EFFECT OF MENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME IN IMPROVING
MENTAL TOUGHNESS AND COPING ABILITIES AMONG
TEHRANHIGH SCHOOL STUDENT ATHLETES
MOHAMMAD ALI RASTI
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
EFFECT OF MENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME IN IMPROVING MENTAL
TOUGHNESS AND COPING ABILITIES AMONG TEHRAN
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT ATHLETES
MOHAMMAD ALI RASTI
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
Requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Educational Psychology)
Faculty of Education
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
MAY 2017
iii
Dedicated to “all the student athletes in the world”
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am heartily expressing my greater gratefulness to Allah s.w.t for His blessing and
strength that He blessed to me during the completion of this research.
My sincere thanks goes to my supervisor Dr. Zainudin bin Abu Bakar for his
continuous motivation, advices, encouragement and support from the start to the end of my
studies. Furthermore, I would like to thank my co-supervisors Associate Professor Dr. Zainal
Abidin bin Zainuddin and Associate Professor Valiolla Farzad for their support on
completion my thesis.
I am very grateful to my family, especially my wife and my daughter, for their
unremitting support, encouragement and understanding.
Finally, I would like to thank all the Faculty of Education staff and the University
Technology Malaysia in general
v
ABSTRACT
Mental strength is critical to the athlete’s performance especially in
competition. Every coach and athlete will seriously work on mental strength to
ensure the positive results are achieved in every competition participated. This study
investigated the effect of Mental Training Program (MTP) on mental toughness and
coping abilities among male and female high school student athletes. MTP was
conducted to investigate how the training improved athletes’ mental strength in
regards to toughness and coping abilities. The training program was developed based
on Iranian culture and sports psychology theories. In this quantitative study, two
questionnaires were used as instruments to collect data from control and
experimental groups on two occasions – pre and post to measure the effect of the
training. The tests were given before and after the MTP. Quasi experimental
methodology was adopted to examine the effectiveness of mental training to mental
toughness and coping abilities among two groups of 80 Iranian student athletes.
Gender and type of sports were considered as independent variables whereas mental
toughness and coping ability were dependent variables in the research. The
Cronbach’s alpha index reported a satisfactory index. Statistical analysis indicated
that the overall Mental Training was effective in improving mental toughness and
coping abilities among Tehran high school student athletes. In other words it is
concluded that MTP influences student athletes’ mental toughness and coping
ability. It is recommended that any well-designed mental training programs should
provide opportunities for athletes to improve their mental toughness and coping
ability in preparation for competitions besides educating and training them to
confront unpleasant circumstances and overcome obstacles.
vi
ABSTRAK
Kekuatan mental adalah kritikal kepada prestasi atlit terutamanya dalam
pertandingan. Setiap jurulatih dan atlit akan bekerja secara serius berkenaan
kekuatan mental untuk memastikan keputusan positif dapat dicapai dalam setiap
pertandingan yang disertai. Kajian ini mengkaji tentang pengaruh Program Latihan
Mental (MTP) kepada kekuatan mental dan kebolehan daya tindak dalam kalangan
atlit lelaki perempuan sekolah tinggi. Program latihan dibangunkan berdasarkan
kepada budaya masyarakat Iran dan teori-teori psikologi sukan. Dalam kajian
kuantitatif ini dua soal selidik digunakan sebagai alat pengumpulan data daripada
kumpulan kawalan dan kumpulan eksperimental dalam dua keadaan – ujian pra dan
pasca untuk mengukur kesan latihan. Ujian-ujian tersebut diberikan sebelum dan
selepas MTP. Kaedah eksperimental kuasi digunakan untuk menguji keberkesanan
latihan mental terhadap kekuatan mental dan kebolehan daya tindak dalam kalangan
kumpulan 80 pelajar-pelajar atlit di Iran. Aspek jantina dan jenis sukan merupakan
pembolehubah tidak bersandar dan kekuatan mental dan kebolehan daya tindak pula
adalah pembolehubah bersandar kajian ini. Indeks Alpha Cronbach bagi kajian ini
didapati berada pada paras yang memuaskan. Analisis statistik menunjukkan bahawa
latihan mental secara keseluruhan berkesan meningkatkan ketahanan mental dan
kebolehan daya tindak atlit. Dengan lain perkataan dapat disimpulkan bahawa MTP
mempengaruhi ketahanan mental dan daya tindak atlit pelajar sekolah menengah di
Tehran. Adalah diusulkan bahawa mana-mana program latihan mental yang
dirancang perlu menyediakan peluang kepada atlit untuk meningkatkan ketahanan
mental dan kebolehan daya tindak mereka semasa membuat persiapan menghadapi
pertandingan selain mendidik dan latihan kepada mereka menangani keadaan tidak
selesa mengatasi halangan-halangan.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES xiv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Background of the Study 3
1.3 Statement of the Problem 10
1.4 Objectives of the Study 14
1.5 Research Questions 14
1.6 Research Hypotheses 15
1.7 Scope of the Study 16
1.8 Significance of the Study 16
1.9 Definitions of Key Terms 18
1.9.1 Student Athlete 18
1.9.2 Mental Training 19
1.9.3 Mental Toughness 19
1.9.4 Coping Ability 20
1.10 Limitations and Delimitations 20
viii
1.11 Theoretical Framework 21
1.11.1 Mental Toughness Theory 21
1.11.2 Coping Theory 23
1.12 Conceptual Framework 26
1.13 Conclusion 28
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 29
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Mental Training Program 29
2.3 Mental Skills Measurement 33
2.4 Goal Setting 36
2.4.1 Stress 41
2.4.2 Anxiety 42
2.5 Inner Dialogue 43
2.6 Confidence 44
2.7 Imagery 49
2.8 Mental Skills in Specific Sports 53
2.9 Mental Toughness 59
2.10 Sport Coping Strategies 66
2.11 Conclusion 72
3 METHODOLOGY 74
3.1 Introduction 74
3.2 Research Design 74
3.3 Validity of the Experimental Study 76
3.4 Sampling Method and Participants 79
3.5 Instrument of the Study 81
3.5.1 Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport
Questionnaire (CICS)
82
3.5.2 The Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire 83
ix
(SMTQ)
3.6 Mental Training Program 83
3.7 Pilot Study 84
3.8 Data Collection 85
3.9 Data Analysis 87
3.10 Conclusion 90
4 MENTAL TRAINING PROGRAM 91
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Session 1 – Goal Setting 93
4.2.1 Mental Toughness and Goal Setting 94
4.2.2 Goal Setting: Purpose in Life and Work 94
4.3 Session 2 - Introspection 99
4.3.1 Positive Self-Talk 100
4.4 Session 3 – Personal Control 101
4.4.1 Self-Control 101
4.4.2 Excessive Outcome Orientation 102
4.4.3 Limiting Subconscious Beliefs 102
4.5 Session 4 – Energy Management 103
4.5.1 Energy Management 103
4.6 Session 5 – Relaxation 108
4.6.1 Relaxation 109
4.6.2 Managing Complexity of Anxiety 111
4.7 Session 6 – Imagery 111
4.7.1 Visual Imagery 112
4.8 Session 7 – Coping 114
4.8.1 Burnout and Coping Ability 115
4.8.2 Fun 116
4.9 Session 8 – Self-Confidence 118
4.9.1 Confidence Building and Maintenance 118
4.10 Instructional Activities Timetable 120
4.11 Training Module 125
x
4.12 Conclusion 127
5 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 129
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 Descriptive Analysis 129
5.3 Inferential Statistics 131
5.3.1 The Effect of Mental Training on the Mental
Toughness Based on Gender
133
5.3.2 The Effect of Mental Training on the Coping
Ability Based on Gender
134
5.3.3 The Effect of Mental Training on the Mental
Toughness Based on Type of Sports
134
5.3.4 The Effect of Mental Training on the Coping
Based on Gender
135
5.3.5 The Relationship Between Mental Training and
the Mental Toughness
136
5.3.6 The Relationship Between Mental Training and
Coping Ability
137
5.3.7 The Effect of Mental Training on the Mental
Toughness
137
5.3.8 The Effect of Mental Training on the Coping
Ability
138
5.3.9 The Appraisal Effect of Mental Training 139
5.4 Conclusion 141
6 SUMMARY, DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS,
IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
142
6.1 Introduction 142
6.2 Summary of the Results 142
6.3 Discussion 144
6.3.1 Mental Training on Mental Toughness 144
6.3.2 Mental Training on Coping Ability 145
xi
6.3.3 Gender and Mental Toughness 146
6.3.4 Gender and Coping Ability 147
6.3.5 Type of Sports and Mental Toughness 148
6.3.6 Type of Sports and Coping Ability 149
6.3.7 Mental Training Program 150
6.4 Suggestions 151
6.4.1 Benefits of this Research 151
6.4.2 Suggestions for Education 152
6.4.3 Suggestion for Coaches, Training Teachers and
Sports Managers
152
6.4.4 Suggestion for Families 153
6.4.5 Suggestion for Media 153
6.4.6 Suggestions for Future Researchers 154
6.4.7 Suggestions for Iranian Sports Council 154
6.5 Conclusion 155
REFERENCES 156
APPENDICES A – H 178 - 242
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TITLE PAGE
3.1 Internal Validity and Steps Taken to control them
77
3.2 Summary of the instruments and data analysis
90
4.1 Instructional activities timetable
121
4.2 Workout summary of MTP Items
123
5.1 Mean and standard deviation of the subscales of SMTQ
questionnaire in pretest and posttest
130
5.2 Mean and standard deviation of three main axes of consistency
questionnaire (CICS ) in pretest and posttest
131
5.3 The number of participants in each group along with the
research schematic design
132
5.4 Results of multivariate analysis for SMTQ questionnaire
133
5.5 Multivariate analysis results for the CICS questionnaire
134
5.6 Results of multivariate analysis for SMTQ questionnaire
135
5.7 Results of multivariate analysis for CICS questionnaire
136
5.8 Results of multivariate analysis for SMTQ questionnaire
136
5.9 Multivariate analysis results for the CICS questionnaire
137
5.10 Results of multivariate analysis for SMTQ questionnaire
138
5.11 Multivariate analysis results for the CICS questionnaire.
139
5.12 Multivariate analysis (MANCOVA) results for the SMTQ
questionnaire
139
5.13 Multivariate analysis (MANCOVA) results for the SMTQ
questionnaire
140
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE
1.1 Mental Toughness Theory
23
1.2 Coping Theory 26
1.3 Conceptual framework
27
3.1 The Quasi Experimental Research Design 76
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX NO TITLE PAGE
A Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) 178
B Coping Inventory for competitive Sport (CICS) by Gaudreau
and Blondin (2002)
181
C Introduce letter and encourage letter 188
D Back translation of CICS & SMTQ 192
E Intervention time table 200
F Translation approval of questionnaires 203
G Coping ability and mental toughness categories 221
H Covariance analysis assumptions 224
.
CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The current research developed a type of Mental Training Program (MTP) in the
domain of psychology. There are a variety of mental training in different branches. For
instance, Etnier (2009) proposed an MTP for young athletes in the process of attaining
peak performance which is in sharp contrast with that of adolescents suffering from
behavioral problems (Weist et al., 2014).
Various personality traits, mental skills, and coping strategies have noticeable
influence on the way mental training is learned and taught (Allen et al., 2011). Common
elements in teaching and learning mental training include individual factors and mental
skills. These elements appear to be necessary for success and optimal performance.
Mental skills help individuals achieve desired goals (Gucciardi, 2008). A close
investigation of mental skills and personality traits familiarizes us with individual
preferences, planning and goal setting, power of mental visualization, focus, self-
control, self-confidence, coping power in high-stress situations, and stability in
hardship. It has been observed that these skills develop in the evolution of an athlete
toward optimal performance (Etnier, 2009). It is the developed mental skills that
distinguish World and Olympic champions from normal athletes (Anshel, 2001). In
other words, developing these skills is necessary for winning championships and
2
achieving success. Classifying mental abilities according to their importance, effect on
mental development, and function on young and adolescent athletes seems to be of
pivotal value on the grounds that MTP is more useful for young athletes than for adult
ones (Etnier, 2009).
Classifying important features of personality according to Sheard (2010) was
that two factors are necessary for success and optimal performance among athletes:
mental toughness and coping strategy. Clough and Strycharczyk (2012) considered the
importance of various features of mental toughness such as considering challenges as an
opportunity, and self-confidence as a high level of self-esteem. According to Weinberg
and Gould (2003), mental skills including self-confidence, power of challenge, self-
control, commitment to tasks and desires, and self-control especially in difficulties need
regular exercise which is the physical form. These skills should be developed from
adolescence and should be part of continuous training.
Kristiansen and Robert (2010) proposed that the role of MTP in the
development of coping skills among young athletes still requires further investigation.
They noted that these young competitors are subject to high stress in the face of
difficult Olympic and world competitions. Accordingly, they suggest that having an
MTP seems necessary for this group of athletes to achieve national and international
success.
According to Yoo (2000), programs on mental training and coping strategies are
context specific. Therefore, in the specific context of Iran, the first step is deciding
which mental skills are more important before setting out to plan and implement MTP
for teens and youth in preparation for the Olympic and world competitions.
Accordingly, the present study highlighted mental toughness and coping ability as the
most important mental skills (see Anshel, 2001; Sheard, 2010) in MTP for Iranian
student-athletes.
3
The present research was an attempt to plan and implement an MTP useful for
adolescents and young athletes in developing mental skills such as mental toughness
and coping abilities in Iran.
1.2 The Background of the Study
Iran has achieved much success in the Olympics and world championships,
especially in the last decade. The attention to sport development has increased the
number of champions and the championship pattern has been increasing. Champions
have endured great hardships to reach the highest level. Observing their characteristics
has assisted in shaping the sport psychologist’s experience in MTP (Etnier, 2009).
There are several good models for developing champions for teenagers and young
athletes. Finding a practical model for young athletes is critical in the course of further
development. A combination of mental and physical training will lead to better results.
That is why Etnier (2009) believes that MTP has a greater effect on adolescents rather
than adults since they are more prepared for positive mental changes. However, adults
have a more established mental state with either positive or negative mental patterns. It
is similar to classical training in which the adolescents and young adults have higher
educability that makes mental changes easier. Tenacity and persistence have been
observed among the Olympic champions of Iran (Mousavi-Vaez, 2010). Assuming that
mental matters are as important as physical and tactical ones, two important mental
factors, mental toughness and coping ability should be further investigated (Crust &
Azadi, 2008).
The current emphasis on the significant role of MTP of athletes at lower levels
has led to more investigations (Christiansen and Robert, 2010). However, mental
training has been proven to be more effective with adolescents and young adults than
with adults (Etnier, 2009). These basic trainings are typically neglected and no basic
program has been implemented for mental training of teenagers and young adults.
4
Similarly, Christensen and Robert (2010) contend that the role of mental training in
developing coping skills among young athletes facing the stress of competing in
Olympic Games require further research. Despite the significance of MTP in the
development of mental toughness and coping abilities, adequate research has not been
conducted in this area.
In terms of learning activities, Sheard and Golby (2006) provided support for
the effective role of MTP in the development of mental toughness for athletes. Their
study involved a seven week program for MTP (including goal-setting, imagery,
relaxation, concentration, and thought stopping skills) which brought about significant
improvements in mental toughness and performance of high-performance adolescent
swimmers. They suggested that mental training could increase the level of self-reported
mental toughness among athletes.
Practicing mental skills in the development of mental toughness supports Sheard
and Golby’s (2006) research. Their study found that MTP led to a significant increase
in the performance and self-regulatory function in young swimmers. In regards to
gender, Kashani’s (2010) study in Iran that compared mental toughness of male and
female athletes in contact sports such as taekwondo, wushu, kick-boxing, and non-
contact sports such as badminton, tennis, and squash, for three levels of participants
ranging from beginner, non-elite, to elite. They found that mental toughness was
significantly higher for males than females and for elite athletes.
Iran Rezvani (2013) conducted a study exploring the effect of an MTP on
mental toughness and sport performance among female futsal athletes in Iran. The
population of this research was reported to include all the female athletes who played in
eight teams of the futsal super league of Tehran in 2013. Two teams were randomly
selected and, assigned randomly as the control and experiment groups. For the pretest, a
questionnaire on mental toughness was administered to the participants of the study.
5
The MTP was given to the experimental group. The finding indicated that MTP can
increase mental toughness and sport performance. Moreover, the effect of the
intervention was reported to be permanent in the follow-up stage as well.
In Dolat-Abadi and Bahram (2012) report, they conducted a study to determine
confidence-related factors for Iranian female gymnasts at the early stages of their
athletic career and found that social support served as a reliable factor in determining
confidence at the level of elementary school. Social support is defined as the admiration
the gymnast receives from others. They found that as confidence levels rose, their
performance was less affected by social support and admiration as their confidence was
internalized. Likewise, Clough et al. (2002) considered confidence to be a special
feature of mental toughness. Sports confidence, is defined by Navabinezhad (2000) as
an athlete's belief in his or her ability to achieve success.
Another study on the effects of mental training techniques such as relaxation,
imagery, and re-concentration on athletes competing in the 2006 Asia games was
conducted in the Iranian context by Sanati-Monfared (2006). The results indicated that
there was an improvement in the concentration and self-confidence of the athletes.
In martial arts, which have their roots in East Asian cultures, the underpinning
philosophy is to enhance the relationship between the mind and the body through
movement and exercise (Anshel, 2008). Therefore, martial arts has an indispensable
link with psychology which has been linked to the importance of using mental skills to
improve the performance of practitioners is undeniable. Many competitions have been
lost due to lack of mental confidence resulting from lack of physical and technical
readiness. Lack of confidence or concentration, poor self-confidence, stress, and anxiety
hinder athletic performance. For many athletes, the reason for success or failure in
competitions can be found internally and, not in the outside world by examining their
state of the mind. Hadi Saei, an Iranian taekwondo Olympic gold medalist, believes that
6
what gives him a competitive edge is not physical or technical superiority but mental
toughness (Sadogh and Hamidi, 2011).
The effects of MTP on a set of mental skills and the performance of adolescent
female taekwondo athletes from the Iranian National Team were studied by Khanjari
(2012) using an MTP. Khanjari’s program took the form of an exercise package that
included goal setting, relaxation, and imagery. The results were based on answers from
questionnaires in the pre-test stage and the athlete’s reactions to stress, fear,
concentration, and re-concentration. The results of this study showed a significant
difference between the control group and the experiment group in terms of their skills,
reactions to stress, and concentration after taking part in the MTP.
In Iran, the presence of female athletes in taekwondo is more obvious than it is
in other sports. Taekwondo is a sport in which Iranian women are allowed to participate
in international competitions. Male Iranian taekwondo competitors have won more
medals than female Iranian counterparts. It is, then, argued that improving the mental
preparedness of female taekwondo athletes may improve their competitiveness
(Khanjari, 2012).
Zandi and Mennati (2012) studied the effect of MTP on the mental skills and
performance of male adolescent football athletes in Iran. They found that participating
in a course in MTP significantly influenced their reaction to stress. They concluded that
negative reactions to stress weakened performance while positive reactions to stress
improved performance.
Athletic performance is the result of a combination of different factors. At high
competition levels where athletes are physically at their best possible level of
performance, mental factors play an important role in their success. Mental toughness is
an essential determining factor in the success of the athletes and most sports
7
psychologists consider it the most important factor (see Khanjari, 2012). In an interview
after his loss in the 2012 London Olympic Games, Yusef Karami, an Iranian former
Olympic taekwondo champion, stated that “I felt alone throughout the competition and
I wished someone would help boost my morale. My opponents had many people around
them while I was suffering from being alone and my self-confidence had deteriorated. I
could not think of the competition. As an athlete, I was thinking of things I should not
while I had a competition the following day. I felt a lot of psychological pressure on
me. I had lost the ability to fight. My coach did not know about my morale” (Karimi &
Jeddi, 2013).
Behdad Salimi, world weight-lifting champion in the 2012 London Olympic
Games from Iran, admitted that "The coach behaves harshly. I have lost my interest in
practicing and feel no interest in competing competitively any more, and I have lost my
commitment" (Karimi & Jeddi, 2013). In a similar notion, Ali Karimi, a national squad
football athlete in Iran stated that "All the internal and external factors pressured us
towards losing our team unity. Psychological unity and harmony of the team has
declined and we are more prepared to lose than win. We are rapidly losing the team
control" (Karimi & Jeddi, 2013).
It is evident from these quotations that signify qualities such as confidence,
commitment, team control, and the ability to fight, are all parts of mental toughness,
and they have declined among these athletes. This point needs to be taken into serious
consideration on the grounds that, as Connaughton (2008) asserts, improvements in an
athlete’s mental toughness would be positively correlated with their achievements, on
the other hand, decline in mental toughness would hinder athletic achievements.
Kristiansen and Roberts (2010) stated that the role of MTP in developing coping
skills among young athletes facing the stress of competing in Olympic Games requires
further research. Adequate research has not been conducted in this field, despite the
8
significance of MTP in the development of mental toughness and coping abilities. In
order to create a link between theory and practice, it is suggested that further
experimental research be conducted (see Crust, 2008).
In a study on the impact of MTP on the mental toughness of woman volleyball
athletes in Tehran, Dehghani (2013) conducted a training course on mental skills. She
collected information on mental toughness using Sheard and Golby’s (2009) Sports
Mental Toughness Questionnaire, which is the questionnaire used in the present study.
The participants were randomly assigned to a control and experimental group consisting
of eleven participants each. The participants in the experimental group took part in an 8
week MTP, comprising a training package of self–talk, goal setting, imagination, and
relaxation. There were 15 sessions every 8 weeks and each session lasted 30 minutes.
The control group did not receive any training. The results of the study revealed that the
volleyball athletes who participated in the MTP obtained significantly higher scores in
all the categories of mental toughness compared to the control group. The categories
included confidence, constancy, and control.
In recent years, Iran is experienicng the emerging significance of mental factors
that have been accentuated (Mousavi Vaez, 2011). The role of mental factors, however,
has rarely been referred to when discussing these failures (Musavi vaez, 2011). Nasim
et al. (2012), for example, concluded that paying heed to mental methods such as
lowering stress levels, keeping calm during games, and enhancing mental toughness
yielded better results in volleyball leagues. In a related study, , Sheard and Golby
(2006) asserted that mental toughness can be enhanced through MTP. Similar claims
have also been made by other scholars in the field (Holt, et al., 2012; Nicholls, 2007;
Nicholls et al., 2008).
Shamshiri (2011) carried out a study that examined Iranian national adolescent
volleyball athletes, and based on the results, he put forward the claim that mental
9
toughness was a factor that significantly affected athletic success. He considered this
factor when looking at the obstacles facing national athletes who lost in the
competitions. He did not, however, provide any explanation regarding the components
of mental toughness.
Other researchers confirmed that mental toughness is a determining factor for
wrestlers and decreased when coping ability was lower due to either competition or
communication. Consequently, wrestlers facing these obstacles failed to achieve the
expected success (Shamshiri, 2011). Nicholls and Polman (2007) stated that the
relationship between coping ability and mental toughness is obvious. It is widely
accepted that mentally tough athletes are able to cope with stress and undesirable
situations more effectively (Bull et al., 2005; Jones et al., 2002; Nicholls et al., 2006;
Nicholls & Polman, 2007; Thelwell et al., 2005). The Iranian Ministry of Youth and
Sports was established in 2010 the Fourth Development Program to improve sports at
schools (Sadough &Hamidi, 2011). A plan was suggested based on the needs of the
students and a sport schedule was developed to prepare them for national and
international competition. On this basis, the Ministry of Education in Iran has been
obliged to increase sports training in schools to train and prepare students for national
teams.
In the program developed by the Iranian Ministry of Education in sport schools,
students are trained as either general or elite athletes. At the elite level, students are
trained as athletes for championships, while the general athletes are trained to enjoy
participating in sports. Very talented student-athletes have been discovered in Iran by
some experts and these student-athletes are placed under the supervision of committees
for at least five years. All of these student-athletes have sport files and records, which
served as the basis for scoring their performance at the end of the school year. Their
performances are scored according to some criteria including the number of medals, the
annual sports activity, and expert evaluation.
10
Statistics, however, show that sports programs alone have not been successful
enough to enhance the athletic ability of students. According to Sadough & Hamidi
(2011), the annual report from the Iran Ministry of Youth and Sports indicated that even
though the students had the acceptable level of athletic ability during the training
period, they were not successful in competitions.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
Young athletes are subject to high stress levels in the face of difficult
competitions and in hard practices. Weinberg and Gold (2003) asserted that athletes do
not understand how to practice mental skills. However, in actual situation, the skills
may not be instinctive for all student athletes which requires them to have strategies to
deal with stress (Gould et al., 1993).
Loher (1983) worked with athletes for the first time in the mid-1980s to increase
athletic performance. As a sports psychologist, he tried to prepare athletes for optimal
function of stress tolerance. Therefore, it can be argued that dealing with stress is a
fundamental debate in the development of sport performance which is possible through
mental training. Through mental training, the athlete is enabled to overcome stress, take
it under her/his control and show best performance in stressful and unfavorable
situations. The ways to overcome stress and be compatible with the environment are
referred to as coping ability (Lazarus, 1993).
Mental toughness is one of the mental abilities that play an important role in
sports and should receive more attention and consideration (Cohen, 2013). The progress
made in psychology means that psychologists have developed approaches to overcome
athletes’psychological problems. These developments include techniques to boost
confidence and deal with stressful and emotionally challenging circumstances during or
after a game (Cohen, 2009). Psychological practice, along with physical exercise, is
11
argued to have an important effect on the preparation of athletes to help them perform
effectively in competitive events (Zandi and Menati, 2013).
According to Wann (1997, p.128), mental training is a "comprehensive
intervention package designed to educate and train athletes in mental preparation." In
another study, Vealey (2002) defined the term mental skills training as "describing
techniques and strategies designed to teach or enhance mental skills that facilitate
performance and a positive approach to sport competition." Conducting mental training
programs is argued to be effective in helping athletes perform better. According to
Sheard and Golby (2006), a mental training program that is well-planned provides
opportunities to foster individual growth in young athletes that would facilitate their
growth in other areas of their lives.
Furthermore, any training is expected to improve performance on the grounds
that every athlete must be able to deal with an array of challenges in order to excel.
Mental training proves to be effective in this regard as it uses targets and plans, mental
training attempts to influence the mental process and personality of an athlete, and
adjust and control his/her behavior by adopting ways to promote certain psychological
states (Crust, 2010). Useful training techniques include psychological skills that
improve performance.
The concept of mental toughness in sports is not a new one (Crust, 2008). The
work of Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton (2007) made a significant contribution to the
current understanding of mental toughness in sports. Jones et al. (2007) studied mental
toughness within the framework of personal construct theory (Kelly, 1955), focusing on
what athletes considered to be the qualities of the ideal andmentally tough performer.
They defined mental toughness as having the natural or developed psychological edge
that enables one to, "generally, cope better than your opponents with the many demands
(competition, training, and lifestyle) that sport places on a performer. Specifically, be
12
more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused,
confident, and in control under pressure" (p. 209). Gucciardi, Gordon and Dimmock
(2008), on the other hand, defined mental toughness as, "a collection of values,
attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that enable you to persevere and overcome any
obstacle, adversity, or pressure experienced, but also to maintain concentration and
motivation when things are going well to consistently achieve your goals" (p. 278).
Crust (2008) states that although mental toughness seems to be unchangeable, it is a
cognitive skill subject to manipulation via training. This is a topic of concern for
psychologists working with athletes (Crust and Azadi, 2010).
Coping is considered to be the ability to confront unpleasant circumstances that
are not agreeable in terms of our mindset or beliefs. There are typically three methods
for coping with stress. The first approach requires paying close attention to the stress-
causing incident. In this approach, individuals are expected to recognize and manage or
resolve the problems or incidents that caused the stress. This approach is also referred
to as a problem-focused approach that transforms stressful conditions into non-stressful
ones. In the second approach, an individual is expected to manage his emotional
reactions to the stress. Therefore, this approach is referred to as emotion-focused
approach (Kennedy, 2009). The third approach is an avoidance-focused approach and
covers a range of activities and strategies on the part of an individual to escape from the
stress-inducing situation (Yan and Mok, 2012). The best method depends on whether
the approach focuses on the factors causing the stress or the individual's emotional
reactions to stress. In a research aiming at comparison of coping methods,
Ramezaninejad and colleagues (2008 considered Iranian national teams for individual
sports. Their findings indicated that Iranian national teams’ athletes made use of
problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant coping methods. Generally, problem-
focused coping strategies were used more than the other two by both males and
females.
13
In Iran, there is a lack of studies on barriers to sport achievement of young
athletes. They cannot learn these mental skills basically. Young athletes. particularly in
important competitions lose their self-confidence. The necessity of teaching coping
strategies and mental toughness in high pressure training and important competition is
evident. Young athletes need to have these skills. According to Yoo (2000), programs
on mental training and coping strategies are, by definition, context specific. Therefore,
in the specific context of Iran, the first step is deciding which mental skills are more
important. Crust (2008) stated that, there has been little experimental research in
mental toughness and mental training. Thus, a study to investigate whether mental
training improves coping abilities, mental toughness, and athletic performance appears
to be required.
Moreover, the effect of practicing mental skills on the development of mental
toughness supports the findings of Sheard and Golby’s research (2006), which indicates
that MTP leads to a significant increase in the performance and self-regulatory
functions in teen swimmers. In general, however, there are few studies that look at the
effect of mental training on mental toughness and coping ability among student athletes.
Therefore in order to solve this issue, the present study was conducted.
14
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are as follows:
i. To determine the difference of the effect of the mental training program on
the mental toughness and coping abilities among Tehran high school student
athletes based on gender and type of sports
ii. To measure the relationship between mental training and the mental
toughness and coping abilities of the Tehran high school student athletes
iii. To measure the effect of mental training program on mental toughness and
coping abilities of the Tehran high school student athletes
iv. To measure the appraisal effect of the mental training program in coping
abilities among Tehran high school student athletes
1.5 Research Questions
The research questions of the study are as follows:
i. Is there any significance different on the effect of the mental training
program on the mental toughness and coping abilities among Tehran high
school student athletes based on gender and type of sports
ii. Is there any relationship between mental training and the mental toughness
and coping abilities of the Tehran high school student athletes
iii. What are the effect of mental training program on mental toughness and
coping abilities of the Tehran high school student athletes
15
iv. What are the appraisal effect of the mental training program in coping
abilities among Tehran high school student athletes
1.6 Research Hypotheses
The null hypotheses for this study are listed as follows:
i. H01 : The is no significance difference between the mental toughness of
Tehran high school student-athletes based on gender
ii. H02 : The is no significance difference between the mental toughness of
Tehran high school student-athletes based on type of sports
iii. H03 : The is no significance difference between the coping abilities of
Tehran high school student-athletes based on gender
iv. H04 : The is no significance difference between the coping abilities of
Tehran high school student-athletes based on type of sports
v. H05 : The is no significance correlation between mental training program
and the mental toughness of the Tehran high school student-athletes
vi. H06 : The is no significance correlation between mental training program
and the coping abilities of the Tehran high school student-athletes
vii. H07 : The is no significance effect of the mental training program on the
mental toughness of the Tehran high school student-athletes
viii. H08 : The is no significance effect of the mental training program on the
coping abilities of the Tehran high school student-athletes
16
1.7 Scope of the Study
The aim of the research project is to examine effect of mental training program,
gender and type of sport as independent variables in mental toughness as a personality
trait and coping ability as a mental skill, two dependent variables, among Tehran high
school student athletes as a target population of this research. The research used two
questionnaires to evaluate these variables.
A list of the student-athletes including both male and female students from high
schools in Tehran was provided by the Physical Education office of the Iranian Ministry
of Education. The student-athletes who participated in the experimental and control
groups were chosen from that list. Participants included 80 male and 80 female student
athletes ranging from 15 to 18 years participated in the experimental and in control
groups. Types of sport were team and individual. Duration of the MTP was eight
weeks. Each session lasted 2 hours and the meetings took place from 10:00 am to 12:00
am. Further explanation is done in the methodology chapter.
1.8 Significance of the Study
Weinberg and Gould (2003) asserted that some coaches and athletes do not
understand how to teach and practice mental skills. Coaches focus their efforts on
helping young athletes, mainly to develop physical and technical skills. It is taken for
granted that student-athletes already know how to cope because they are involved in the
educational process that includes examinations and evaluations. However, in actuality,
these skills may not be instinctive for all student-athletes. In fact, similar to adults, they
need to have strategies to deal with stress (Gould et al., 1993). Hence, understanding
how to teach and practice mental skills can be considered a significant aspect of this
study. A MTP focusing on strategies generally related to positive thinking, goal setting,
positive self-talking, and maintaining confidence could help student-athletes develop
17
abilities to succeed in sports. MTP can help young athletes develop a positive attitude
towards themselves and improve their skills to control their negative thinking and
feelings (Orlik & McCaffery 2007) besides giving young athletes time to develop
successful strategies for dealing with competitive situations (Orlick & Zitzelsberger,
1991) and finally improving the level of performance (Weinberg & Gould, 2003).There
is a lack of research, involving the execution of a systematic MTP with student-athletes
(young athletes) in Iran. Thus, helping young athletes develop their positive attitude and
mental skills is another aspect to be studied in this research.
In Iran, sports and physical education are at the basic level (particularly in
schools). However, in recent years, there have been remarkable improvements in the
performance of Iranian athletes in international competitions. In terms of student health
and well-being, sports education in Iran is intended to improve the health of the young
generation (Sadough & Hamidi, 2011). To this end, talent detection and identification
committees have been established in sports federations to identify talented students in
sports such as volleyball and basketball based on their height, and for wrestling and
weightlifting, it is based on their body and muscle size. The responsibility of these
committees is to determine if talented student athletes can improve their abilities and
win Olympic medals.
The present study is intended to contribute to such committees by employing
sports psychology to select athletes with higher levels of mental toughness and superior
coping abilities. Classifying mental abilities and their effect on the optimal performance
of Iranian student-athletes as well as providing them with an MTP along with physical
exercises on the other are noteworthy issues investiagted in the study. The findings of
this study will benefit the Ministry of Youth and Sports, the Ministry of Education,
psychologists, and sports psychologists. In the long run, the scientific consideration of
the mental factors of adolescent athletes, in particular, and young people in general, can
lead to better prospects for the next generation.
18
The reasons behind an athlete’s success or failure lie only in athletes’ mental
world. Accordingly, improving all aspects of athletic performance can be done through
the practice of mental skills (Mousavi Vaez, 2011). However, despite the vivid
importance of the issue, there is little research on MTP during an athlete’s preparation
period (Khanjari, 2012). Iranian athletes seem to require programs in mental toughness
on an ongoing basis so that they can learn and internalize these skills to better improve
their mental endurance and sports performance (Dehghani, 2013). An important
characteristic of mental skills lies in the fact that they are teachable. In other words,
athletes can learn to be more confident and have more control over stressful situations
(Mousavi Vaez, 2011).
Overall, the results of this study can be employed by the Iranian Ministry of
Education to pave the way for student athletes to become high-performance athletes. It
can also be useful for researchers and authorities in the field of sports to help improve
young athletes mental skills especially aimed at improving student athlete’s
performance.
1.9 Definition of Key Terms
1.9.1 Student Athlete
In this study, the student athletes included all the high school student athletes,
males and females, whose names were on a list provided by the Physical Education
office of the Iranian Ministry of Education in Tehran. They have participated at least
once in student sport competitions at national or provincial level. A student athlete is a
participant who takes part in an association competitive sport supported by an
educational institution where he or she is registered (Grady, 2000).
19
In this study, the student athletes included all the high school student athletes,
males and females, whose names were on a list provided by the Physical Education
office of the Iranian Ministry of Education in Tehran. They have participated at least
once in student sport competitions at national or provincial level.
1.9.2 Mental Training
Mental training program according to Vealy (2002) is the techniques and
strategies designed to teach or enhance mental skills that facilitate performance and
positive approach during sport competition. MTP is the mental or psychological
practices developed to improve performance and increase contentedness related to
sports and physical activities (Weinberg & Gould, 2003).
Mental training program in the present study included eight weeks of training,
two hours a week, goal-setting, self-talking, controlling the things within your control,
energy management, relaxation, visual imagery, burn out and coping ability, confidence
building and maintenance to improve performance.
1.9.3 Mental Toughness
Mental toughness according to Guccciardi (2008) is a collection of values,
attitudes, behaviors and emotions that enable individuals to persevere and overcome
any obstacle, adversity and pressure but also maintain concentration and motivation.
Mental toughness includes three components: confidence, constancy and control.
In the present study, mental toughness is an operation collection of values,
emotions, and behaviours that enables the student athletes to overcome any potential
20
mental difficulty so that they can maintain their concentration under stressful sport
circumstances, which is measured by the score acquired by the participants on the
Iranian standardized version of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire (Sheard, Golby, &
Van Wersch,2009).
1.9.4 Coping Ability
Coping ability according to Lazarus (1993) comprises of the ways to overcome
stress and to be compatible with the environment. Coping ability includes three
approaches: task-focused, emotional focused and avoidance-focused.
In the present study, coping ability is a skill used to deal with sport-related
unpleasant situations, which is measured by the score acquired by the participants
(male and female Iranian high school student athletes) on the Iranian standardized
version of The Coping Inventory for Competitive Sports (CICS) (Gaudreau & Blondin,
2002).
1.10 Limitations and Delimitations
The present study, similar to other research projects on human subjects, is
inherently prone to some factors that may affect the results of the study. For example,
accessible population in this study was a limitation as well as the time constraint for
implementation. Participants were students and the implementation of this class was
possible only in summer. Other limitation included the venue. The class was limited.
Many student athletes were invited, and in fact, these participants of the research were
those who accepted the invitation. In addition, other external factors leading to
limitation with regards to internal factors such as maturation and honesty of participants
21
in completing the questionnaire can affect the findings of the current research as these
were beyond the control of the researcher. A complete description of internal factors
affecting the research finding is illustrated in the methodology chapter.
Delimitations were within the researcher’s control. Delimitation, generally, is
to present the boundaries established in the development of the study such as
population (Tehran high school student athlete), sample, objectives, research questions
and statistical analysis.
1.11 Theoretical Framework of the Study
1.11.1 Mental Toughness Theory
Lazarus (2000a) stated that stressful situations create physiological and
psychological states indicating the presence of stress. The first noteworthy issue among
the theoretical concepts of mental toughness and coping ability is stress. Inability to
cope with stress in sports has been associated with sports withdrawal (Anshel et al.,
2001a) and decreased performance (Lazarus, 2000a). It is therefore crucial to
researchers and practitioners working with athletes to have a greater understanding of
coping in sports in order to design effective interventions and to make the sport a more
satisfying experience (Nicholls & Polman,2007).
Mental toughness developed largely from Implicit Theories of Mental
Toughness (see Gucciardi and Gordon, 2011). It is primarily occurred within sport
contexts which commonly used by coaches and athletes (Jones, Hanton, &
Connaughton, 2002). The focus of the theory was shifted from human malfunctioning
toward human strengths and optimal functional (Lopez and Snyder, 2009).
22
In sports, a personal resource is considered as important to overcoming
adversity and at the same time maintaining high levels of performance or functioning
(Gucciardi, Hanton, Gordon, Mallet and Temby, 2007). The mental toughness is now
represents a contemporary application of the science of positive psychology (Rusk and
Waters, 2013).
The importance of mental toughness was also considered as an important focus
in other areas such as surgery (Colbert, Scott, Dale and Brennan, 2012), business (Jones
and Moorhouse, 2007) and law enforcement (Miller, 2008) for attaining and sustaining
performance excellence.
Most scholars agreed that mental toughness represents a personal resource or
individual difference variable which is central for performance despite stress or
adversity (Hardy, Bell, & Beattie, 2014). It is the study to counter where the concept is
derived from and whether individuals are born versus made mentally tough (e.g., Crust,
2007). Based on the Implicit Theories of Mental Toughness which shape one’s
development (Gottesman & Hanson, 2005), the study have attempted to better
understand the developmental processes and mechanisms for mental toughness among
school athletes. An implicit theory framework (Dweck & Leggett, 1988) provided the
theoretical backdrop upon which to examine this question. Three main constructs
including confidence, control and constancy were measured to determine how the
mental toughness develop and it association to students’ sports achievement as follow:
23
MENTAL
TOUGHNESS
CONFIDENCE
CONTROL
CONSTANCY
ACHIEVEMENT
Figure 1.1: Mental Toughness Theory
1.11.2 Coping Theory
Coping is considered as the ability to confront unpleasant circumstances that are
not agreeable in terms of our mindset or beliefs. Mental toughness according to
Guccciardi (2008) enables individuals to persevere and overcome any obstacle,
adversity and pressure. All these concepts and definitions are about stress and ways to
overcome stress. In more recent development, coping is viewed as adaptive processes
which associated with a long-term series of interactions with a challenging
environment.
In this research, the researcher sought a way to observe the effect on mental
toughness and coping ability of specific groups.Tehran high school student athletes
were the r participants in the study. The mental toughness and coping ability are two
dependent variables that the researcher intends to examine among high school student
athletes.
24
Those student athletes have taken part in some of eight identified types of
individual and team sports .The goal of the study was to determine the effect of a type
of mental training program that takes into consideration gender, and the eight types of
sports played by members in the experimental group. The researcher investigated if
teaching could change the mental toughness and coping ability of the experimental
group.
Loehr (1983) worked with athletes for the first time in the mid-1980s, where he
targeted to increase athletic performance. As a sport psychologist, he tried to prepare
athletes to achieve optimal function of stress tolerance. Therefore, it can be argued that
dealing with stress is a fundamental debate in the development of sport performance
which is possible through mental training. Through mental training, the athlete is
enabled to overcome stress, takes it under her/his control and gives t best performance
in stressful and unfavourable situations. The ways to overcome stress and to be
compatible with the environment are referred to as coping ability (Lazarus, 1993).
Gender differences were first studied by Nicholls et al. (2009). They concluded
that male athletes have higher mental toughness than female athletes. This theory was
based on Vealey’s findings (1988) which stated that male athletes are more self-
confident than female athletes. The current research also studied effect of mental
training program in mental toughness and coping ability, considering the gender factor.
Research by Anshel et al. (2001b) found that males did not use more problem-
focused coping strategies than female. Female adolescents in general have a more wide-
ranging coping repertoire stressful period in which many developmental changes occur.
Female adolescents reported seeking social support and using emotion-focused coping
method to a greater extent than men,whereas men reported using relatively more
problem-focused coping method than women (Compas et al, 2001). Nicholls et al.
(2009) were the first researchers who concluded that the athletes of team sports enjoy
25
higher mental toughness than the athletes of individual sports. This is consistent with
the findings of Vealey (1988), who believes that the athletes of team sports enjoy higher
self-confidence than the athletes of individual sports. In this research, the researcher
investigated further the issue by extending it acording to specific type of sports to
evaluate student athletes mental toughness and coping ability.
Over the past decades, several studies have examined the coping behaviors of
student-athletes (Anshel, Williams & Williams, 2000; Weinberg & Giacobbi, 2000).
Finch (1999) stated that the athletes of team sports commonly apply social support skill
as one of the task focused coping components more than the athletes of individual
sports. In contrast, Tasaddoqi (2013) holds the belief that athletes of individual sports
generally apply task coping ability more than the athletes of team sports. On the other
hand, Gaudreau et al. (2005) and Gould et al. (1993) believed that the avoidance
focused coping style is more common among the athletes of individual sports while
Ramazaninejad et al. (2008) and Anshel et al. (2008), considered avoidance focused
coping is more common among the athletes of team sports. Therefore, the results of
research by Gaudreau et al. (2005) and Gould et al. (1993) do not match the results of
Ramazaninajad (2009) and Anshel et al. (2008). Panahi’s results (2011) indicated that
the athletes of individual sports use the task focused coping more. In other research, the
results obtained by Philippe et al. (2004) indicated that weight-lifters are the only
athletes of individual sports who seldom use the avoidance focused coping style.
26
COPING
ABILITY
Task
Emotion
Avoidance
ACHIEVEMENT
Figure 1.2: Coping Theory
Finally, this question arises as to whether there is any difference between
control and experimental groups after the mental training program was employed in the
experimental group, which was measured through comparing pre and post test scores.
The role of MTP in the development of mental toughness and coping abilities has
received some support through the work of Sheard and Golby (2006). It is concluded
that MTP will develop mental toughness and coping abilities.
1.12 Conceptual Framework
This conceptual framework provided a reference for the formulation of the
research questions as well as direction for the research design. The conceptual
framework supported the explanation of the theoretical framework and educational
context of the current study. In this study, there are three independent variables (IV)
including mental training program (MTP) as the experimental variable, gender and
type of sports. There are two dependent variables (DV) which include mental
toughness and coping ability. Conceptual framework in this study is the basis to
organizes ideas. There are some effects between independent variables and dependent
variables.
27
The MTP is an independent variable (IV) in the current study playa a major
role in improving the mental toughness as it is an dependent variable (DV). In other
words, the student athletes in the experimental group were trained on how to deal with
stressful situations and to control and reduce the stress in such stressful situations. The
output was statistically studied and analyzed using a pre-post test method, which was
applied before and after the MTP. The current research proved the MTP is the
dependent variable (DV) in the improvement of coping ability. Accordingly, the
researcher observed that the MTP which was applied led to the improvement of mental
coping abilities. This has been proven based on the statistical analysis. The diagram of
the conceptual of the study are as follow:
Figure 1.3: Conceptual Framework
MENTAL
TRAINING
Mental
Toughness
Coping Ability
Sport
Achievement
28
1.13 Conclusion
This chapter highlighted the fundamental and conceptual ideas explored in this
study. Important information was provided regarding the establishment of mental skills
training as a way to improve the probability of achieving the desired mental outcome.
Therefore, the effect of MTP on two important variables of mental toughness and
coping ability isa possible result of the study.
This study also aimed to bridge the gap between theories on mental toughness,
and coping ability and practice (Crust, 2010). Despite the importance of such
fundamental issues and their effect on an athlete’s success, research studies are few and
far from sufficient. The present work, therefore, was an attempt to bridge the gap
concerning the type of sport has positive influence on mental toughness.
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