for example, the metacognitiveprocess of specifying goals. To use this process as a supportive structure for learn-ing content, teachers should provide students with explicit guidance in how to setconcrete, measurable goals and how to design explicit plans that include time lines,resources and milestones. This is consistent with current discussions regardingenhancing student thinking. For example, Swartz, Costa, Beyer, Reagan, and Kallick(2008) discuss teaching students how to climb the “ladder of metacognition” (p. 99)as a critical aspect of teaching thinking. They also recommend teaching studentshow to gain control of their emotions and thought processes as a form of higherorder thinking. Of course, these two components are similar to metacognitive andself-system thinking in the New Taxonomy.
In addition to learning strategies for metacognitive and self-system thinking,we believe students should keep track of their progress on these skills using a scalepatterned after the generic scale in Figure 9.2. To illustrate, consider Figure 9.7.
Figure 9.7 is designed for the metacognitive skill of specifying goals at thehigh school level. Scales at the lower grade levels would necessarily be differentto reflect differences in sophistication of expectations for this competency. Notethat the score values 3.0 and 2.0 are spelled out for teachers. This provides guid-ance for instruction and assessment. That is, the scale communicates to highschool teachers that they must explicitly teach the following:
• Strategies for setting specific learning goals with concrete ways to deter-mine when they are attained
• Strategies for designing explicit plans for completing the goals with clearmilestones along the way
• Strategies for identifying necessary resources and how the those resourceswill be acquired
Using the scale in Figure 9.7, students might systematically rate themselves.The teacher might also provide a rating. In addition to comparing teacher andstudent ratings, this system could be used to reinforce progress in the skill of spec-ifying goals and celebrate that progress.
The New Taxonomy as a Scale for Student Performance 177
178 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
Figure 9.7 High School Scale for Specifying Goals
Specifying Goals
High School (Grades 9–12)
Score 4.0 In addition to score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences and applicationsthat go beyond what was taught.
Score 3.5 In addition to score 3.0 performance, in-depth inferences andapplications with partial success.
Score 3.0 While engaged in the metacognitive skills of specifying goals, the studentexhibits the following behaviors:
• Identifies a specific learning goal with an concrete way to determine when itis attained
• Identifies an explicit plan for completing the goal with clear milestones alongthe way
• Identifies necessary resources and how those resources will be acquired
The student exhibits no major errors or omissions.
Score 2.5 No major errors or omissions regarding the score 2.0 elements andpartial knowledge of the score 3.0 elements.
Score 2.0 The student is successful with the simpler details and behaviors such as
• Identifies a goal but the does not identify a concrete way to determine whenit is attained
• Identifies an explicit plan for completing the goal but does not includemilestones
• Identifies necessary resources but does not identify how those resources willbe acquired
However, the student exhibits major errors or omissions with score 3.0elements.
Score 1.5 Partial knowledge of the score 2.0 elements but major errors oromissions regarding the score 3.0 elements.
Score 1.0 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 elements andsome of the score 3.0 elements.
Score 0.5 With help, a partial understanding of some of the score 2.0 but not thescore 3.0 elements.
Score 0.0 Even with help, no understanding or skill demonstrated.
Afterword
In this handbook, we have provided district, school, and classroom educatorswith a practical guide to designing and assessing educational objectives using
The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Marzano & Kendall, 2007).Without a sound theoretical base, objectives and their assessments become subjec-tive and ultimately ineffectual. Where The New Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives provides the theory and research base to design objectives and theirrelated assessments, this handbook describes precisely how to go about designingthose objectives and assessments. It is our hope that educators use this hand-book to rethink and restructure their standards, assessments, and curriculum. Weacknowledge that the New Taxonomy and this handbook cannot address all issuesregarding standards, assessments, and curriculum for individual districts, schoolsand classrooms. Consequently we encourage educators to make the necessaryadaptations and alterations in the New Taxonomy to meet their specific needs.
179
180
References
Airasian, P. W. (1994). The impact of the Taxonomy on testing and evaluation. In L. W.Anderson & L. A. Sosniak (Eds.), Bloom’s Taxonomy: A forty-year retrospective:Ninety-third yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (pp. 82–102).Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich,P. R., et al. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revisionof Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.).(1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.
Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2007). The impact of after-school programs promote personal and social skills. Chicago: Collaborative for Academic, Social, andEmotional Learning.
Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R. J. (2006). Classroom assessment & grading that work. Alexandria, VA:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A comprehensive framework foreffective instruction. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.
Marzano, R. J., & Haystead, M. W. (2008). Making standards useful in the classroom.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R. J., & Kendall, J. S. (2007). The new taxonomy of educational objectives (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Marzano, R. J., & Pickering, D. J. (2005). Building academic vocabulary: Teacher’smanual. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Swartz, R. J., Costa, A. L., Beyer, B. K., Reagan, R., & Kallick, B. (2007). Thinking-basedlearning: Activating students’ potential. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.
181
Index
Algorithms, 13Analogy, 59
graphic organizer for, 61 (fig), 63 (fig)Analysis objectives and tasks, 17–19, 55–92
analyzing errors, 18–19, 72–80classifying, 18, 65–72defining, 6generalizing, 19, 80–86matching, 18, 55–64specifying, 19, 87–91summary of key points, 91–92
Analyzing errors, 18–19, 72–80across knowledge domains, 73 (fig)–76 (fig)logical error categories, 77, 78 (fig)–79 (fig)with information, 77–79with mental procedures, 79–80with psychomotor procedures, 80
Assessments, designing and scoring, 172–176assessment for solar system, third grade,
174 (fig)tracking student progress, 175 (fig)–176
Attack, as logical error, 78 (fig)
Benchmark statements, 30Beyer, B. K., 177Bloom’s taxonomy, 1, 2–3 (fig), 6–7
Classifying, 18, 65–72across knowledge domains, 66 (fig)–68 (fig)graphic organizer for, 69 (fig)–70 (fig)subordinate categories, 65, 69 (fig),
70 (fig), 71superordinate categories, 69 (fig), 70 (fig),
71, 72with information, 71with mental procedures, 71with psychomotor procedures, 71–72
Comparison matrix, 61 (fig), 62Complex combination procedures, 14–15Components of three knowledge domains,
15 (fig)Comprehension objectives and tasks, 43–54
defining, 6integrating, 17, 43–48
summary of key points, 54symbolizing, 17, 48–54
Costa, A. L., 177
Decision making, 20, 93–99across knowledge domains, 94 (fig)–97 (fig)matrix for, 98 (fig)with information, 98–99with mental procedures, 99with psychomotor procedures, 99
Decision-making matrix, 98 (fig)Declarative knowledge, 9, 12Details, as information type, 10Dispositional monitoring, 22Double bubble, 60 (fig), 62Durlak, J. A., 176, 177
Educational objectives, nature/format of, 3–6, 4 (fig)–5 (fig)
Examining efficacy, 149–154across knowledge domains, 150 (fig)–153 (fig)with information, 149with mental procedures, 149with psychomotor procedures, 154
Examining emotional response, 154–158across knowledge domains, 155 (fig)–157 (fig)with information, 154, 158with mental procedures, 158with psychomotor procedures, 158
Examining importance, 143–148across knowledge domains, 144 (fig)–147 (fig)with information, 148with mental procedures, 148with psychomotor procedures, 148
Examining motivation, 158–164across knowledge domains,
159 (fig)–162 (fig)graphic organizer for, 163 (fig)with information, 164with mental procedures, 164with psychomotor procedures, 164
Executing, 37–41across knowledge domains, 39 (fig)–40 (fig)with information, 37
with mental procedures, 37with psychomotor procedures, 37
Experimenting, 20–21, 104–109across knowledge domains, 105 (fig)–108 (fig)with information, 109with mental procedures, 109with psychomotor procedures, 109
Facts, 10, 11 (fig)Faulty logic, 78 (fig)Forced-choice items, 32 (fig)Foundational physical procedures, 14Framework for supporting claim, 79 (fig)
Generalizing, 10, 11 (fig), 19, 80–86across knowledge domains, 81 (fig)–84 (fig)matrix for, 85 (fig)with information, 86with mental procedures, 86with psychomotor procedures, 86
Graphic organizerfor classifying, 69 (fig)for details, 52 (fig)for generalizations, 53 (fig)for generalizing, 85 (fig)for matching, 60 (fig)–61 (fig)for motivation, 163 (fig)for skills and processes, 53 (fig)for specifying goals, 121 (fig)for subordinate categories, 70 (fig)for superordinate categories, 70 (fig)Information knowledge, 9–12types of, 11 (fig)–12 (fig)
Integrating, 17, 43–48across knowledge domains, 44 (fig)–46 (fig)with information, 47with mental procedures, 47with psychomotor procedures, 47–48
Investigating, 21, 109–115across knowledge domains, 111 (fig)–114 (fig)with information, 110with mental procedures, 110–114with psychomotor procedures, 115
Kallick, B, 177Knowledge domains, 9–15 (fig)
information, 9–12, 11 (fig)–12 (fig)mental procedures, 12–14 (fig)psychomotor procedures, 13, 14–15 (fig)
Knowledge utilization objectives and tasks,93–116
decision making, 20, 93–99defining, 6
experimenting, 20–21, 104–109investigating, 21, 109–115problem solving, 20, 99–104summary of key points, 115–116
Levels of processing dimension, 16–24Level 1: retrieval, 16–17Level 2: comprehension, 17Level 3: analysis, 17–19Level 4: knowledge utilization, 20–21Level 5: metacognition, 21–22Level 6: self-system thinking, 22–24overview, 16 (fig)
Macroprocedures, 13–14, 38Matching, 18, 55–64
across knowledge domains, 56 (fig)–58 (fig)graphic organizers for, 60 (fig)–61 (fig)with information, 64with mental procedures, 64with psychomotor procedures, 64
Matching objectives, defining, 6Matrix
comparison, 61 (fig)decision-making, 98 (fig)generalizing, 85 (fig)
Mental procedure domain overview, 12–14 (fig), 17
Metacognition objectives and tasks, 21–22,117–142
monitoring accuracy, 22, 135–141, 141–142monitoring clarity, 22, 129–135process monitoring, 22, 122–129specifying goals, 21, 117–122, 178 (fig)
Metacognitive processes, 6, 167Metaphor, 59
graphic organizer for, 61 (fig), 63 (fig)–64Misinformation, as logical error, 79 (fig)Monitoring accuracy, 22, 135–141, 141–142
across knowledge domains, 136 (fig)–139 (fig)
with information, 140with mental procedures, 140with psychomotor procedures, 141
Monitoring clarity, 22, 129–135across knowledge domains,
131 (fig)–134 (fig)with information, 130with mental procedures, 135with psychomotor procedures, 135
New Taxonomycomplete articulation example, 167, 168 (fig)defining, 2 (fig)
182 Designing and Assessing Educational Objectives
goal specification, high school scale, 178 (fig)metacognitive and self-system processes,
176–178scale for first four levels, generic,
169 (fig)–171scale for solar system, fifth grade,
170, 171 (fig)scale for solar system, third grade,
171, 172 (fig)See also Knowledge domains; Levels of
processing dimension
Organizing ideas, as information type, 10
Principles, 10, 12 (fig)Problem solving, 20, 99–104
across knowledge domains, 100 (fig)–103 (fig)with information, 104with mental procedures, 104with psychomotor procedures, 104
Procedural knowledge. See Mental proceduredomain
Process monitoring, 22, 122–129across knowledge domains, 123 (fig)–128 (fig)with information, 129with mental procedures, 129with psychomotor procedures, 129
Psychomotor procedures overview, 13, 14–15 (fig), 17
Reagan, R., 177Recall, 16–17Recalling, 33–37
across knowledge domains, 34 (fig)–36 (fig)with information, 33–37with mental procedures, 37with psychomotor procedures, 37
Recognition vs. recall, 16Recognizing, 25–33
across knowledge domains, 26 (fig)–29 (fig)using forced-choice items, 32 (fig)with information, 31with mental procedures, 31with psychomotor procedures, 31–33
Retrieval objectives and tasks, 16–17, 25–42defining, 6executing, 37–41recalling, 33–37recognizing, 25–33summary of key points, 42
Self-system objectives and tasks, 6, 143–165, 167
examining efficacy, 149–154examining emotional response, 154–158examining importance, 143–148examining motivation, 158–164summary of key points, 164–165See also Self-system thinking
Self-system thinking, 22–24aspects of motivation, 23 (fig)examining efficacy, 23examining emotional response, 23examining importance, 22examining overall motivation, 23–24
Sentence stem, 60 (fig), 62Simple combination procedures, 14Single rule, 13Specifying, 19, 87–91
across knowledge domains, 88 (fig)–90 (fig)with information, 87with mental procedures, 87–91with psychomotor procedures, 91
Specifying goals, 21, 117–122, 178 (fig)across knowledge domains, 118 (fig)–120 (fig)graphic organizer for, 121 (fig)with information, 121–122with mental procedures, 122with psychomotor procedures, 122
Swartz, R. J., 177Symbolizing, 17, 48–54
across knowledge domains, 49 (fig)–51 (fig)graphic organizers for details, 48, 52 (fig)graphic organizers for generalizations,
52–53 (fig)graphic organizers for skills and processes,
53 (fig)–54with information, 48–53with mental procedures, 53–54with psychomotor procedures, 54
Tactics, 13Time sequences, 10, 11 (fig)Tyler, Ralph, 1
Venn diagram, 60 (fig), 62
Vocabulary terms, 9–10, 11 (fig)
Weak reference, as logical error, 78 (fig)–79 (fig)Weissberg, R. P., 176, 177
Index 183
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