EARLY CONTACTS BETWEEN KERALA AND WEST ASIA
Mohamed. T.A. “Muslim politics in Kerala (1921-1 967)” Thesis. Department of History, University of Calicut, 2001
INTRODUCTION
EARLY CONTACTS BETWEEN KERALA AND WEST ASIA
It is an established fact that from time immemorial Kerala had contacts
with the countries of the western world. The Assyrians, the Babylonians, the
Phoenicians, the Arabs, the Greeks, and the Romans were some among the
foreigners who had made contacts with the Kerala coast. The reputation that
ancient Kerala was the land of spices brought the foreigners to this part of the
country. The Assyrians and the Babylonians had carried on an extensive trade
in cardamom and cinnamon from the Kerala coast. The ancient Egyptians used
spices from Kerala to make perfumes and preservatives for mummification of
their kings and other noble persons.
One of the earliest references about the spice trade can be seen in the
Old Testament. It says: "And King Solomon made a navy of ships in Eziongeber,
which is beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red sea, in the land of Edom; and
Hiram sent in the navy his servants, shipmen that had knowledge of the sea,
with the servants of Solomon. And they came to Ophir, and fetched from thence
gold.. . and brought it to King ~olomon."' It again says, 'I.. . Once in three years
came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold and silver, ivory, and apes and
peacocks."2 All these goods excepting silver were the products of Kerala ; the
1. Tlte Holy Bible, I , Kings, 9:26-28. 2. Ibid, verse 10:22.
2
Hebrew names for ape (kapim) and peacock (Tukim) are obviously Tamil words.
The place Ophir has been identified by some scholars with Beypore.
Besides biblical references philological evidences also give proof for
Greek and Arabian commercial contacts with Kerala. For instance in Malayalam
ginger is called inchi (in Arabic zanjabil and in Greek zinziber). Likewise the
Greek word Oryzi is said to be derived from the Tamil word Arisi (in Arabic
Arz and in Malayalam Ari). The Arabic word for camphor is Kaphur, which is
said to be derived from the Malayalam word karpuram. The Arabic word
sandal and English word sandal might be derived from the Indian word
chandanam. Similarly, the Arabic words like hail (cardamom, in Malayalam
elam), qaranful (clove, in Malayalam karampu) , tambul (betal, tambulam or vettila
in Malayalam) etc. testifies to the close relationship between the Arabs and the
Keralites. All these evidences prove the give and take that existed between
Kerala and other countries in olden days. It is assumed that even the name of
Malabar was given by the Arabs (in Arabic Malaibar) by clubbing the Malayalam
word mala (mount) with the Arabic word burr (continent, land) or with the
Persian word bar (country, c o a ~ t ) . ~ They had given such names to other places
also like Hindbar, Nicobar etc.4 To the Arabs, Malabar meant the entire
Malayalam speaking territory stretching from Ezhimala ( ~ o u n t Eli) to Cape
3. William Logan, Malabar, Vol.1, pl. 4. Shamsulla Qadiri, Pracheena Malabar (Mal.) Tr. By V. Abdul Qayum, p2.
:l
Comorin. A1 Biruni (970 -1039 A.D) appears to have been the first to call the
country Malabar.5
In the Arabic literary works written in the pre-Islamic period also
references can be seen about the products of Kerala. For example in one poem
the famous Arabic poet Imrul Qays compares the excreta of a deer with seeds
of ~ e p p e r . ~ The products of Kerala, which were demanded highly by the people
of West Asia and Europe, were pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, ginger, and
turmeric. Among them pepper was valued highly by the Romans as gold and
silver. When Rome was besieged by Alaric, king of Goths, in the fifth century
after Christ, a part of the ransom demanded for sparing the imperial city from
destruction was 3000 pounds of black pepper.'
The Roman coins found at Kodungallur (Muziris) also testifies to the
trade relationship that existed between Kerala coast and western countries. It
is to be borne in mind that the Arabs also, till the caliphate of Abdul Malik,
used the Roman gold coins for trading purposes.
The establishment of Pax Romana in the Mediterranean world in the
time of Augustus Caesar (31 BC - 14 AD) and the discovery of monsoon winds
by Hippalus (45 AD) gave a fillip to the trade between Kerala and the west.
5. C.A. Innes, Madras District Gazetteers, Malabar, Vol.1, p2. 6. Mankada Abdul Azeez, in Chandrika Weekly, 9 September, 1995. 7. E.H. Warmington, The Co~nmerce Between the Ronran Empire and India, 1928,
p140. quoted in A.P. Ibrahim Kunju, Studies in Medieval Kerala History, p5.
The discovery of Hippalus reduced the duration of the voyage from Berenice
on the African coast of the Red sea to Muziris on the Malabar coast to about
seventy days.
Though these early foreign contacts were mainly commercial, they led
to the spread of three major world religions, namely, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam to this part of the country at a fairly early date. All these religions
reached Kerala coast much earlier than it reached other parts of the country.
According to legends, Christianity was introduced in Kerala in 52 A.D. by
Apostle St. Thomas, who had landed at Malankara, a place near Kodungallur.
As per traditions the Jews began to settle in Kerala coast in 68 AD in order to
escape from religious persecution at their hometown, ~erusalem.~ Like wise, it
is believed that Islam was introduced to Kerala coast at the very time of its
introduction at Arabia, through traders and missionaries. Sayyid Sulaiman
Nadwi says, "It is an open fact that long before the muslims settled in northern
India, there were colonies in southern ~nd ia" .~ The Arabs had trade centers
and settlements in places like Kalikut (Calicut), Shaliyat (Chaliyam), Fannerinn
(Pantalayani), Dahfatan (Dharmadam), Hili (Ezhimala), Kanjurkut (Kasaragod),
Manjarur (Mangalore), Kadankallur (Kodungallur), Kulum (Quilon) etc.
8. K.V. Krishna Ayyar, The Zamorins of Calict~t, p51. 9. Sayyid Sulaiman Nadwi, "The Muslim Colonies in India Before the Muslim
conquests", lslarnic Clilfure, V111 (1934), p478. (Quoted in Roland E. Miller, Mappila Mtislinls of Kerala, p39).
RISE AND SPREAD OF ISLAM IN KERALA
There is no clear-cut evidence to show that how and when Islam
originated in Kerala. But it is a fact that unlike in northern India, Islam was
introduced in this coast not by any conquerors or invaders, but it was spread
by traders and missionaries in a peaceful way. It is also a clear fact that the
whole of Kerala had not been ruled by any Muslim rulers or dynasties. The
only exception to it is the rule of Ali Rajas who ruled over Cannanore, Laccadive
Islands and Maldive Island and the Mysorean rulers, Hyder Ali and Tipu
Sultan, who ruled the northern part of Kerala for a short span of twenty-six
years (1766 - 1792) . Even without the use of force and absence of political
authority, a large concentration of Muslims can be seen in Kerala coast
especially in the Malabar area, which testifies to the role played by the traders
and missionaries in the spread of Islam.
It is believed that by the middle of seventh century almost all the people
of Arabia had accepted the faith of Islam. Naturally the Arab traders who
came to the coastal regions of Malabar after this period were also followers of
the faith. It was due to their effort that Islam spread in this part of the country.
The advent of Islam into Kerala is attributed by some scholars to the
conversion of the last Chera Emperor, Cheraman Perumal, into Islam.
According to the Muslim tradition, a few Muslim pilgrims who were on their
way to the Adam's peak in Ceylon, landed at Kodungallur and met Cheraman
Perumal there. Hearing of the teachings of Islam, the Perumal wished to meet
the prophet and he accompanied the pilgrims on their return journey to Mecca.
There he met the Prophet and embraced Islam. Then after some time he
decided to return to Kerala, but was taken ill and died on the way and was
buried at Zufar on the Arabian coast. The Hindu tradition contained in the
Keralolpatti agrees in general with the Muslim tradition. In the Portuguese
accounts of Duarte ~arbosa" and Barros also such traditions are recorded.
Tuhfatul Mujahidin, written by Shaykh Zainuddin towards the close
of 16h century, describes in detail the conversion of Cheraman Perumal and
the arrival of Malik ibn Dinar, Sharaf ibn Malik, Malik ibn Habib et.al. at
Kodungallur. As per tradition they constructed a mosque at Kodungallur which
is said to be the first mosque in India. According to Shaykh Zainuddin, Malik
ibn Dinar settled at Kodungallur and deputed his nephew Malik ibn Habib to
spread the religion in other parts of Kerala. Accordingly he visited important
centers of Kerala and constructed ten mosques.'1 But according to Rihlattll
Mulztk written by Suhrawardi, Malik ibn Dinar and others had established
eighteen mosques and appointed eighteen ~ a 2 i s . l ~ However, the exact date or
period of their visit are not known.
10. M.L. Dames, Ed., The Book of Diiarte Barbosa, Vol 11, pp2-4. 11. Shaykh Zainuddin, Trlhfatul Mujalzidin, Tr. by C. Hamza (Mal.), p52. 12. M. Abdul Samad, Islam in Kerala : Groups and Moveilzents in the 20"' Century,
p3. and K.M Bahavuddin, Kerala M~islims : The Long Strt~ggle, p23.
Some inscriptions discovered at Pantalayani and Madayi, both were
later Muslim centers and are listed among the places where Malik ibn Dinar
and his group had established mosques, presents strong evidence for the
presence of Muslims in those areas. At Pandalayani on one tomb-stone it is
inscribed that one Ali ibn Udthorman had died and was buried there on 166 of
Hijra (782 AD). In the Madayi mosque its founding date is inscribed as 580
Hijra (1124 AD).'^ Some gold coins issued during the period of Umayyad
caliphs (661 - 750 AD) are found at Kothamangalam, indicates either Arab trade
with south-west coast of India or the presence of Arabs in that region.
However, the earliest clear evidence of Muslim presence is represented by the
Terisappally copper plates. It was a deed by which some land was given to the
Terisappally of Quilon by Ayyanadikal Tiruvatikal, the Governor of Sthanu Ravi
Varman (844-885 AD), the Chera King. This was executed in 849 AD in which
ten Muslims had signed as witne~ses.'~ It testifies not only to the presence of
muslim community at Quilon in the gth century but also to the prominent place
they had acquired in the socio-economic setup of the country by that time.
Islam spread very widely in Kerala especially in the urban centers,
which were the pockets of Arab trade for example Calicut, Cannanore,
Kasargod, Panthalayani, Chaliyam, Madayi, Parappanangadi, Tanur, Ponnani,
Chavakkad, Kodungallur, Cochin, Kayamkulam, Quilon, Alleppey etc. It
13. C.A. Imes, op. cit., p25. 14. Roland E. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, p43.
testifies to the fact that Islam was spread in this region by the Arab traders and
sailors. Shaykh Zainuddin has listed ten places where Malik ibn Dinar and
others have constructed mosques. Among them two places (Mangalore and
Barkur) are in the present Karnataka state. In the rest, all are Arab trading
centers; and except one place (Srikantapuram) all others are situated in coastal
areas.
With the settling of the Makhdum family at Ponnani in the second half
of the fifteenth century, Ponnani became a great center of Islamic activity.15 It
is believed that they belonged to Yemen and after propagating Islam in several
parts of the present Tamil Nadu, they came and settled at Ponnani. The
famous Islamic scholars, Shaykh Zainuddin I and Shaykh Zainuddin I1
belonged to this family. Likewise the Ba Alavi saints arrived at Calicut from
Hadramaut in 1746 AD. They were well-received by the Zamorin, who had
provided them with a house at Calicut. Later he had shifted his abode to
Mamburam. This most revered house of Sayyids is popularly known as
'Mamburam Tangals'. Thus Mamburam and Tirurangadi became important
centers of Muslims. Another group from Hadramaut led by Sayyid Ahamad
reached Quilandy in 1770 A.D. with the intention of trade and propagation of
1slarn.l6 They are known as Bafakhies Yet another trading-cum-missionary group
came from Yemen and settled down at Calicut in 1797 AD under the
15. Asghar Ali Engineer, Ed., Kerala Muslims - A Historical Perspective, p25. 16. P.P. Mammad Koya, Histo y of the Muslims of Calicut (Mal.), p96.
17 leadership of Shaykh Ali Barami. They are known as Baramies. Ibn Battutah,
the famous travellor, had mentioned about the activities of some missionaries
like Shaykh Fakhruddin, Shaykh Shahabuddin, Sarsary and others whom he
had met while he was in ~era1a . I~ All these factors point to the role played by
the traders and missionaries in the propagation of Islam.
Another factor, which helped the speedy expansion of Islam was the
social condition that prevailed in Kerala, in which people were divided and
subdivided on the basis of casteism. To escape from such evils within the Hindu
community, many lower caste people embraced Islam. As Gaspar Correa
observed: "By becoming Moors they could go wherever they liked and eat as
they pleased. When they became Moors, the Moors gave them clothes and
robes with which to clothe themsel~es."'~ The lower caste Hindus were
attracted to Islam not only by the social upgradation it guaranteed but also by
the better economic prospects opened to them by conversion.
PATRONAGE BY THE RULERS
Another factor responsible for the fast growth of Islam in Kerala was
the tolerant policy followed by the Hindu rajas of Kerala. This was
17. Ibid, p97. 18. K.A. Neelakanta Sastri, Foreign notices of South India, pp239-42., quoted in
A.P. Ibrahim Kunju, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, p21. 19. Henry Stanley, Ed., The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama, p155., quoted in A.P.
Ibrahim Kunju, 'Genesis and Spread of Islam in Kerala', Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol 111, Part I11 and IV, p487.
10
particularly so in the case of the Zamorins of Calicut who had patronized the
Arabs and the Muslims in all ways. He had two ends in his mind when he
followed such a favourable policy towards the Muslims. Firstly, to organize a
good naval force, he needed the help of Muslims, because crossing of the sea
was considered sacrilegious by the Hindus. So he had issued orders that from
every family of fishermen one or more of the male members should be brought
up as ~ u s l i m s . ~ ' Secondly, economically also the presence of Muslims was
beneficial to him. For, the brisk foreign trade brought economic development
to the country. So, realizing these factors the Zamorins encouraged Muslim
settlements in different parts of the state. Kolathiri and Valluvakonatiri also
pursued the same policy with regard to Muslims. Shaykh Zainuddin observed:
"The Muslims throughout Malabar have no amir possessed of power to rule
over them, but their rulers are unbelievers ... The rulers have respect and
regard for the Muslims, because the increase in the number of cities was due to
them.. . The government fix the allowance for Qazis and Mu'addins and
entrust them with the duty of carrying on the laws of the Shariat. No one is
permitted to neglect the prayer on ~ridays."''
When the Zamorin founded Calicut, he induced the Arabs to settle
there by providing certain special concessions. They were given freedom to
convert people to Islam, and were also given the monopoly of the import and
20. T.W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, p266. 21. Shaykh Zainuddin, op. cit., p60-61.
l l
export trade." The Arabs frequented Calicut more than any other port, with
the result by the middle of fourteenth century Quilon and Kodungallur de-
clined and Calicut had taken their place as the center of foreign trade be-
tween Asia and Europe. The Arabs not only made Calicut a great port in the
west coast of India but they even helped to spread the name and fame of the
Zamorin in ~ u r o ~ e . ~ ~ With the financial and military support provided by the
Muslims, the Zamorin was able to extend his away over Valluvanad. It is said
that, as a reward for the help, the Kozhikode Koya was given a place of honour
at the Mamankam festival.
After making a comparative study among the rulers of Kerala, Shaykh
Zainuddin arrived at a conclusion that among the rulers of Kerala, the Venad
raja has got the biggest military force. Second to him came the Kolathiri. But
the Zamorin was the most powerful and famous. This is due to the influence of
Islam and his love for the Muslims and respect for them, especially for those
who came from far off lands.24
Regarding the harmonious condition that prevailed in Kerala, Shakykh
Zainuddin writes that though Muslims constituted a small portion of the total
population, the members of the major communities never behaved in a hostile
manner.25 They neither prevented conversion of Hindus to Islam nor they did
22. K.V. Krishna Ayyar, op. cit, p52. 23. lbid. 24. Shaykh Zainuddin, op. cit, p54. 25. lbid, p60.
1%
any harm to them. Instread they had shown respect even to the Muslim
converts from low castes.26 Foreign travellers who visited Kerala like Sulaiman
(851), A1 Idrisi (1153), Benjamin (1165), Marco Polo (1293), Rashiduddin (1300),
Ibn Battuta (1342), Ma Huan(1405), Abdul Razak (1442) et.al. have testified to
the religious tolerance of the kings and people of Kerala.
By summarizing the condition of Kerala before the coming of the
Europeans, K.M. Panikkar stated :"Malabar was leading a comparatively happy,
though politically isolated life. In many ways her organization was primitive,
but she had evolved a system in which trade flourished, different communities
lived together without friction, and absolute religious toleration existed.27
ADVENT OF THE PORTUGUESE AND ITS EFFECTS
The advent of the Portuguese was an epoch-making event in the
history of Kerala. Some of the factors which prompted the Portugese to
undertake the journey to India are the following:
1) Increased demand for the oriental commodities, especially spices, in the
European countries.
2) Hither to the major share of profits of European trade went to the Italian
traders. Hence the non-Italian traders were looking for an alternative
route to the Orient.
26. Ibid, p61. 27. K.M. Panikkar, Malabar and the Portuguese, p24.
13
3) When the Turks, who were not tolerant like the Arabs, captured
Constantinople in 1453, they did not allow the European merchants to
pass through the countries under their control. So the closure of the route
compelled them to find out an alternative sea route to the East.
Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460) provided all encouragement
to the Portuguese sailors to conduct geographical discoveries. He founded a
School of Navigation and engaged the services of great Italian sailors,
geographers, mapmakers, and ship-builders. Though no actual discovery of
any important sea route could be made during his lifetime, he had the
satisfaction before his death to know that his sailors had succeeded in
discovering some places in the West African coast. Portuguese colonies were
established there.
After the successful endeavour of some of the Portuguese sailors like
Bartholomew Diaz, Vasco da Gama started his voyage on 8" January 1497 from
Lisbon and reached a place called Malindi (just north of present Mombassa).
There he met some Indian merchants who put Ahmad Ibn Majid, an Arab
pilot, at his disposal. This enabled him to sail straight across the Indian Ocean
to the Malabar Coast.
The advent of the Portuguese had a great impact on the history of Kerala.
They came to India with two main objectives in their mind. Firstly, to get the
hold over Indian spice trade and secondly to proselytize the people of India to
14
Roman Catholicism. In their homeland they were engaged in war with the
Moors (Muslims) and they were able to oust them out of power. But when the
Portuguese reached the African coast and later the Malabar coast what they
found was that the control of spice trade was with the Muslims. "The city of
Calicut.. . was all inhabited by foreign and native Moors, the richest that there
were in all ~ n d i a " . ~ ~
The Portuguese desired to monopolize the entire spice trade of Kerala
but it could not be accomplished without depriving the Muslims of the trade.
Hence they put forth the demand for the banishment of Muslims from Calicut.
But the Zamorin was not prepared to comply with it. For, the Muslims were
living in this country not like foreigners, but as natives, and from whom
Zamorinls kingdom received much profit.29 When Vasco da Gama found that
the Zamorin was not going to expel the Muslims, he retaliated by attacking
Arab vessels and traders.
The war between the Portuguese and the Zamorin, supported by the
Muslims, lasted for a century and more. During the course of the war, the
Portuguese plundered their properties, burnt their cities and mosques. Shaykh
Zainuddin observed: "Destruction of mosques, torturing Muslims without
reason, prohibiting Haj pilgrimage, piracy and loot, burning religious books,
28. Correa, The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama. Tr. by Henry E.J. Stanley, p154. quoted in Miller, Mappila Muslillts of Keraln, p62.
29. Ibid, p328. quoted in Miller, Ibid, p63.
15
insulting the Prophet.. . forced conversion of Muslims . . . rape of women.. .
and innumerable, unthinkable cruelties are commonly practiced by the
~ortuguese" .30
In this desperate situation of Muslims, Shaykh Zainuddin, a great
religious scholar from Ponnani, came forward urging the believers to engage
in a holy war against the Portuguese. It was with this view in mind that he had
written the book "Tuhfatul Mujahideen Fi B1asi Akhbaril Burthughliyyin."
One of the important results of the Portuguese attacks was that the
Mappila community became militant. Francois Pyrard who visited Calicut in
1607 reported that he had found all the Muslims there, as well as the Nairs,
went armed.31 As pointed out by Roland Miller, ". . . There is no record of the
Mappilas being engaged in any militant activity, defensive or offensive, prior
to the Portuguese period. The events themselves indicate that the Mappilas
had to learn the "art" of fighting a warO3* Another effect of the situation was
that the Mappilas now began to adopt a more of concentrated settlement
pattern. Many of them migrated to the interior places and sought employment
in agriculture in small scale industries; others became pretty shopkeepers or
landless peasants. Most of the Arab merchants who had settled at Calicut left
30. Shaykh Zainuddin, op. cif, p68. 31. Stephen Frederick Dale, lslamic Society on the South Asian Frontier, The
Mappilas of Malabar, 1498-1922. p63. 32. Roland E. Miller, op. cit, p77.
the place due to the troubled situation. This has been confirmed by Duarte
~ a r b o s a . ~ ~
This migration of Muslims to interior lands made the rural situation
more complex. Because the lands were owned by the upper caste Hindus and
the Muslims got only tenant right in the feudal order that existed in Kerala at
that time. Not only that the superior castes treated the Muslim tenants in the
same way as they treated the lower castes involved in agricultural operation.
This caused conflicts between the Muslim tenants, who were enjoying more
freedom and equality in their religion than the Hindu landlords.
The continuous wars with the Portuguese brought about decline of
Malabar trade and commerce. The loss for monopoly in foreign trade hit the
Muslims severely and they entered upon a period of great economic crisis. As
Hamid Ali observed: "The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope . . . was an evil
day for the Moplahs.. . In the keen struggle for supremacy on the Eastern seas
the Moplahs came out vanquished . . . and never since have they regained their
wealth and their glory."u
The worst effect of the presence of the Portuguese was that it
weakened the communal harmony on this coast. As pointed out by KM
Panikkar, "The policy of cruelty towards Mappilas and tolerance towards
33. M. L. Dames, Ed. op. cit, p76. 34. Hamid Ali, 'The Moplas' in T.K. Gopala Panikkar (ed.), Malabar and its Folk,
p269.
17
Hindus in Malabar was sure to have brought about a rift between the Hindu
and Muslim communities of ~ a l a b a r " . ~ ~ The Hindu rajas like Kolattiri, Cochin
Raja etc. made alliances with the Portuguese to protect their own self-interest
and to contain the power of the Zamorin. Their Nair soldiers also joined with
the Portuguese in the battles against the Mappilas. At last the Zamorin himself
joined with the Portuguese and fought against Kunhali IV, when they drifted
apart, and treacherously handed over Kunhali to the Portuguese. All these
created a sense of alienation between the Muslims and the Hindus.
In short "economic retrogression, estrangement from Hindus, bitter-
ness against Christians, and a new militancy"36, were the effects of Portuguese
period on the Muslim community in Malabar.
THE MYSOREAN RULE AND ITS IMPACT
While the Mappilas of Malabar were leading a desperate life with the
advent of the Portuguese, the appearance of Muslim rulers from Mysore
delighted them and they received them as deliverers. Though they could rule
the Malabar area only for short span of twenty-six years (1766-1792), to the
Muslims it provided a psychological boost.
The appeal made by the Palghat Raja to Haider Ali to help him against
the Zamorin brought the Mysoreans into contact with Malabar. After coming
35. K.M. Panikkar, A Histo y of Kerala, p159. 36. Roland E. Miller, op. cit, p75.
18
into power in Mysore, Haider Ali invaded Malabar in 1766. Tipu, who
succeeded Haider Ali in 1782, attempted to stablise his control over Malabar.
But his defeat in the Third Mysore War (1792-92) thwarted his schemes. By the
Treaty of Srirangapatam (1792), Malabar was ceded to the British.
The Mappilas found a good opportunity to improve their lot during
the Mysorean period. They helped Mysorean rulers in their endeavour and in
their enthusiasm they even got enrolled in the forces.
Though the Mysoreans ruled Malabar only for two decades, their rule
produced several important changes in the administrative field, many of which
were beneficial to the region as well as to the Mappilas and progressive in
nature. For instance, for the first time land was surveyed and a system of
direct payment of a portion of the annual yield to the government was
introduced. The most important aspect of the land settlement was the
elimination of the intermediary. The Mappilas were the beneficiaries, for, till
the date they were prevented from becoming land owners by the land tenure
system that prevailed in Malabar. All these reforms adversely affected the
privileged classes, the Nairs and Namboodiris. So, whenever they found an
opportunity, they sided with the enemies of the Mysorean rulers.
In Kerala the Mysorean rulers are alleged to have persecuted and
forcibly converted the Hindus to Islam and destroyed their temples. But it is a
pity that those who put forward this opinion failed to produce sufficient proof
l!)
to their argument. For instance, KP Padmanabha Menon in his History q f ~ e r a l ~ ~ ~
has portrayed a c0mmunal picture of the Mysorean rulers. Roland Miller makes
the following observation about it. He says: "Menon is largely dependent on
Buchanan for this description. The latter in turn was dependent on Murdoch
Brown. The writer has not met any Mappila who admits ancestry originating
in a forced conver~ion."~~ Another significant fact is that in other parts of Mysore
kingdom, both Haider and Tipu are considered to be extremely tolerant rulers.
What happened in Kerala was that, the Nairs being the warrior class had to
fight with the Mysoreans, and the Mysoreans instead tried to disarm them.
Besides that according to the royal decree, the system of polyandry, which was
prevalent among the Nairs, was abolished and the women fold were ordered
to cover their bosoms. Such acts of Tipu were being described as a policy of
'Islamisation'.
Anyway, the estrangement developed during the Portuguese period
between the Muslims and the Hindus further widened during the Mysorean
period.
BRITISH DOMINATION OVER MALABAR AND ITS EFFECTS
With the Treaty of Srirangapatam, Malabar was ceded to the English
by Tipu Sultan in 1792 and it became a part of the Bombay Presidency. In 1800,
37. K.P. Padmanabha Menon, A History of Kernla, Vol 11, pi67fn. 38. Roland E. Miller, op. cit, p93, fn.
20
Malabar became a district of Madras Province and that setup continued till
1956.
From the very beginning of their rule, the British followed a favourable
policy towards the Hindus as they were opposed to the Mysorean rulers.
Whereas the Muslims, who had sided with the Mysoreans, hated the rule of
the English. Because the economic and administrative measures followed by
the British were found to be detrimental to the interests of the Muslims. For
instance, prior to the occupation of Malabar by the British, the Mysoreans had
collected the revenue directly from the cultivators through their own officers.
The English East India Company re-introduced the old system by delegating
the authority of revenue collection to the old rajas and chieftains of Malabar.
The assessments made by them were unequal and the Mappilas were "rated
more highly than the ~ i n d u s " . ~ ~ The Mappilas in turn refused to pay taxes
which resulted in fall of revenue collection. On account of these reasons, the
Company finally decided to take over not only the collection of revenue in the
District of Malabar, but the control of the entire administration of the District
Even before the establishment of direct control over Malabar by the
British, disturbances had started in some parts of Malabar, led by Mappila
leaders like Elampulasseri Unni Mutta Muppan, Chemban Pokker, Athan
39. C.A. Innes, op. cit, p73.
2 1
Kurikkal and Hydros. Unni Mutta, who was an official under Tipu, is said to
be the first man in Malabar to organize a united opposition against the
~ritish." The British tried to woo him in order to bring him on to their side by
offering him a pension of Rupees one thousand per annum, but he refused it.
When the British understood that he can not be captured or appeased, a
reward of Rupees three thousand was declared for his capture. A British
contingent led by captain Mac Donald attacked and demolished the houses of
Unni Mutta and his companions situated at Pandalur Hill. But these atrocities
did not weaken the advance of Unni Mutta and others; instead it only
stimulated their efforts. In the turbulent atmosphere that prevailed in south
Malabar the British found it very difficult to administer the country. In order
to make an on the spot study, the Governor of Bombay, General Abercromby,
decided to visit Malabar. Meanwhile the English officials in Malabar tried to
win over Unni Mutta again by declaring amnesty and offering some
concessions. But Unni Mutta did not comply to it; instead he continued his
fight with the English. He strengthened his forces by joining with another
Mappila arebel leader, Chemban Pokker. While the English forces were trying
to check the advancement of the Mappilas, the defeat inflicted on the forces of
T.H.Baber, an English official in charge of south Malabar, created
apprehension in the English camp.
40. C.K. Kareem, Kerala Muslim Directory (Mal.). Vol 111, p38.
It was a time when Pazhassi Raja was advancing against the English.
Unni Mutta and his followers also joined him in their effort against the
English. The mountainous Wayanad region, the seat of Pazhassi Raja was
advantageous for organizing guerilla warfare.
Another Mappila leader, Chemban Pokker, who was a revenue official
in Cheranad under the British was accused of bribery and was imprisoned in
the Palghat fort. He made a miraculous escape from there and continued his
struggle against the British by joining with Unni Mutta and Attan Kurikkal.
The English contingent sent to capture Chemban Pokker was repulsed. This
success encouraged him to make an unsuccessful attempt on the life of George
Waddell, the southern Superintendent of Malabar.
The incessant combats going on in south Malabar compelled the
Bombay Governor to make a thorough study about the situation. Hence he
appointed Major Walker as an enquiry commission. In the report submitted
by Walker, he criticized the policy adopted by T.H. Baber, the official in charge
of south Malabar and George Waddell, the Southern Superintendent of Malabar.
The report also recommended general amnesty to the rebels; and requested to
follow a policy of reconciliation with them. But these measures failed to
produce the desired effect, since the rebel activities were intensified. At last in
1802, Captain Watson's army attacked and killed Unni Mutta and Attan
23
Kurikkal. In 1805 Chemban Pokker also died fighting with Captain Wat~on.~'
The death of these leaders did not stop the rebellious activities of the Mappilas;
instead it continued.
In this period some of the Muslim religious scholars also had played a
key role in the struggle of the Mappilas against the British like Sayyid Alavi
Tangal (1749-1843) and Sayyid Fazl Pookoya Tangal (1823-1901) of Mampuram
and Umar Qazi (1757-1852) of Veliyankod.
Sayyid Alavi Tangal vehemently criticized the British atrocities on the
Mappila peasants and exhorted the Mappilas to take arms against the alien
rulers. For this purpose he had composed a poem, As Saiful Bathar. He is said
to have participated in the Cherur riot, in which a wound occurred and he died
in 1843. The British authorities were very much concerned about the role of
Sayyid Fazl in the outbreaks that occurred during the first half of the lg th
century. Though his role in the riots was not proved categorically, the
authorities had decided to deport him with other family members to Arabia.
Secretly it was carried out on 19" March, 1852.
Like the Tangals of Mampuram, Umer Qazi of Veliyankod criticized
the actions of the British and he refused to pay taxes to the British government.
He is said to be the first to advocate a 'Non-payment of Tax Agitation' in
41. Ibid, p45.
24
1ndia." He sent letters to the Diwans of Cochin and Travancore in 1819, urging
them to fight against the ~ritish." He was asked to appear in the Katcheri at
Chavakkad and was arrested and jailed. The next day he was not found in the
jail, probably some sympathetic policeman might have released him. Later he
was summoned by the Collector to Calicut where he was asked to express
regret for advocating non-payment of taxes. But he refused and he was again
imprisoned for some days. Later sensing the mood of the Mappilas Collector
Macleod ordered his release.44
As the disturbances continued, the government appointed in 1851 T.L.
Strange as special commissioner to trace out the causes for Mappila
resentment. In the report presented in 1852 he attributed two important causes
for the revolts.
1) Mappila fanaticism supported by the priestly class, and
2) Land-hungry rich Mappilas who, for their selfish ends, were exploiting
the religious sentiments of the illiterate and poor Mappilas.
So he recommended a stern policy towards the rebels which included:
1) Confiscation of the property of the guilty
2) Deportation of suspects
3) Restriction on the possession of weapons
42. Ibid, p253. 43. P.K.A. Raheem. ed., Vanneri Land (Mal.), p155. 44. A.P. Ibrahim Kunju, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, p226.
4) Restriction on the building of mosques and
5) Formation of an exclusively Hindu police force.45
Excepting the fifth recommendation, the government accepted all other
suggestions. Accordingly 'Moplah Outrages Act' and 'Moplah War Knives
Act' were passed in 1854.
The Collector H.V. Conolly was arguing for long with the Madras
Government that Sayyid Fazl should be banished from Malabar to prevent the
Mappila revolts and the Madras Government was demanding proof from the
Collector about Thangal's involvement in the riots. But hitherto he could not
show any evidence for it. The Strange Commission, which depended largely
on the evidences, provided by Mr. Conolly attributed 'Islamic revivaIism' as
the root cause for the revolts. As evidence for it Strange has mentioned the
increased number of 'wandering faqirs' and increase in the population of
Muslims. After seeing enough reason for the banishment, the Madras
Government issued orders favourably and it was tactfully carried out by
Collector Conolly on lgth March, 1852.
With the exile of Sayyid Fazl, the spiritual leader of the Mappilas, they
became more desperate and resorted to terrorism. In retaliation for the
banishment of Sayyid Fazl, Collector Conolly was murdered by a suicidal squad
at his well guarded bungalow in Calicut on 11" September, 1855. How the
45. R.H. Hitchcock, A History of the Malabar Rebellion, p12.
81;
assassins got into the bungalow and how they escaped after the incident is a
mystery. Some days later the alleged culprits were captured and killed.
Although only four persons were involved in the murder case, seven hundred
and nineteen people were arrested and nine vilIages were fined a total of
Rupees 38,331 and eight anas. Due to these measures the Mappila community
experienced great sufferings.
Even after following a severe attitude towards the rioters, the extent
and intensity of the revolts only increased. The Madras government,
therefore, instituted another enquiry committee under William Logan in 1881.
He undertook a thorough enquiry and his report exploded the myth of Mappila
fanaticism and pointed out that agrarian discontent was the root cause of these
uprisings. Logan's report was a sympathetic and correct appraisal of Mappila
problems. He suggested a number of measures for the improvement of the
condition of the cultivators. It resulted in the passing of the 'Malabar
Compensation for Tenants Improvement Act' in 1887 and 1900 and a 'Land
Acquisition Act of 1894, which made it possible for the Government to acquire
land for Muslim cemeteries.
The passing of these Acts did not produce the desired effect. For, the
landlords continued their malpractices and oppressions towards the tenants.
Charles Innes, the Collector of Malabar, in 1915 after making an enquiry of the
situation has noticed the following points for the deplorable condition of the
peasants. They are:
1) Rack - renting
2) Insecurity of tenure
3) In adequate compensation
4) Exhorbitant renewal fees and
5) The tyrannical attitude of the jenrn i~ .~~
With the commencement of twentieth century several changes took
place in the Mappila community. Due to the adversities several Mappila
peasants moved to Cochin or Travancore. Some of them moved to Kolar Gold
Fields and yet others migrated to foreign countries like Malaya, Ceylon, Burma
etc. When the first world war broke out, some of them were recruited to the
army.47
The long and unending struggle against the land lords and the state
had affected the Mappila psyche much. Many of them either lost their lives, or
were exiled to Andamans or Australia, and collective fine was imposed on
many villages by the Government. These sufferings created hatred in the minds
of Mappilas not only towards the Government but to everything that brought
by them like their religion, their culture and even their language. That is why
46. Report of the Malabar Tenancy Committee, 1928, i, Chapter 11, quoted in K.N. Panikkar, 'Peasant Revolts in Malabar in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', in A.R. Desai, ed., Peasant Struggles in India, ~613.
47. T.V.K., ed. Muhammad Ishaq Smaranika, p45.
28
the English language was proclaimed by the Ulama as the 'language of the hell'.
They did not even use Malayalam language; instead they introduced
Arabi-Malayalam, that is, Malayalam mixed with Arabic words and written in
Arabic script. They did not send their children to the schools where these
languages and secular subjects were taught. This attitude of segregation
resulted in illiteracy, unemployment, and farther backwardness of the
community. In this situation a group of scholars came forward with vision
and wisdom, led by Sayyid Sanaulla Makti Tangal (1847-1912), Shaikh
Muhammad Mahin Hamadani Tangal (d.1922), and Vakkom Muhammad
Abdul Khadir Moulavi (1873-1932). Though they were against Christian
missionary activities, they stressed the necessity of English and secular
education along with religious education for the progress of the community.
Due to their efforts, Muslims especially in the southern region, which was the
center of these reformers, came forward to get their children educated. The
healthy competition that existed in the educational field among the various
communities in south Kerala also had contributed to the increase of Muslim
students. Since such an atmosphere was lacking in north Kerala, the Mappilas
of Malabar remained backward. Their condition worsened with the outbreak
of 1921 Malabar Rebellion.
Several studies have been conducted on the history and culture of the
Mappilas of Kerala. The earliest account of the Mappilas was given by Shaykh
Zaynuddin through his Tuhfathul Mujahidin. It has been translated into
English and Malayalam. It deals with the Kerala-Portuguese relations in the
16" century.
Among the books which were published in the early 20" century on
the history and culture of Mappilas, C Gopalan Nair's Malayalattile Mappilamar
(1917) and TK Gopala Panikkar's Malabar and its Folk (1929) are important. The
latter contains a chapter on the Mappilas by Harnid Ali. PA Sayyid Muhammad
published Kerala Muslim Charithram in 1956 which was the first work to
encompass the whole period of Kerala Muslim history.
Many books have appeared in Malayalam and English on the Malabar
Rebellion of 1921. The important among them are 1921-le Malabar Lahala by
K. Koyatti Moulavi, Khilafat Smaranakal by Brahmadattan Nampoodiripad,
Malabar Kalapam by K Madhavan Nair, Malabar Kalapam - Oru Padanam by
M . Alikunhi, Ali Musliyarum 1921-le Khilafat Lahalayum by KK Muhammed
Abdul Kareem, The Moplah Rebellion of 1921 by C Gopalan Nair, Moplah
Uprisings by Sukbir Chaudhary, Peasant Revolts in Malabar by Soumyendranath
Tagore, Moplah Rebellion by Conrad wood, Against Lord and Sfate by
K.N. Panikkar, A History of Malabar Rebellion by Hitchcock and Malabar
Rebellion by M. Gangadhara Menon. Peasant Struggle in India written by
D.N. Dhanagare and Peasant struggles in India edited by A.R. Desai contain
chapters on the Rebellion of 1921.
30
A good number of books have appeared on the life and period of
Abdurahiman Sahib, the veteran congress leader and freedom fighter. The
important among them are Keralathinte Veeraputran by KA Keraleeyan, Ente
Kootukaran, Muhammed Abdurahiman by E. Moidu Moulavi, Muhammad
Abdurahiman, a detailed biography of Abdurahiman Sahib prepared by
S.K. Pottekat and others and Sreejith Muhammed Abdurahiman by Muhammad
Yusuf.. Besides these Dheeratmakkal by P.P. UmmerKoya, Maulaiyude atmakatha,
Ormakal and Charitra Chintakal written by E. Moidu Moulavi contain
information regarding the contributions of Abdurahiman Sahib and other
important Muslim leaders to the cause of the India's freedom struggle. Vakkom
SukumaranJs I.N.A. Hero VaWcorn Khadar is the only work published on the life
of Vakkom Khader, the first martyr of the Indian National Army.
Only a few books have appeared on the life and career of
communist-socialist Muslims. A biography prepared by Jamal on the life of
P.K. Kunju, a veteran socialist leader, entitled Kunju Sahib, a book edited by
T.V.K. on Muhammed Ishaq and another edited by I.V. Das on E.K Imbichi Bava
entitled 'Pariveshangalillatha Jananayakan' are the only book available on the life
and career of Muslim communist leaders.
Quite a good number of books are published on the life and period of
Muslim League leaders like Seethi Sahib, Bafaqi Tangal and CH Muhammed
Koya. 'Sher-I-Kerala Seethi Sahib written by KK Muhammad -Abdul Kareem,
'Seethi Sahib' by TM Savankutty, Seethi Sahib and Bafaqi Tangal by Abu Siddiq,
CH inte katha by Navas Poonur, CH Muhammed Koya - Rashtreeya Jeeva charithram
by MC, CH inte prasangangal by AM Najeeb and Haleem etc. are worth
mention. Books like Vazhikattikal by KP Kunhi Moosa, Muslim
League-sambavangal, Nakha Chitrangal by TP Cherooppa contain information
about the Kerala state Muslim League and its leaders.
Some recent studies conducted by European as well as Indian scholars
helped to bring out more facts about the history and culture of the mappilas. It
includes Mappila Muslims of Kerala by Roland E Miller, The Mappilas of Malabar
1498-1922 by Stephan Frederick Dale, Mappila Muslims of Kerala by A.P. Ibrahim
Kunju, Mappilas of Malabar by SM Muhammad Koya, Kerala Muslims - A
Historical Perspective edited by Asghar Ali Engineer, Kerala Muslim Directo y
edited by P.A. Syed Mohammad, Kerala Muslim Charitram, Directory and
Stitivivarakanakku edited by CK Kareem, Mappilamarum Keralavum published
by Institute of Mappila Studies, Trichur, Muslimingalum Kerala Samskaravum by
P.K. Muhammed Kunhi, Mahattaya Mappila Sahitya Paramba y a m by C.N. Ahmed
Moulavi and KK Mohammad Abdul Kareem, Kerala Muslim Monuments by VA
Ahamed Kabeer, Islam in Kerala by Sayyed Mohideen Shah and The
Development of Education Among the Mappilas of Malabar 1800-1965 by
K.T. Muhammad Ali.
Rise of Muslims in Kerala Politics written by M Abdul Aziz is the only
work on the role of Kerala Muslims in the filed of politics. But it discusses only
the history of Muslim League in Kerala. No authentic and serious study has
been conducted so far on the role of the Mappilas and other sections of the
Muslims of Kerala in the Congress - Nationalist Movement, Struggle against
French, role in the Socialist - Communist Movements, rise and development
of Muslim political movements etc. The present study is an endeavour to fill
up this lacuna.