Download - Diploma in Child Health HAEMATOLOGY LECTURE
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Diploma in Child Health HAEMATOLOGY LECTURE
UCT School of Child and Adolescent Health 2008
A Davidson, F Desai, M HendricksHaematology – Oncology ServiceRed Cross Children’s Hospital
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STRUCTURE OF THIS MODULE
� UTILISE ONLINE LECTURE MATERIAL� Study Lecture Notes
[1] Anaemia [2] Bleeding Disorders
� Try to Solve Cases
� Use References
� ATTEND INTERACTIVE TEACHING SESSION� Come to the Lecture if possible
� AT THE BEDSIDE� Utilise this approach in the clinical setting
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Anaemia in Childhood
A Davidson, F Desai, M HendricksRed Cross Children’s Hospital
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ANAEMIA
� Simple:
� only the RBC’s are involved.
� Complex:
� other cell lines such as white cells or platelets are involved. Suggests BM infiltration or hypoplasia. Refer to Paediatric Haematologist for Bone Marrow Aspiration.
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Is the Child Anaemic ?
Age
� 0 - 2 weeks
� 6 weeks
� 3 months
� 6 - 18 months
� 18 - 48 months
� 4 - 12 years
� > 12 years
Hb g/dl MCV fl
14.0 > 100
9.5 80-96
10.0 72-96
11.0 70-96
11.5 75-96
11.5 76-96
12-14 78-96
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What Kind of Anaemia is it and what is the Cause?
� Low MCV
Microcytic hypochromic anaemia
Fe Deficiency is the most likely
� High MCV
Macrocytic anaemia
Rare … Folate or B12 deficiency are the commonest causes
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What Kind of Anaemia is it and what is the Cause?
� Normal MCVNormocytic anaemia
� High Reticulocyte count
Blood loss
Haemolysis
� Low Reticulocyte count
Marrow hypoplasia
Chronic disease
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ANAEMIA
Low Hb only
MCV
LOW
Clinical setting
Raised RDW
���� Iron
Low Hb AND
Low WCC or Plts
Marrow suppression /
infiltration
Aplastic Anaemia
Acute Infection
Disseminated TB
Malignancy
NORMAL
Chronic Inflammation
Renal disease
Parvovirus infection
���� Iron and folate
Retics ����
Acute Blood lossHaemolysis
Urine dipstix
Smear
Coombs
Bilirubin
Retics ����
HIGH
YES
NO
Other
Eg. Thal
���� Folate / B12
Coombs + Auto- or Iso-Immune
Coombs - Hb or Enzyme abn
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MICROCYTIC HYPOCHROMIC ANAEMIA
• Commonest anaemia in childhood
• Often an incidental pick up
• Usually due to Fe deficiency
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Causes of Iron Deficiency
� Inadequate Intake
� Increased Demand
� Blood Loss
� Impaired Absorption
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Dietary Iron in Infants
� Requirements: 1mg/kg/day full term infants
2mg/kg/day low birthweight babies
� Breast and unfortified cows milk equally low in iron (0.5 -1.5mg/l) but infants absorb 49% of iron from breast milk and only 10% from cows milk.
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Increased Iron Demand
� Children are particularly susceptible during
periods of rapid growth.
� At risk are:
Low birth weight babies
Premature Infants
Twins
Adolescents
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Blood Loss - Sites
� GIT
� Nose: Recurrent Epistaxis
� Uterus: Menorrhagia in adolescent girls
� Kidney: Haematuria
� Lungs: Idiopathic pulmonary heamosiderosis
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Blood Loss from Gut
� Often occult
� Causes include:� Gastritis - drug ingestion e.g. aspirin
� Milk Allergy
� Intestinal parasites e.g. Trichuris
� Anatomic GIT lesions e.g. hiatus hernia,
Meckel’s diverticulum, varices
� Inflammatory Bowel Disease
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Impaired Absorption
� Rare cause of Iron deficiency in children
� May result from:
� Malabsorption syndromes
� Severe prolonged diarrhoea
� Inflammatory bowel disease
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Haematologic Findings inIron Deficiency
� Hb: Low
� RBC Indices:
� Low MCV
� Wide red cell distribution width (RDW)
� Blood Smear: Hypochromia, microcytosis
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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The blood smear shows iron deficiency anemia with microcytic and hypochromic red cells.
Iron Deficiency Anaemia
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Therapeutic Trial of Oral Iron
� Provided examination reveals only pallor and no other abnormality:
� Check the diet is adequate
� Look for stool occult blood loss
� Treat with Iron(elemental Fe 3mg/kg/day)
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Response to Iron Therapy
� Subjective improvement
� Reticulocytosis
5-10% maximal at 5 -10 days
� Hb Rise
from about 5 days
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Haemoglobin Rise
� The more severe the anaemia the greater the daily increment
� 0.25 -0.4 g/dl/day from 5 to 18 days
� Thereafter 0.1 g/dl/day
� By 18 days Hb reaches midway between initial and normal Hb
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Management Iron Deficiency
� Continue iron therapy at full dose until Hb is normal.
� Then continue at full dose for a further 6 weeks to replenish iron stores.
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Poor Response to Iron
� Is the child iron deficient?
� Do iron studies
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Iron Studies in Iron Deficiency
� Low serum ferritin (reflects body iron stores) This is the most reliable and easily available test.
� Low serum iron and percentage iron saturation
� Elevated free erythrocyte protoporphyrin
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Poor Response to Iron
LOW FERRITIN
� Check compliance.
� Check the dose and the product.
� Look for occult blood loss.
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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What is Appropriate Iron Therapy ?
� Recommended: Oral ferrous iron
e.g. ferrous gluconate 3-6mg/kg/day
� Enteric coated tablets and sustained release capsules should be avoided in children. They ensure transit of iron beyond the site of maximum absorption.
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Poor Response to Iron
NORMAL OR HIGH FERRITIN
� The diagnosis of iron deficiency is wrong
� Other causes of microcytic anaemia :
Thalassaemia trait
Chronic inflammatory disease
Sideroblastic Anaemia
Lead poisoning
Copper Deficiency
MICROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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NORMOCYTIC ANAEMIA
� High Reticulocyte count
Blood loss
Haemolysis
� Low or Normal Reticulocyte count
Marrow hypoplasia
Chronic disease
NORMOCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Congenital Haemolytic Anaemia
� Membrane anomalies
� Hereditary Spherocytosis, Elliptocytosis
� RBC Enzyme Deficiencies
� G6PD or PK deficiency
� Haemoglobinopathies
� Thalassaemia or Sickle Cell Syndromes
NORMOCYTIC ANAEMIA
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The blood smears show hereditary elliptocytosis with numerous elliptocytes and smaller numbers of ovalocytes (A), and hereditary spherocytosis with numerous spherocytes (C).
Hereditary Elliptocytosis and Hereditary Spherocytosis
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The blood smears shows acute haemolysis in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, with a bite cell (A) and blister and contracted cells (B).
Glucose-6-phophate Dehydrogenase Deficiency
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The typical facies of a Thalassaemia patient. The malar prominence is the result of extramedullary haematopoiesis.
Thalassaemia
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The blood smear shows sickle cell anaemia with numerous sickle cells and as well as a nucleated red cell.
Sickle Cell Anaemia
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Acquired Haemolytic Anaemia
� Isoimmune
� Haemolytic disease of newborn
� Incompatible blood transfusion
� Autoimmune
� Idiopathic
� Infections
� Collagen diseases
� Malignancy
NORMOCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Clinical Features of Haemolysis
� Pallor and Jaundice
� Splenomegaly
� Dark urine
� Check family history for anaemia,
jaundice or gallstones
NORMOCYTIC ANAEMIA
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� Serum
� Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinaemia
� Elevated Lactic Dehydrogenase
� Decreased Haptoglobin
� Urine
� Urobilin
NORMOCYTIC ANAEMIA
Laboratory Features of Haemolysis
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Haemolytic Anaemia:
Establishing the Cause
� Coombs Test
� if negative excludes acquired causes.
� Blood Smear
� look for spherocytes, sickle cells.
� Haemoglobin Electrophoresis
� RBC enzyme assays and osmotic fragility.
NORMOCYTIC ANAEMIA
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Anaemia of Chronic Disease
� Infections
� Bronchiectasis TB HIV
� Renal Disease
� Chronic Inflammatory Disease
NORMOCYTIC ANAEMIA
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MACROCYTIC ANAEMIA
� Folate Deficiency� Severe malnutrition
� Goats milk
� Drugs e.g. cotrimoxazole, anticonvulsants
� B12 Deficiency� Pernicious anaemia
� Blind loops and Short bowel syndrome
� Isolated B12 Malabsorption
MACROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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The blood smear shows macrocytic anaemia with anisocytosis, macrocytosis and a hypersegemented neutrophil.
MACROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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MACROCYTIC ANAEMIA
� Do Folate and Vitamin B12.
� Refer patients with low Serum B12 to a haematologist
MACROCYTIC ANAEMIA
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IN CONCLUSION
� Anaemia is a symptom and not a diagnosis
� Find and treat the cause
� Shot Gun Therapy (Iron, folate, B12 and blood transfusion) is wrong
The correct diagnosis is delayed
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ANAEMIA CLINICAL CASES
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CLINICAL CASES
� THANDI Aged 8 years
� History: Fatigue and recurrent nose bleeds for 4 weeks.
� Examination: Pale with purpura.
No adenopathy or hepatosplenomegaly.
� FBC: Hb 7.2 MCV 85 Plts 80 WCC 2.1 Retics 0.1%.
Differential: N 80% M 10% E 2%
� What type of anaemia is this?
� What is the differential diagnosis?
� What investigation is essential?
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CLINICAL CASES
� XOLA Aged 8 years
� History: Noted to be pale when he presented with a URTI.
� Examination: Wt 20kg. Systems normal.
� FBC: Hb 6 MCV 68 RDW 24 WBC 12 Plt 250 Normal diff.
� Iron deficiency suspected …
treated with Fe Gluconate (20mg elemental Fe for 4 weeks)
� Repeat FBC: Hb 6.8 MCV 68.
� Stool occult blood negative X 2. Taking medication properly.
� What is the most likely cause of the poor response?
� How would you handle the problem?
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CLINICAL CASES
� THEO Aged 5 years
� History: Presented with tiredness.
� Examination: Pale, not jaundiced. 2cm splenomegaly.
� FBC: Hb 7 MCV 65 RDW 12.
� Treated with iron. No response after three weeks.
� Repeat FBC: Hb 7 MCV 65 Retics 5%.
� Stool occult blood negative. Serum ferritin normal.
� Does he have iron deficiency?
� How would you investigate further?
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CLINICAL CASES
� CINDY Aged 10 years
� History: Presented with epigastric pain and lethargy.
� Examination: Well nourished. Pale. Epigastric tenderness.
� FBC: Hb 6 MCV 60 RDW 26.
� What type of anaemia is this?
� What are the possible causes in this child?
� What investigations would you do?
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CLINICAL CASES
� SINOXOLO Aged 6 years
� Transfused on two occasions for recurring anaemia. Now presents with symptoms of cardiac failure.
� Examination: Below 3rd centile for height and weight.
Generalised adenopathy and enlarged parotids.
Pulse 150 reg. Cardiomegaly with signs of CCF.
Dull to percussion left lower lobe with bronchial breathing.
4cm firm liver and 2cm firm spleen.
� FBC: Hb 3.2 MCV 88 WBC 5.2 Plt 250 Retics 0.1%.
� What type of anaemia is this? What are the possible causes?
� How would you investigate further?
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CLINICAL CASES
� WENDY Aged 8 years
� Presented in a rural town with acute abdominal pain.
� Diagnosis: Acute Appendicitis … Uninflamed appendix removed.
� 24 hours later noted to be pale and jaundiced.
� Referred ? Septicaemic ? Internal bleeding.
� FBC: Hb 3.2 MCV 90 Retics 10%.
� Chemistry: Total BRN 70 Conjugated BRN 10.
� What is in the differential diagnosis?
� What investigations would you do?
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CLINICAL CASES
� STEPHEN Aged 18 months
� Apathetic and eating poorly for a month.
� Examination: Well nourished. Pale.
Systems normal.
� FBC: Hb 5.4 MCV 102 WBC 12.1 Plt 200.
� What type of anaemia is this?
� What investigations would you do?
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Investigating Bleeding Disorders in Childhood
A Davidson, F Desai, M HendricksRed Cross Children’s Hospital
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The HistoryFour important Questions
� Is the child a bleeder ?
� What type of bleeding is it ?
� How severe is the disorder ?
� Is it inherited ?
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Is The Child a Bleeder ?
� Bruises at abnormal sites
� Any spontaneous bleeding
� Bleeding disproportionate to degree of trauma
� Prolonged bleeding from cuts
� Haemorrhage following dental extraction / surgery
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Types of Bleeding
Thrombocytopenia
� Epistaxis
� Mucus Membranes
� Petechiae
� Small bruises
� GIT
� Menorrhagia
Coagulation defect
� Deep seated haematomas
� Haemarthrosis
� Renal
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Screening Tests For Bleeding Disorders
� Platelet Count
� INR
� PTT
� Bleeding Time
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Causes of Thrombocytopaenia
Diminished Production
Aplastic Anaemia
Marrow Infiltration
Selective Depression (Drugs)
Platelet Sequestration
Hypersplenism
Peripheral Consumption ITP
Drug Induced
DIC
Cavernous Haemangioma
Massive Blood Transfusion
Ineffective ThrombopoeisisB12 or Folate Deficiency
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Congenital Disorders of Platelet Function
� Thrombasthaenia
� Storage pool disease
� Abnormal release mechanism
� Bernard-Soulier Syndrome
���� Suspect when platelet count is normal and
bleeding time prolonged. Same situation in vWD but PTT usually also prolonged
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Acquired Disorders Causing Defective Platelet Function
� Scurvy
� Uraemia
� Drugs
� e.g. Aspirin, Antihistaminics, Cephalosporins, Penicillins
� Collagen Disorders
� MDS and Leukaemia
� Hypothyroidism
� Viral infections
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INRPTT
CLOTTING CASCADES
CONTACT
ACTIVATION
TISSUE
THROMBOPLASTIN
INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC
COMMON
FIBRIN
X
V
Prothrombin
Fibrinogen
XII
XI
VIII
IXVII
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PTT
Prolonged
FXII deficiency
FXI deficiency
FIX deficiency
FVIII deficiency
Circulating anticoagulant
Heparin effect
Afibrinogenaemia
Dysfibrinogenaemia
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Heparin effect
Liver disease
Vitamin K deficiency
Circulating
anticoagulant
Coumarin effect
NormalINR INR
NormalProlonged
Prolonged
Normal
FVII deficiency
FXIII
deficiency
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Assessment of Coagulation
INR Normal / PTT Prolonged Haemophilia A or B
von Willebrand Disease
���� Do Factor VIII Levels … if normal check Factor IX
INR Prolonged / PTT ProlongedLiver Disease
Vitamin K Deficiency
Haemorrhagic disease of the Newborn
DIC
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Assessment of Coagulation
Normal PTT with Prolonged INR Factor VII Deficiency
���� Very Rare
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Haemophilia
� Incidence +/- 1 in 5000 males
� Haemophilia A 80-85%
� Haemophilia B 10-15%
� Sex-linked inheritance
� High spontaneous mutation rate = 20-30%
� DNA-based analysis of factor VIII is available to characterise genotype of carriers and affected males
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Relationship of Factor Levels to Severity of Clinical manifestations of Hemophilia A and B
Type % Factor VIII/IX Type of Haemorrhage
Severe <1 Spontaneous; Haemarthroses and deep tissue haemorrhages
Moderate 1-5 Gross bleeding following mild to haemarthrosis; seldom spontaneous haemorrhage
Mild 5-20 Severe haemorrhage only following moderate to severe trauma or surgery
High-risk carrier females
30-50 Gynaecologic and obstetric hemorrhage
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Von Willebrand Disease
� 1% of population
� Disorder of protein (von Willebrand factor)� Responsible for adherence of platelets to damaged endothelium
� First described be Erik von Willebrand in 1925
� Pattern: Mucocutaneous bleeding
Post-traumatic and post-surgical bleeding
� Heterozygous disorder (variety of genetic defects)
� usually autosomal dominant
� Lab Workup: Prolonged BT
Prolonged PTT
Decreased vWF
Decreased VIII
� Spectrum: Type I (mild AD … 65-80%) to Type III (severe AR)
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Bleeding Disorders … in Conclusion
� Laboratory investigations must be assessed in their clinical context.
� Negative laboratory results in the face of a severe clinical history of bleeding means that the patient has not been fully investigated.
� Remember Factor XIII deficiency and recheck for vWD.
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BLEEDING DISORDER CLINICAL CASES
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CLINICAL CASES
� SIVIWE Aged 6 years
� Presents with recurrent bruising on the shins.
� Grandmother had severe epistaxis at the age of 50.
� Examination: Well grown. Several bruises. Normal joints.
� How likely is this to be a bleeding disorder?
� What points are important in the history?
� What screening tests would you do?
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CLINICAL CASES
� MARIA Aged 3 years
� 3 day history of fever and vomiting.
� Examination: Pyrexial. Poorly perfused. Meningism.
� Investigations: Hb 8 MCV 80 WCC 20 Plt 85.
INR 2.1 PTT 48 Fibrinogen 0.9.
� What is the likely diagnosis?
� What is the appropriate management?
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CLINICAL CASES
� TIMMY Aged 5 months
� 3 month history of jaundice and pale stools.
� Examination: Irritable. Purpura. Jaundiced. 4 cm hepar.
� Investigations: Hb 9 MCV 80 WCC 10 Plt 120.
INR 1.8 PTT 55 Fibrinogen 1.1.
� What is the likely diagnosis?
� What tests would confirm the diagnosis?
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CLINICAL CASES
� NELISWA Aged 3 years
� Recent URTI. One day history of petechiae and purpura.
� Examination: Well looking child. Multiple petechiae.
No nodes or spleen.
� Investigations: Hb 11.5 WCC 7 Plt 4.
� What is the likely diagnosis?
� What is the most important investigation to confirm this?
� What other investigations should be done?
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CLINICAL CASES
� NELISWA
Aged 3 years
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CLINICAL CASES
� NELISWA
Aged 3 years
This bone marrow slide shows increased megakaryocytes …
one is undergoing cytoplasmic budding
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CLINICAL CASES
� MICHAEL Aged 5 years
� Swollen left knee following trauma.
� Seen in SOPD – blood aspirated. Treated with antibiotics.
� Returned 3 weeks later: Left knee still swollen, tender, �ROM.
� Aspirated again – blood.
� Investigations: Hb 10 MCV 86 Plt 444 INR 1 PTT 80.4.
� What is the likely diagnosis?
� What is the inheritance of this condition?
� What investigations are required to prove the diagnosis?
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� Acute haemarthrosis.
CLINICAL CASES
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CLINICAL CASES
� MICHAEL Aged 5 years
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CLINICAL CASES
� SARAH Aged 2 years
� Seen at Trauma Unit.
� Ongoing bleeding from laceration on the tongue.
� Examination: Pale. Bruise on forehead.
Bleeding laceration on tongue.
� Investigations: Hb 7.9 MCV 69 Plt 400 INR 1 PTT 50.
� What is the likely diagnosis?
� What is the inheritance of this condition?
� What investigations are required to prove the diagnosis?
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CLINICAL CASES
� JAMIE Aged 21 months
� Oozing from a small cut in the mouth for 3 days.
� Seen by GP – treated with an adrenaline injection.
� Examination: Pale. Bleeding from a 1cm laceration on palate.
� Investigations: Hb 10 MCV 70 Plt 381 INR 1 PTT 30.
� What is the differential diagnosis?
� What tests should be done?
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REFERENCES
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References
� Anaemia. Paediatrics and Child Health 5th edition. eds HM Coovadia and DF Wittenberg. Oxford 2003. pg 415-429.
� Anaemia. Nelson Essentials of Pediatrics 3rd edition. eds: RE Behrman, RM Kliegman, AM Arvin. WB Saunders 1998. pg 545-567.
� Anaemia. Handbook of Paediatrics for Developing Countries 6th edition. ed VC Harrison. Oxford 2004. pg 253-257.
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References
� Bleeding Disorders. Paediatrics and Child Health 5th
edition. eds HM Coovadia and DF Wittenberg. Oxford 2003. pg 415-429.
� Bleeding Disorders. Nelson Essentials of Pediatrics 3rd
edition. eds RE Behrman, RM Klingman, AM Arvin. WB Saunders 1998. pg 571-582.
� Bleeding Disorders. Handbook of Paediatrics for Developing Countries 6th edition. ed VC Harrison. Oxford 2004. pg 257-261.