ENCYCLOPEDIA ofMODERN CORAL REEFS
Structure, Form and Process
Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MODERN CORAL REEFS – STRUCTURE, FORM AND PROCESS
Volume EditorDavid Hopley is Professor Emeritus in the School of Earth and Environmental Science at James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia,where he has worked since 1965. He has an M.A. from the University of Manchester and Ph.D. from James Cook University. His initial researchinto Holocene sea levels and tropical landforms quickly focused on the evolution of coral reefs, reflecting the importance of the Great Barrier Reefto his home institution. Experience with coral reefs extends to many parts of the world including Australia, Barbados, India, Indonesia, Maldives,Papua New Guinea, Rodrigues and Thailand. He has authored and edited almost 200 scientific publications. Amongst numerous awards have beenthe J.P. Thomson silver medal from the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (1984) and Life Membership of PACON International (1992).
Editorial Board
Guy CabiochInstitut de Recherche pour le DéveloppementCentre d’Ile de France32 avenue Henri Varagnat93143 Bondy CedexFrancePeter DaviesSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of SydneyCamperdownSydneyNSW 2006Australia
Terry DoneAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3 Mail CentreTownsvilleQLD 4810Australia
Eberhard GischlerInstitut für GeowissenschaftenJ.W. Goethe-UniversitätAltenhoferallee 160438 Frankfurt am MainGermany
Ian MacintyreSmithsonian InstituteNational Museum of Natural HistoryP.O. Box 37012WashingtonDC 20013-7012USA
Rachel WoodSchool of GeosciencesGrant InstituteUniversity of EdinburghKings Buildings, West Mains RoadEdinburgh EH9 3JWUK
Colin WoodroffeSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesWollongong UniversityWollongongNSW 2522Australia
Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences.Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrationsand reference lists.
These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and newworks published, so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatolo-gists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the dustjacket of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of EarthSciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.
About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25years, he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal ofCoastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He isa graduate of the University ofWestern Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International NickelCompany of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia, the Caribbean, South America, southwest Pacific islands,southern Africa, Western Europe, and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.
Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career, he has worked asa petroleum geologist in the Middle East and been a World War II intelligence officer in the southwest Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara,Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated withthe Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA ofMODERN CORAL REEFS
Structure, Form and Process
edited by
DAVID HOPLEYJames Cook University
TownsvilleAustralia
Library of Congress Control Number: 2010933113
ISBN: 978-90-481-2638-5This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-90-481-2639-2 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-90-481-2640-8
Published by SpringerP.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands
Printed on acid-free paper
Cover photo: Houtman Abrohols, Western Australia. Photograph taken by Hironobu Kan(Okayama University, Japan)
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproducedfrom other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.
All Rights ReservedãSpringer ScienceþBusiness Media B.V. 2011No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from thePublisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed ona computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
Dedication to Rhodes Fairbridge(21st May 1914 to 8th November 2006)
A tribute to Rhodes W. Fairbridge in this Encyclopedia ofModern Coral Reefs could not be more appropriate. Hewas the founding editor of the Encyclopedia of Earth Sci-ences Series, launched in 1966 and continued as SeriesEditor and for a number of volumes, as Editor-in-Chief,until he passed away in 2006. The series consists of almost30 volumes and reflects Rhodes’ holistic knowledge of theearth, ocean and atmospheric sciences.
Although Rhodes spent his career at Columbia Univer-sity in NewYork, he was born in Pinjarra, Western Austra-lia. He graduated with degrees in geology from QueensUniversity, Canada and Oxford University U.K. beforereceiving a DSc. from the University of Western Australiain 1942. During the war he served in the Royal AustralianAir Force where, with friend and colleague Curt Teicherthe became interested in aerial photography of coral reefs,initially from a military point of view but subsequently asan aid to interpreting the surficial features of reefs, his firststudy site being Low Isles on the Great Barrier Reef, thelocation of the 1928-29 Royal Society Expedition led bySir Maurice Yonge.
From this time on Rhodes’ research interests, to 1955 atthe University of Western Australia, then at ColumbiaUniversity, New York were intimately related to the topicsaround which this encyclopedia revolves. His interests incoastal geomorphology and especially in past sea levelfeatures were promoted by the spectacular calcarenitecoastline of south-western Australia. Features of climatechange are also prominent in arid climates, such as mostof Western Australia, and this too became a focus ofRhodes’ interests.
It is not surprising that Rhodes took a very active inter-est in the newly developing techniques of radiometric dat-ing. In particular they allowed for the quantification ofQuaternary events, particularly sea level change. He wasthe first to put together a sea level curve for the Holocene
and, although developed from different locations and notapplicable to all sites, the Fairbridge sea level curve didmuch to promote coastal studies. This was nomore so thanat the 1969 Paris INQUA meeting where the gathering ofthe Sea Level Commission and the associated field excur-sion around the Atlantic coast of France saw the emer-gence of numerous ideas which were developed over thenext few decades and applied to the many areas fromwhere the INQUA delegates had come.
Rhodes was a scientist with extremely wide vision witha natural curiosity which saw him following up explana-tions across different fields of science. Sea level changeled him into oceanography and climate change which heexamined at a broad geological timescale. He was aheadof his time in accepting the Milankovitch theory directinghis interests into the planetary sciences. When global cli-mate change became a focus of discussion no-one was ina better position than Rhodes to put some of the initialideas into a more reasonable context pointing out thatthe earth’s climate has always been changing and that datawas needed to evaluate human contribution to globalwarming. Again he was predicting the future direction ofresearch although his conclusion that “Whatever the pre-sent trend, the last word will always be political”, seemsespecially prognostic!
The ideas of Rhodes Fairbridge permeate through thisencyclopedia which I believe is a most appropriate volumeto pay tribute to his contributions to science in general andto the Earth Sciences Encyclopedia Series in particular.I am especially honoured to be able to make this dedica-tion as Rhodes, who always retained his Australian citi-zenship, had a strong influence on the early part of mycareer. My honours and Masters theses were on the coastof North Wales and reference to Rhodes’ sea level workwas inevitable and even more so for my 1970 PhD. onthe coast and islands of North Queensland. However, by
Field trip on the coast of northern France at the 1969INQUA conference (left David Hopley, right RhodesFairbridge)
vi DEDICATION TO RHODES FAIRBRIDGE
that time I had not only met Rhodes (initially when hepassed through Townsville) but had spent more than 3weeks with him on the second half of his expedition tothe islands east of New Guinea (Misima, Rossell andLouisiades etc.). He had recognised that my experiencewith reefs (coming from the UK) was minimal and saw
this as an ideal opportunity for “field tutoring”. It certainlypaved my way into reef research. Also on the expeditionwas Rhodes’ charming wife Dolores (then working forthe Carnegie Museum) who did much to lighten what attimes were some very dark days (including the edge ofa tropical cyclone). This included suggesting that whilstat sea, the men of the expedition wear lap-laps!
More time was spent with Rhodes a few months later atthe 1969 Paris INQUA meeting. We were also togetheron the field trip around the French coast from Sangatteto Les Sables d’Olonne, where I think Rhodes’ breadthof knowledge and respect from fellow Quaternary scien-tists really shone through. Subsequently, apart froma couple of days with Rhodes and Dolores at their LongIsland home at Amagansett, contact for me unfortunatelyhas only been through occasional sea level meetings andcommittees.
Rhodes Fairbridge has left many testaments by whichhe will be remembered. None, I believe, are more appro-priate than the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series.However, it is a privilege to have this dedication to sucha prominent twentieth century ‘Man of Science’ especiallyin this specific encyclopedia on coral reefs.
David HopleyEditor-in-Chief
Contents
Contributors xv
Preface xxvii
Acknowledgments xxix
Acanthaster planci 1Ian Miller
Accommodation Space 2Tom Spencer
Acropora 3Carden C. Wallace
Adaptation 9David Obura
Aerial Photography of Coral Reefs 13David Hopley
Agassiz, Alexander (1835–1910) 15Eberhard Gischler
Airborne Dust Impacts 16Eugene A. Shinn and Barbara H. Lidz
Algae, Blue-Green Boring 18Mark M. Littler and Diane S. Littler
Algae, Coralline 20Mark M. Littler and Diane S. Littler
Algae-Macro 30Mark M. Littler and Diane S. Littler
Algae, Turf 38Mark M. Littler and Diane S. Littler
Algal Rims 39Jacques Laborel
Antecedent Platforms 40Peter J. Davies
Aragonite 47Sue J. McLaren
Atoll Islands (Motu) 47Roger McLean
Atolls 51Colin D. Woodroffe and Naomi Biribo
AUVs (ROVs) 71Noelle J. Relles and Mark R. Patterson
Back-Stepping 77Paul Blanchon
Bafflestone 84Peter Flood
Bahamas 85Paul Enos
Banks Island: Frasnian (Late Devonian) Reefs inNorthwestern Arctic Canada 94
Paul Copper
Banks, Joseph (1743–1820) 96Norman C. Duke
Barbados 97David Hopley and Ian G. Macintyre
Barrier Reef (Ribbon Reef) 102Serge Andréfouët and Guy Cabioch
viii CONTENTS
Bassett Edges 107Roger McLean
Beach Rock 107Roger McLean
Belize Barrier and Atoll Reefs 112Eberhard Gischler
Bermuda 118Alan Logan and Thaddeus Murdoch
Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands 123James E. Maragos
Binding Organisms 136Raphael A. J. Wust
Bindstone 139Peter Flood
Bioerosion 139Pat Hutchings
Bioherms and Biostromes 156Jacques L. Laborel
Bioturbation 158Raphael A. J. Wust
Blowholes 163Colin D. Woodroffe
Blue Hole 164Eberhard Gischler
Boat Channel 165Roger McLean
Boulder Beaches 165Jonathan Nott
Boulder Zone/Ramparts 167Paolo Antonio Pirazzoli
Brazil, Coral Reefs 168Zelinda M. A. N. Leão and Ruy K. P. Kikuchi
Bryozoa 172Roger J. Cuffey
Calcite 179Sue J. McLaren
Calcrete/Caliche 180Barbara H. Lidz
Carbon Fluxes of Coral Reefs 181Marlin J. Atkinson
Carbonate Budgets and Reef FrameworkAccumulation 185
Chris T. Perry
Carboniferous Reefs 190Markus Aretz
Cay Formation 191Peter Flood
Chamisso, Adelbert Von (1781–1838) 193James Bowen
Classification of Carbonates 193Christopher G. St. C. Kendall and Peter Flood
Climate Change and Coral Reefs 198Janice M. Lough
Climate Change: Impact of Sea Level Rise onReef Flat Zonation and Productivity 210
David Hopley
Climate Change: Impact on Coral Reef Coasts 214Charles Sheppard
Climate Change: Increasing Storm Activity 218Joshua Madin
Cocos (Keeling) Islands 221Colin D. Woodroffe
Cold-Water Coral Reefs 225André Freiwald
Conglomerates 229Lucien F. Montaggioni
Conservation and Marine Protection Areas 230Jon C. Day
Cook, James (1728–1779) 236James Bowen
Coral Cay Classification and Evolution 237Scott G. Smithers and David Hopley
Coral Cays – Geohydrology 254Kevin E. Parnell
Coral Cays, Vegetational Succession 256Harold Heatwole
Coral Reef, Definition 261Terry Done
CONTENTS ix
Coral Reefs of India 267Krishnamoorthy Venkataraman
Corals: Biology, Skeletal Deposition, andReef-Building 275
John E. N. Veron
Corals: Environmental Controls on Growth 281Terry Done
Core Plugs 294Eric G. Matson
Daly, Reginald Aldworth (1871–1957) 297Tom Spencer
Dana, James Dwight (1813–1895) 298Tom Spencer
Darwin Point 298Richard W. Grigg
Darwin, Charles (1809–1882) 299Nick Harvey
David, Tannant Edgeworth (1858–1934) 301Peter J. Davies
Davis, William Morris (1850–1934) 302Tom Spencer
Density and Porosity: Influence on Reef AccretionRates 303
David Hopley
Devonian Reef Complexes of the Canning Basin 305Phillip E. Playford
Diagenesis 309Christine Perrin
Dolomitization 321Peter Flood
Double and Triple Reef Fronts 325David Hopley
Earthquakes and Emergence or Submergence ofCoral Reefs 327
Frederick W. Taylor
East Indies Triangle of Biodiversity 333Carden C. Wallace
Eastern Caribbean Coral Reefs 338Dennis Hubbard
Eastern Indian Ocean – Northern Sector 348Barbara E. Brown
Eastern Tropical Pacific Coral Reefs 351Jorge Cortés
Echinodermata 358Maria Byrne
Eco-Morphodynamics 359Paul Kench
Ecomorphology 363Colin D. Woodroffe
El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO 365Joshua S. Feingold
Electro Mineral Accretion 368Andrew C. F. Taylor
Electron Spin Resonance Dating (ESR) 368Gerhard Schellmann, Ulrich Radtke andHelmut Brückner
Emerged Reefs 373Guy Cabioch
Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands 380James E. Maragos
Engineering on Coral Reefs with Emphasis onPacific Reefs 391
James E. Maragos
Eolianite 404Sue J. McLaren
Faroes Reefs 405Roger McLean
Floatstone 406Peter Flood
Florida Keys 406Barbara H. Lidz
FORAM Index 415Pamela Hallock
Foraminifera 416Pamela Hallock
Forereef/Reef Front 422Guy Cabioch
Fossil Coralline Algae 423Juan C. Braga
x CONTENTS
Framestone 427Peter Flood
Fringing Reef Circulation 427Kevin E. Parnell
Fringing Reefs 430Scott Smithers
Funafuti Atoll 446Shigeru Ohde
Gardiner, John Stanley (1872–1946) 451Barbara E. Brown
General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs 452Rachel Wood
Geomorphic Zonation 469Paul Blanchon
Glacial Control Hypothesis 486Tom Spencer
Glacio-Hydro Isostasy 491Kurt Lambeck
Global Ocean Circulation and Coral Reefs 497John E. N. Veron
Great Barrier Reef Committee 503David Hopley
Great Barrier Reef: Origin, Evolution, andModern Development 504
Peter J. Davies
Halimeda 535Edward Drew
Halimeda Bioherms 539Peter J. Davies
Hawaiian Emperor Volcanic Chain and Coral ReefHistory 549
Richard W. Grigg
Heavy Metal Accumulation in Scleractinian Corals 553Sofia Shah and Edward Lovell
Historical Ecology of Coral Reefs 554John M. Pandolfi
Holocene High Energy Window 558Chris Perry
Holocene Reefs: Thickness and Characteristics 561Eberhard Gischler
Huon Peninsula, P.N.G. 562Yoko Ota
Hydrodynamics of Coral Reef Systems 563Clifford J. Hearn
Impacts of Sediment on Coral Reefs 575Michael J. Risk and Evan Edinger
Indian Ocean Reefs 586Eberhard Gischler
Indonesian Reefs 594Terry Done
Infrastructure and Reef Islands 601Michael R. Gourlay
Internal Circulation 608Kevin E. Parnell
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Drivers on Coral Reefs 610Richard B. Aronson
Lagoon Circulation 613Harry H. Roberts and Alexis Lugo-Fernández
Lagoons 617David Hopley
Last Glacial Interstadials 618Yusuke Yokoyama
Last Glacial Lowstand and Shelf Exposure 620Yusuke Yokoyama
Last Interglacial and Reef Development 621Paul Blanchon
Low Wooded Islands 639Paul Kench
Lyell, Charles (1797–1875) 645James Bowen
MacNeil, F. Stearns (1909–1983) 647David Hopley
Makatea 648Lucien F. Montaggioni
Maldives 648Paul Kench
Mangrove Islands 653Norman C. Duke
CONTENTS xi
Mangroves 655Norman C. Duke
Mariana Islands, Coral Reef Geology 663Bernhard Riegl
Mass Extinctions, Anoxic Events and OceanAcidification 671
John E. N. Veron
Mayor, Alfred Goldsborough (1868–1922) 678Lester D. Stephens
Megablocks 679Cliff Frohlich, Matthew J. Hornbach andFrederick W. Taylor
Meltwater Pulses 683Paul Blanchon
Micrite 691Ian G. Macintyre
Microatoll 691Scott Smithers
Microbes 697Elizabeth A. Dinsdale
Mid Holocene 698Sarah Woodroffe
Midway Atoll (Hawaiian Archipelago) 700James E. Maragos, Donald C. Potts,Barbara Maxfield, Daria Sicilianoand Elizabeth Flint
Mining/Quarrying of Coral Reefs 707Barbara E. Brown
Moating 711Scott Smithers
Moats 712Scott Smithers
Molluscs 712José H. Leal
Mururoa Atoll 713Lucien F. Montaggioni
New Caledonia 717Guy Cabioch
Notch and Visor 721Stephen Trudgill
Nutrient Pollution/Eutrophication 722Katharina Fabricius
Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification 733Joan A. Kleypas
Oceanic Hotspots 737Paul Wessel
Octocorallia 740Katharina Fabricius
Oil and Gas Reservoirs and Coral Reefs 745J. Frederick Sarg
Ooids 752Maurice Tucker
Pacific Coral Reefs: An Introduction 753James E. Maragos and Gareth J. Williams
Packstone 776Peter Flood
Palaeosols 776Colin D. Woodroffe
Paleoclimate from Corals 777Helen V. McGregor
Patch Reefs: Lidar Morphometric Analysis 785John C. Brock and Monica Palaseanu-Lovejoy
Permian Capitan Reef System 789Rachel Wood
Persian/Arabian Gulf Coral Reefs 790Bernhard Riegl and Samuel Purkis
Peysonnell, Jean-Andre (1694–1759) 798James Bowen
Phosphatic Cay Sandstone 798David Hopley
Plate Tectonics 801Paul Wessel
Platforms (Cemented) 812Roger McLean
Poleward Extension of Reefs 813Colin D. Woodroffe
Porites 815Michel Pichon
xii CONTENTS
Porosity Variability in Limestone Sequences 821Barbara H. Lidz
Postglacial Trangression 822Guy Cabioch
Quoy, Jean Rene (1790–1869) and Gaimard,Joseph Paul (1796–1858) 827
James Bowen
Radiocarbon (14C): Dating and Corals 829Stewart Fallon
Recent Sea Level Trends 834Philip L. Woodworth
Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba 839Yonathan Shaked and Amatzia Genin
Reef Balls 844Jason Krumholz and Todd R. Barber
Reef Classification by Fairbridge (1950) 846Charles W. Finkl
Reef Classification by Hopley (1982) 850David Hopley
Reef Classification by Maxwell (1968) 854Peter Flood
Reef Classification, Response to Sea Level Rise 855Ian G. Macintyre and A. Conrad Neumann
Reef Drilling 856Dennis K. Hubbard
Reef Flats 869Kate J. Thornborough and Peter J. Davies
Reef Front Wave Energy 876Alexis Lugo-Fernández and Harry H. Roberts
Reef Interconnectivity/Larval Dispersal 881Claire B. Paris-Limouzy
Reef Restoration 889J. Harold Hudson and William B. Goodwin
Reef Structure 896Lindsay B. Collins
Reef Topographic Complexity 902David G. Zawada
Reef Typology 906Serge Andréfouët
Reefal Microbial Crusts 911Robert Riding
Reefal Sediments 915Peter Flood
Reefs at Risk: Map-Based Analyses of Threatsto Coral Reefs 918
Lauretta Burke
Remote Sensing 920Serge Andréfouët
Residence Time 931Thomas Stieglitz and Peter Ridd
Reticulated Reefs 931Colin D. Woodroffe
Rhodoliths 933Lucien F. Montaggioni
River Plumes and Coral Reefs 934Miles J. Furnas
Royal Society of London 938Tom Spencer
Rudstone 940Peter Flood
Ryukyu Islands 940Hironobu Kan
Scleractinia, Evolution and Taxonomy 947John E. N. Veron
Sclerochronology 958Kevin P. Helmle and Richard E. Dodge
Sea Level Change and its Effect on Reef Growth 966Hajime Kayanne and Chuki Hongo
Seagrasses 973Mark D. Merlin
Sea-level Indicators 978Scott Smithers
Sediment Durability 992Murray Ford
Sediment Dynamics 994Paul Kench
Sediments, Properties 1005Eberhard Gischler
CONTENTS xiii
Seismic Reflection 1010J. Fredrick Sarg
Seismic Refraction 1014Nick Harvey
Shingle Ridges 1016Jonathan Nott
Soils of Low Elevation Coral Structures 1019R. John Morrison
Solution Processes/Reef Erosion 1024Stephen Trudgill
Solution Unconformities 1027Peter J. Davies
Spiculite 1028David Hopley
Sponges 1028Janie Wulff
Spurs and Grooves 1032Eugene A. Shinn
Stable Isotopes and Trace Elements 1034Michael K. Gagan and Nerilie J. Abram
Steers, James Alfred (1899–1987) 1043Tom Spencer
Stoddart, David Ross (1937– ) 1044Tom Spencer
Stromatolites 1045R. Pamela Reid
Submarine Groundwater Discharge 1052Thomas Stieglitz
Submarine Lithification 1052Ian G. Macintyre
Submerged Reefs 1058Elizabeth Abbey and Jody M. Webster
Subsidence Hypothesis of Reef Development 1062Colin D. Woodroffe
Swathe Mapping 1067Robin J. Beaman
Symbiosis 1070Andrew C. Baker
Tahiti/Society Islands 1073Lucien F. Montaggioni
Taphonomy 1076Benjamin J. Greenstein
Temperature Change: Bleaching 1079Tom Spencer
Tethys Ocean 1084Rachel Wood
Tidal Effects on Coral Reefs 1086David J. Dixon
Tidal Jets 1091Edward Drew
Tropical Cyclone/Hurricane 1092Terry Done
Tsunami 1096Paul Kench
Turbid-Zone and Terrigenous Sediment-InfluencedReefs 1110
Chris Perry
Underwater Landscape Mosaics 1121R. Pamela Reid
Unvegetated Cays 1124Peter Flood
Upwelling and Coral Reefs 1125Miles J. Furnas
Uranium Series Dating 1128Jian-xin Zhao and Lindsay B. Collins
Vanuatu 1133Guy Cabioch
Vaughan, Thomas Wayland (1870–1952) 1137Robert N. Ginsburg
Vegetated Cays 1138David Hopley and Harold Heatwole
Volcanic Disturbances and Coral Reefs 1138Peter Houk
Volcanic Loading and Isostasy 1140Kurt Lambeck
Wackestone 1143Peter Flood
xiv CONTENTS
Walther, Johannes (1860–1937) 1143Eberhard Gischler
Wave Set-Up 1144Michael R. Gourlay
Wave Shoaling and Refraction 1149Michael R. Gourlay
Waves and Wave-Driven Currents 1154Michael R. Gourlay
West Indian Coral Reef Classification 1171Jörn Geister
Western Atlantic/Caribbean, Coral Reefs 1174Bernhard Riegl
Western Australian Reefs 1180Lindsay B. Collins
Western Indian Ocean 1184Lucien F. Montaggioni
Yonge, Sir Maurice (1899–1986) 1187Barbara E. Brown
Zooxanthellae 1189Andrew C. Baker
Author Index 1193
Subject Index 1195
Contributors
Elizabeth AbbeySchool of GeosciencesThe University of SydneySydney, NSW [email protected]
Nerilie J. AbramBritish Antarctic SurveyMadingley RoadCambridge, CB3 [email protected]
Serge AndréfouëtCentre IRDInstitut de Recherche pour le Développement (I.R.D.)UMR 227 - CoRéUs (Communautés Récifales et Usages)101 Promenade Roger LaroqueAnse Vata, Noumea BPA5 - 98848New [email protected]
Markus AretzLMTG (OMP)Université de Toulouse (UPS)14 Avenue Edouard BelinToulouse, [email protected]
Richard B. AronsonDepartment of Biological SciencesFlorida Institute of Technology150 West University BoulevardMelbourne, FL [email protected]
Marlin J. AtkinsonSchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyHawaii Institute of Marine BiologyUniversity of HawaiiP.O. Box 1346Kaneohe, Hawaii [email protected]
Andrew C. BakerDivision of Marine Biology and FisheriesRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of Miami4600 Rickenbacker CswyMiami, FL [email protected]
Todd R. BarberThe Reef Ball Foundation3305 Edwards CourtAtlanta, GA [email protected]
Robin J. BeamanSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityP.O. Box 6811Cairns, QLD [email protected]
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
Naomi BiriboSchool of Environmental ScienceUniversity of WollongongNSW [email protected]
Paul BlanchonReef Systems UnitInstitute of Marine Sciences and LimnologyNational Autonomous University of MexicoAp Postal 1152Cancun, [email protected]
James BowenEnvironmental Science & ManagementSouthern Cross UniversityLismore, NSW [email protected]
Juan C. BragaDepartamento de Estratigrafía y PaleontogíaUniversidad de GranadaCampus de Fuentenueva18071 [email protected]
John C. BrockCoastal and Marine Geology ProgramU.S. Geological Survey915-B National Center12201 Sunrise Valley DriveReston, VA [email protected]
Barbara E. BrownSchool of BiologyUniversity of NewcastleNewcastle upon Tyne, NE1 [email protected]
Helmut BrücknerFaculty of GeographyInstitute of Geography University of MarburgDeutschhausstr. 1035032 [email protected]
Lauretta BurkeWorld Resources Institute10 G Street NE Suite 800Washington, DC [email protected]
Maria ByrneDevelopmental and Marine Biology, Anatomy andHistology, F13One Tree Island Research StationUniversity of SydneySydney, NSW [email protected]
Guy CabiochIPSL/LOCEAN UPMC/CNRS/IRD/MNHNUMR LOCEANIRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement),Centre d'Ile de France32 Avenue Henri VaragnatBondy, CEDEX [email protected]
Lindsay B. CollinsDepartment of Applied GeologyCurtin University of TechnologyGPO Box U1987Perth, WA [email protected]
Paul CopperDepartment of Earth SciencesLaurentian UniversityRamsey Lake RdSudbury, ON P3E [email protected]
Jorge CortésCentro de Investigación en Ciencias delMar y Limnología(CIMAR)Universidad de Costa RicaSan José, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, 11501-2060Costa [email protected]
Roger J. CuffeyProfessor Emeritus of PaleontologyDepartment of GeosciencesPennsylvania State University412 Deike Bldg. (N. Burrowes Rd.)University Park (State College), PA [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Peter J. DaviesSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of SydneyCamperdownSydney, NSW [email protected]
Jon C. DayEcosystem Conservation and Sustainable UseGreat Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)P.O. Box 1379Townsville, QLD [email protected]
Elizabeth A. DinsdaleBiology DepartmentSan Diego State University5500 Campanile DriveSan Diego, CA [email protected]
David J. DixonIndependent Oceanographer/Geomatics Surveyor2 Cleveland Villa, Paynters laneIllogan, Redruth, Cornwall, TR16 [email protected]
Richard E. DodgeNSU Oceanographic CenterNational Coral Reef Institute8000 North Ocean DriveDania Beach, FL [email protected]
Terry DoneAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3 Townsville MC, QLD [email protected]
Edward Drew21 Bishop StreetBelgian Gardens, Townsville, QLD Q [email protected]
Norman C. DukeSchool of Biological SciencesUniversity of QueenslandSt Lucia CampusBrisbane, QLD [email protected]
Evan EdingerDepartments of Geography, of Biology, and of EarthSciencesMemorial University of NewfoundlandSt. John's Newfoundland and Labrador A1B [email protected]
Paul EnosDepartment of GeologyUniversity of Kansas1475 Jayhawk Blvd., Room 120Lawrence, KS [email protected]
Katharina FabriciusAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3Townsville, QLD [email protected]
Stewart FallonResearch School of Earth SciencesAustralian National UniversityCanberra, ACT [email protected]
Joshua S. FeingoldOceanographic CenterNova Southeastern University8000 North Ocean DriveDania Beach, FL [email protected]
Charles FinklDepartment of GeosciencesFlorida Atlantic UniversityCoastal Planning & Engineering, Inc., CPE CoastalGeology & Geomatics2481 N.W. Boca Raton BoulevardBoca Raton, FL [email protected]
Elizabeth FlintHawaii and Pacific National Wildlife Refuges and MarineNational MonumentsU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceBox 50167, 300 Ala Moana Blvd.Honolulu, HI 96744USA
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Peter FloodEarth Sciences Building CO2University of New EnglandArmidale, NSW [email protected]
Murray FordSchool of Geography, Geology and EnvironmentalScienceThe University of AucklandPrivate Bag 92019AucklandNew ZealandandUniversity of HawaiiSea Grant College ProgramCollege of the Marshall IslandsP.O. Box 1258Majuro, MH, 96960Republic of Marshall [email protected]@hawaii.edu
André FreiwaldSenckenberg MeeresgeologieSüdstrand 4026382 [email protected]
Cliff FrohlichJohn A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of GeosciencesInstitute for GeophysicsThe University of Texas at Austin10100 Burnet Rd (R2200)Austin, TX [email protected]
Miles J. FurnasAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB No. 3Townsville MC, QLD [email protected]
Michael K. GaganResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityCanberra, ACT [email protected]
Jörn GeisterEarth Science DepartmentNaturhistorisches Museum BernUniversity of BernBernastrasse 153005 [email protected]
Amatzia GeninThe Interuniversity Institute of Marine SciencesPOB 469Eilat, 88103IsraelandDepartment of Evolution, Systematics & EcologyThe Hebrew University of JerusalemJerusalem, [email protected]
Robert N. GinsburgDivision of Marine Geology and GeophysicsRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of Miami RSMAS/MGG4600 Rickenbacker CswyMiami, FL [email protected]
Eberhard GischlerInstitut für GeowissenschaftenGoethe-UniversitätAltenhoeferallee 160438 Frankfurt am [email protected]
William B. GoodwinFlorida Keys National Marine SanctuaryP.O. Box 1083, Key Largo, Fl [email protected]
Michael R. GourlaySchool of Civil EngineeringThe University of QueenslandBrisbane, QLD [email protected]
Benjamin J. GreensteinDepartment of GeologyCornell College600 First Street SWMount Vernon, IO [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xix
Richard W. GriggEmeritus Professor of OceanographyDepartment of OceanographyUniversity of Hawaii1000 Pope RoadHonolulu, HI [email protected]
Pamela HallockCollege of Marine ScienceUniversity of South Florida140 Seventh Ave. S.St. Petersburg, FL [email protected]
Nick HarveyFaculty of Humanities and Social SciencesThe University of AdelaideAdelaide, SA [email protected]
Clifford J. HearnWorking Science Consultancies, LLC200, 2nd Avenue South, Suite 519St Petersburg, FL [email protected]
Harold HeatwoleDepartment of BiologyNorth Caroline State University140 David Clark LabsRaleigh, NC [email protected]
Kevin P. HelmleAtlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological LaboratoryNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration4301 Rickenbacker CausewayMiami, FL 33149USAandOceanographic CenterNational Coral Reef InstituteNova Southeastern University8000 North Ocean DriveDania Beach, FL [email protected]@nova.edu
Chuki HongoDepartment of Earth and Planetary ScienceUniversity of TokyoHongo, Tokyo [email protected]
David HopleySchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD [email protected]
Matthew J. HornbachJohn A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of GeosciencesInstitute for GeophysicsUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin, TX [email protected]
Peter HoukPacific Marine Resources Institute, Inc.Saipan, MPUSAandCNMI Marine Monitoring ProgramCNMI Division of Environmental QualityP.O. Box 501304Saipan, MP [email protected]@gmail.com
Dennis HubbardDepartment of GeologyOberlin CollegeOberlin, OH [email protected]
J. Harold HudsonReef Tech Inc.8325 SW 68th StreetMiami, FL [email protected]
Pat HutchingsThe Australian Museum6 College StreetSydney, NSW [email protected]
xx CONTRIBUTORS
Hironobu KanGraduate School of Education/Graduate School ofNatural SciencesOkayama University3-1-1 Tsushima NakaKita-ku, Okayama, [email protected]
Hajime KayanneDepartment of Earth and Planetary ScienceUniversity of Tokyo7-3-1 HongoBunkyo- ku, Tokyo [email protected]
Paul KenchThe School of EnvironmentThe University of AucklandPrivate Bag, 92019AucklandNew [email protected]
Christopher G. St. C. KendallDistinguished Professor Emeritus of Geological SciencesUniversity of South CarolinaColumbia, SC [email protected]
Ruy K. P. KikuchiGeophysics and Geology Research CenterGeosciences InstituteFederal University of BahiaRua Barão de Jeremoabo s/n, Campus Universitário deOndinaBahia, Salvador [email protected]
Joan A. KleypasInterdisciplinary Studies Program & Climate & GlobalDynamics DivisionInstitute for the Study of Society and EnvironmentNational Center for Atmospheric ResearchP.O. Box 3000Boulder, CO [email protected]
Jason KrumholzGraduate School of OceanographyUniversity of Rhode IslandSouth Ferry Rd.Narragansett, RI [email protected]
Jacques LaborelUMR DIMARUniversité de la Méditerranée, Faculte des Sci. de Luminy13288 Marseille Cedex [email protected]
Kurt LambeckResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityCanberra, ACT [email protected]
José H. LealThe Bailey-Matthews Shell MuseumP.O. Box 1580, 3075 Sanibel-Captiva RoadSanibel, FL [email protected]
Zelinda M. A. N. LeãoGeophysics and Geology Research CenterGeosciences InstituteFederal University of BahiaRua Barão de Jeremoabo s/n,Campus Universitário de OndinaBahia, Salvador [email protected]
Barbara H. LidzUS Department of the InteriorU.S. Geological Survey, Center for Coastal & RegionalMarine Studies600 4th Street SouthSt. Petersburg, FL [email protected]
Diane S. LittlerDepartment of Botany, MRC 166National Museum of Natural HistorySmithsonian InstitutionP.O. Box 37012Washington, DC [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxi
Mark M. LittlerDepartment of Botany, MRC 166National Museum of Natural HistorySmithsonian InstitutionP.O. Box 37012Washington, DC [email protected]
Alan LoganCentre for Coastal StudiesUniversity of New BrunswickP.O. Box 5050Saint John, N.B. E2L [email protected]
Janice M. LoughAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3Townsville MC, QLD [email protected]
Edward LovellFaculty of Science and Technology and EnvironmentSchool of Marine StudiesUniversity of the South PacificPMB, Laucala [email protected]
Alexis Lugo-FernándezMinerals Management Service, Physical Sciences Unit(MS 5433), Gulf of Mexico OCS Region1201 Elmwood Parkway Blvd.New Orleans, LA [email protected]
Ian G. MacintyreSmithsonian InstitutionNational Museum of Natural HistoryP.O. Box 37012Washington, WA [email protected]
Joshua MadinDepartment of Biological SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydney, NSW [email protected]
James E. MaragosHawaii and Pacific National Wildlife Refuges and MarineNational MonumentsU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceBox 50167, 300 Ala Moana Blvd.Honolulu, HI [email protected]
Eric G. MatsonAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3 Mail CentreTownsville, QLD [email protected]
Barbara MaxfieldHawaii and Pacific National Wildlife Refuges and MarineNational MonumentsU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service300 Ala Moana Blvd.Box 50167, Honolulu, HI [email protected]
Helen V. McGregorSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of WollongongNorthfields AvenueWollongong, NSW [email protected]
Sue J. McLarenDepartment of GeographyUniversity of LeicesterUniversity RoadLeicester, LE1 [email protected]
Roger McLeanSchool of Physical, Environmental and MathematicalSciencesAustralian Defence Force AcademyUniversity of New South WalesCanberra, ACT [email protected]
Mark D. MerlinBiology ProgramUniversity of Hawaii at MānoaDean HallManoa, Honolulu, HI [email protected]
xxii CONTRIBUTORS
Ian MillerAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3Townsville MC, QLD [email protected]
Lucien F. MontaggioniDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesCentre de Sédimentologie-PaléontologieUniversity of Provence, Research Unit EA 42343, Place Victor Hugo13331 Marseille Cedex [email protected]
R. John MorrisonSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of WollongongNorthfields AvenueWollongong, NSW [email protected]
Thaddeus MurdochBermuda Reef Ecosystem Assessment and MappingProgramme (BREAM)Bermuda Zoological SocietyP.O. Box 145Flatts, [email protected]
A. Conrad NeumanCurriculum in Marine SciencesUniversity of North Carolina12-7 Venable HallChapel Hill, NC [email protected]
Jonathan NottSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityP.O. Box 6811Cairns, QLD [email protected]
David OburaCORDIO East AfricaP.O. Box 10135, #9 Kibaki Flats, Kenyatta Beach,Bamburi BeachMombasa, [email protected]
Shigeru OhdeDepartment of Chemistry, Biology, and Marine ScienceUniversity of the Ryukyus, College of Science1 Senbaru, Nishihara-choOkinawa, [email protected]
Yoko OtaDepartment of Geological SciencesNational Taiwan University106, No. 1, Sect. 4, Roosevelt RoadTaipeiTaiwanandYokohama National University (Professor Emeritus)2-11-13-201, MinamisenzokuOtaku, [email protected]
Monica Palaseanu-LovejoyJacobs TechnologyU.S. Geological Survey, Florida Integrated Science Center600 4th Street SouthSt. Petersburg, FL [email protected]
John M. PandolfiARC Centre of Excellence in Coral Reef StudiesThe Centre for Marine Studies and School of EarthSciencesThe University of Queensland60 Gehrmann LaboratoriesBrisbane, QLD [email protected]
Claire B. Paris-LimouzyRosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric ScienceDivision of Applied Marine PhysicsUniversity of Miami4600 Rickenbacker CausewayMiami, FL [email protected]
Kevin E. ParnellSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
Mark R. PattersonVirginia Institute of Marine ScienceCollege of William & MaryP.O. Box 1346Gloucester Point, VA [email protected]
Christine PerrinLMTGUniversité Toulouse 314, Av. Edouard Bélin31400 ToulouseFranceandMuséum National d’Histoire NaturelleUMR 7207 du CNRS CR2P8 Rue Buffon75005 [email protected]
Chris T. PerryDepartment of Environmental & Geographical SciencesManchester Metropolitan UniversityJohn Dalton Building, Chester StreetManchester, M1 [email protected]
Michel PichonTropical Marine Consutant23 Manilla CloseMount Sheridan Cairns, QLD [email protected]
Paolo Antonio PirazzoliCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique16, Rue de la Grange Batelière75009 [email protected]
Phillip E. PlayfordGeological Survey of Western Australia100 Plain StreetPerth, [email protected]
Donald C. PottsDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of California at Santa CruzSanta Cruz, CA [email protected]
Samuel PurkisNational Coral Reef InstituteNova Southeastern University Oceanographic Center8000 N Ocean DriveDania, FL [email protected]
Ulrich RadtkeUniversity of Duisburg-EssenUniversitätsstr. 245117 [email protected]
R. Pamela ReidRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of Miami4600 Rickenbacker CswyMiami, FL [email protected]
Noelle J. RellesDepartment of Biological SciencesVirginia Institute ofMarine Science, College ofWilliam&MaryP.O. Box 1346, 1208 Greate RoadGloucester Point, VA [email protected]
Peter RiddMarine Geophysical LaboratorySchool of Engineering & Physical SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD [email protected]
Robert RidingSchool of Earth Ocean & Planetary SciencesCardiff UniversityCardiff, Wales CF10 3YEUKandDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of TennesseeKnoxville, TN [email protected]
xxiv CONTRIBUTORS
Bernhard RieglNational Coral Reef InstituteOceanographic CenterNova Southeastern University8000 N Ocean DriveDania, FL [email protected]
Michael J. RiskDeptartment Of GeologyMcMaster UniversityHamilton L85 4M1CanadaandP.O. Box 1195Durham, [email protected]
Harry H. RobertsDepartment of Oceanography and Coastal SciencesCoastal Studies Institute304 Howe-Russell Geosciences ComplexLouisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA [email protected]
J. Fredrick SargDepartment of Geology & Geological EngineeringColorado School of Mines1500 Illinois StGolden, CO [email protected]
Gerhard SchellmannDepartment of Physical Geography & Landscape StudiesUniversity of BambergAm Kranen 1, P.O. Box 154996045 [email protected]
Sofia ShahDepartment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science andTechnology and EnvironmentThe University of the South PacificPMB, Laucala [email protected]
Yonathan ShakedIsrael National Monitoring Program of the Gulf of EilatThe Interuniversity Institute for Marine SciencesPOB 469Eilat, [email protected]
Charles SheppardDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of WarwickCoventry, CV4 [email protected]
Eugene A. ShinnCollege of Marine ScienceUniversity of South Florida140 7th Avenue SouthSt. Petersburg, FL [email protected]
Daria SicilianoSeaweb Institute of the EnvironmentStanford University8407 Colesville Rd., Suite 500Silver Spring, MD [email protected]
Scott G. SmithersSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD [email protected]
Thomas SpencerCambridge Coastal Research UnitDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CambridgeDowning PlaceCambridge, CB2 [email protected]
Lester D. StephensDepartment of HistoryUniversity of Georgia1340 Crystal Hills DriveAthens, GA [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
Thomas StieglitzMarine Geophysical LaboratoryJames Cook University, School of Engineering& PhysicalSciencesTownsville, QLD [email protected]
Andrew C. F. TaylorPacificus Biological Services Ltd.5004, Box 2760Port Hardy, BC V0N 2P0CanadaandJames Cook UniversityTownsville, [email protected]
Frederick W. TaylorInstitute for GeophysicsJohn A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of GeosciencesUniversity of Texas at Austin10400 Burnet Rd.Austin, TX [email protected]
Kate J. ThornboroughSchool of GeosciencesThe University of SydneyMadsen Building (F09) Room 409Sydney, NSW [email protected]
Steve TrudgillDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Cambridge, Robinson CollegeGrange RoadCambridge, CB3 [email protected]
Maurice TuckerDepartment of Earth SciencesDurham UniversityOld ElvetDurham, DH1 [email protected]
Krishnamoorthy VenkataramanNational Biodiversity Authority475, 9th South Cross Street, Kapaleeswarar NagarNeelankarai, Chennai 600 041Indiaand
Zoological Survey of IndiaMarine Biology Regional Centre130, Santhome High RoadChennai, 600 [email protected]
John E. N. VeronAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB No 3, MailCentreTownsville, QLD 4810AustraliaandCoral Reef Research10 Benalla RoadTownsville, Oak Valley, QLD [email protected]
Carden C. WallaceMuseum of Tropical Queensland70-102 Flinders St.Townsville, QLD [email protected]
Jody M. WebsterSchool of GeosciencesThe University of SydneySydney, NSW [email protected]
Paul WesselDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsSchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa1680 East-West RoadHonolulu, HI [email protected]
Gareth J. WilliamsSchool of Biological SciencesVictoria University of WellingtonP.O. Box 600, WellingtonNew [email protected]
Rachel WoodSchool of GeoSciencesGrant Institute, University of EdinburghKing's Buildings, West Mains RoadEdinburgh, EH9 [email protected]
xxvi CONTRIBUTORS
Colin D. WoodroffeSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of WollongongWollongong, NSW [email protected]
Sarah WoodroffeDepartment of GeographyDurham University Science LaboratoriesSouth RoadDurham, DH1 [email protected]
Philip L. WoodworthProudman Oceanographic LaboratoryNational Oceanography Centre LiverpoolJoseph Proudman Building, 6 Brownlow StreetLiverpool, L3 [email protected]
Janie L. WulffDepartment of Biological ScienceFlorida State University319 Stadium DriveTallahassee, FL [email protected]
Raphael A. J. WustSchool of Earth & Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD [email protected]@cbmsol.com
Yusuke YokoyamaAtmosphere and Ocean Research InstituteThe University of Tokyo5-1-5 KashiwanohaChiba [email protected]
David G. ZawadaU.S. Geological Survey600 Fourth St. SouthSt. Petersburg, FL [email protected]
Jian-xin ZhaoRadiogenic Isotope LaboratoryCentre for Microscopy and MicroanalysisUniversity of QueenslandBrisbane, QLD [email protected]
Preface
From navigational hazards in the seventeenth and eigh-teenth centuries to enigmatic scientific features in thenineteenth century, coral reefs over the last 100 yearshave not only been understood in greater detail but alsohave provided evidence of macroscale geological pro-cesses such as plate tectonics. Charles Darwin’s 1842book based on his 1831–1836 circum global voyage ofexploration on HMS Beagle strongly focused the interestsof science on coral reefs. Interestingly, his ideas of subsid-ing foundations were developed whilst in South Americaand before he had seen a coral reef in the field. However,his work promoted both supportive hypotheses and alter-natives which included ideas on glacial sea-level control,antecedent platforms, and other ideas which were verymuch more divorced from field observation than those ofDarwin himself, who, in the fourth chapter of his bookdevelops the biological aspects of his theory and the vari-ous conditions under which corals can grow.
The ideas, together with his oft quoted wish,
that some doubly rich millionaire would take into his head tohave borings made in some of the Pacific and Indian atolls,and bring home cores for slicing from a depth of 500 or600 feet
were a forecast of the way coral reef research would travelin the twentieth century. Although many hypotheses havebeen applied to all scales of reefal features and processes,hypotheses testing is now expected, and with this hascome the development of research tools such as surveytechniques like aerial photography and satellite imagery.The first views of coral reefs from the sky opened upwhole new dimensions and directly aided the field-basedstudy of coral reefs, to the same extent that the laboratoryanalysis such as palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, hasin more recent times.
The understanding of how small polyps can constructenormous coral reefs more than 100 km2 is of centralinterest to earth scientists but is just as much the areaof many other fields of science. The breakdown of
boundaries around the traditional fields of science is adeveloping theme of the twenty-first century and is nomore so than in the study of coral reefs. Corals were ini-tially thought to be plants until the work of André dePeysonnel (1727) although it took another 24 years forthe Royal Society of London to accept them as animals.Coral reefs are the largest structures on earth built by acombination of plants and animals and inevitably they havebecome the major focus of research for zoologists, bota-nists, and ecologists. It is impossible to study reefs withoutinput of ideas from these disciplines. However, almostevery facet of earth science – geology, geography, geomor-phology, sedimentology, oceanography, palaeontology,tectonics, etc. – contributes to the understanding of coralreefs and is included in this encyclopedia. The purpose ofthe encyclopedia is to promote interdisciplinary researchand to help in the communication between earth scienceand other disciplines by providing a window onto theapproaches of earth science to coral reefs and giving otherdisciplines an understanding of the way corals are viewedby the earth science community. As editor of this volume,I see any way that brings the diverse range of disciplinescloser together and understanding each other’s knowledgeas highly productive. However, it is hoped that within thevolume there will also be much to help other earth scien-tists. Every attempt has been made to make the entries asauthoritative and up-to-date as possiblewith latest referencelists and a range of cross-references which will help in thenavigation of this volume.
Why the title – Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs –Structure, Form and Process? Again, to some extent, it isto make it attractive to multidisciplinary readers.“Cainozoic” or “Quaternary” could have been used butthe technical terms may have made it less attractive toother disciplines. Also, modern coral reefs havea continuous lineage with the earliest Palaeozoic reefs,hence the few entries which cover earlier reefs and theirinfluence on today’s living reefs in the volume. Structure,
xxviii PREFACE
form, and process are the essential ingredients in the earthscience recipe for understanding coral reefs as well asmost other landforms.
During the last 100 years, coral reefs have attained newvalues beyond the support of local subsistence economies.They have provided sites for navigational aids and in daysof aircraft with limited range, stopover refuelling sites.During World War II many mid-oceanic atolls had strate-gic importance and following the war, some became test-ing sites for nuclear weapons. Ironically, the drillingassociated with this testing did much to extend the knowl-edge of the origin of reefs and in particular, supportCharles Darwin. Reefs are important sites for commercialas well as subsistence fishing, and further economic valuehas been added by tourism.
Unfortunately, the future for coral reefs is very uncer-tain. They are one of the ecosystems most at risk fromglobal climate change and because of this have achievedmuch prominence in recent times. They have been com-pared to canaries in coal mines, providing early warningof increasing risks! Both public and scientific perspectiveson the impacts of global warming on coral reefs havechanged over the last 20 years. Initially a rise in sea levelwas seen as positive, encouraging new coral growth overlargely dead reef flats, although at the other extreme wereforecasts of reefs being drowned, all reef islandsdisappearing and even the reefs themselves being erodedaway and tropical coastlines losing their protection. Morebalanced responses have come as scientists working onprocesses opened up a range of possibilities. Earth sciencehas played a major role in these revisions especially wherecooperation with other disciplines has provided balancedassessments. Impacts will be severe with bleaching fromtemperature rise and calcification rates declining inresponse to acidified oceans, leading to unsustainablegrowth rates of corals and many other important organ-isms. The earth science focus here is on the impact on sed-iment budgets and the transportational ability of waves.Many scenarios are possible including an increase inavailable sediment over the reef top, and, with deeperwater greater ability of waves to move both this new sed-iment and that which may have rested on the reef top forseveral thousand years, towards any preexisting reefisland. At least in the foreseeable future, the actual volumeof reef islands may increase, though new areas added willlack vegetation and soils and may be at the expense of theareas which have supported subsistence agriculture formillennia.
What is becoming more apparent, as further researchinto the impact of climate change on reefs is carried out,is that in many instances there are important thresholds
which determine the severity of response. Climatechange impact is undoubtedly the most important focusof coral reef research in all disciplines at present. To someextent, the situation is similar to that of the nineteenthcentury when conflicting hypotheses on the formationof coral reefs were the highlight. Then, as further researchrevealed the depth and lithology of the foundations, ideason glacially controlled sea levels became accepted andthe whole new scenario of plate tectonics was revealed,it became clear that as in many areas of science, theremay be more than one correct answer to a problem. Asmore thresholds are determined, different options forcoral reefs to move into the future will become apparent.Unfortunately, these will mostly be under adverseconditions.
Climate change and coral reefs form one of the majorfoci of this encyclopedia. Although entries are presentedin alphabetical order, they have been organized undermajor compilation headings which should become partic-ularly obvious when the reader uses the cross-referenceswith each entry. Theories and hypotheses, from Darwinto climate change, also provide a substantial number ofentries, together with some of the major methodologiesused in the hypothesis testing. Short biographies are givenof some of the major contributors to the study of coral reefsin the earth science field, including organizations. Classifi-cations of various features are given, which again show thatthere may be more than one critical approach to featuresor processes. Although the encyclopedia does not containa formal glossary, there are many short entries explainingspecific features or processes. As coral reefs vary aroundthe world, a significant number of entries have been devotedto geographical areas. Finally, the past contribution to mod-ern reefs is not forgotten with contributions on specific reefcomplexes of the geological past, whilst the future, howeverfragile, is assessed through a number of contributions onconservation.
This is not an exhaustive list but hopefully, it givesa structure to the encyclopedia’s contents. Of equal valueare the many references given with the entries. Theserange from some of the most classical to material onlypublished in the last 12 months. The interest in coral reefsis such that, over the next few years, further interestingmaterial will be published and updates may be required,but the 260 entries within the present volume, written byauthors from 15 different countries, give a wide perspec-tive of earth science’s interest in an increasingly fragileecosystem.
David HopleySeptember 2010
Acknowledgments
Awork the size of this encyclopedia inevitably relied onthe help and cooperation of a very large number of people,only some of whom can be identified. My particularthanks go to the Editorial Board, an internationalgroup of highly respected coral reef scientists. To GuyCabioch, Peter Davies, Terry Done, Eberhardt Gischler,Ian Macintyre, Rachel Wood, and Colin Woodroffe, thankyou for keeping this project on course by helping tochoose the topics which form the entries, suggestinghigh-quality authors, reviewing the initial manuscripts,and finally checking the proofs with your selected groupsof authors as well as writing important contributionsyourselves.
This leads to the largest group I wish to acknowledge,the authors of the 260 entries which range in size froma few hundred words up to major contributions of10,000 words. Many authors have also taken on more thanone entry within their speciality area. Also, with authorsfrom 15 different countries for many, English is not theirfirst language, yet, with help from the Editorial Boardand from Springer, they have provided quality articles.Inevitably, with such a large group of people there havebeen problems with illness, with members of their family,etc. and yet, the overall production has not deviated to anygreat extent from the original timetable. The writers of thearticles are highly commended for their dedication to thework.
At the production end of this project has been thestaff of Springer. Their help, understanding, and coopera-tion, especially when small problems arose, is somethingI cannot appreciate enough. Their patient collaborationwith authors and board did much to maintain the smoothtimetable. Special acknowledgment must go to Petra vanSteenbergen, Sylvia Blago, and Simone Giesler, who wereinvolved with the encyclopedia from start to finish,a period of over 3 years. In particular, their decision toaccept so many color illustrations has done much to add tothe attractiveness and interpretation of these entries on coralreefs. Advice, especially in the formative stages, from Char-lie Finkl, himself a coastal scientist, and a Series Editor forthe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, did much toguide the project along the most effective tracks.
In many works like this, thanks are expressed to theeditor’s/author’s spouse for their patience and support.My appreciation to Patricia goes far beyond this as with-out her many hours of support, the project would not havebeen completed. Not only did she run an efficient office,maintaining a most complex filing system and, due to myown deficiencies, taking on responsibilities for all commu-nications but also she provided continuous motivationthrough the many hours she spent, furthering the project.
Finally, to the many unnamed people who have contrib-uted to the encyclopedia, thank you for your time and effortand I hope the final product meets with your approval.