Transcript
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1952• Britain produces

an atomic bomb

776

The Cold WarBegins 1945–1960

1945• Yalta conference

• Franklin Rooseveltdies

1948• Berlin airlift begins

1945• Italian women

gain right to vote

1946• Orwell’s Animal

Farm published1948• State of Israel created

Why It MattersAfter World War II, an intense rivalry developed between the United States and the Soviet

Union—two superpowers with very different political and economic systems. This rivalry, knownas the Cold War, led to a massive buildup of military weapons on both sides. The determination

of American leaders to contain communism also led to the Korean War, in which over 36,500Americans died.

The Impact TodayThe effects of Cold War events are still evident today.

• The NATO alliance works to guarantee the security of many democratic countries.• The math and science training important to the space race remains an educational priority.

The American Vision Video The Chapter 26 video, “Symbols of the Cold War,” examines the era by focusing on the crisis of the Berlin airlift.

▼ ▼▼

1949• NATO

established

1950• McCarthy charges that

Communists staff theU.S. State Department

• Korean War begins

1949• People’s Republic of

China established

1947• Truman Doctrine

declared

1945 1950

Truman1945–1953

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777

1956• Suez Canal crisis

• Hungarians rise up againsttheir Communist government

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the American VisionWeb site at tav.glencoe.comand click on ChapterOverviews—Chapter 26 topreview chapter information.

During Nixon’s 1959 visit to Moscow, the vice president exchanged angry words with Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchev during the “kitchen” debate at an exhibit at the U.S. Trade and Cultural Fair.

1953• Rosenbergs executed

for treason

• Armistice reached inKorean War

1959• Khrushchev and

Eisenhower hold summit▲

1960• U-2 incident

1953• Stalin dies

▼ ▼

1955 1960

Eisenhower1953–1961

1957• Soviet Union

launches Sputnik

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February 1945Yalta conference heldin the USSR

778 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

✦ May 1946

A Clash of Interests Even before World War II ended, the wartime alliance between the United States and

the Soviet Union had begun to show signs of strain. President Roosevelt had hoped thata victory over the Axis and the creation of the United Nations would lead to a morepeaceful world. Instead, the United States and the Soviet Union became increasinglyhostile toward each other after the war. This led to an era of confrontation and competi-tion between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted from about 1946 to 1990.This era became known as the Cold War.

On April 23, 1945, President Harry S Truman welcomed Soviet Foreign MinisterVyacheslav Molotov into the Oval Office of the White House. Truman had been president forless than two weeks, but he was determined to get tough with Molotov.

Truman told the Soviet diplomat how disgusted he was with Moscow’s refusal to permitfree elections in Poland, expressing his “deep disappointment” that the Soviet Union was notcarrying out its agreements. Bluntly, he warned Molotov that Soviet defiance would seriouslyshake the confidence of the United States and Great Britain in their wartime ally.

Molotov began to explain the Soviet position, but Truman interrupted again and again,repeating his demand that Stalin “carry out that agreement in accordance with his word.”Astonished, Molotov blurted out, “I have never been talked to like that in my life!”

“Carry out your agreements,” the president snapped back, “and you won’t get talked tolike that!”

—adapted from The Cold War: A History

Origins of the Cold War

Main IdeaThe detonation of the atomic bomb andthe end of World War II led to disagree-ments among the “Big Three” wartimeAllies and a shift in American attitudestoward the Soviet Union.

Key Terms and Names Cold War, Potsdam, satellite nation, iron curtain

Reading StrategyCategorizing As you read about the ori-gins of the Cold War, complete a graphicorganizer similar to the one below by fill-ing in the names of the conferences heldamong the “Big Three” Allies and the out-comes of each.

Reading Objectives• Explain the growing tensions between

the United States and the Soviet Unionat the end of World War II.

• Identify the goals of Stalin’s foreignpolicy immediately after the war.

Section Theme Global Connections As World War IIwas ending, the United States and theSoviet Union began to negotiate to influ-ence the shape of the postwar world.

✦ December 1945

April 1945PresidentRoosevelt dies

July 1945Potsdam conferenceconvenes in Germany

March 1946Churchill delivers “ironcurtain” speech

✦ February 1945 ✦ July 1945

Harry S Truman

Conferences Outcomes

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Soviet Security Concerns Tensions between theUnited States and the Soviet Union began to increasebecause the two sides had different goals. As the warended, Soviet leaders became concerned about secu-rity. Germany had invaded Russia twice in less than30 years. The Soviets wanted to keep Germany weakand make sure that the countries between Germanyand the Soviet Union were under Soviet control.

Although security concerns influenced their think-ing, Soviet leaders were also Communists. Theybelieved that communism was a superior economicsystem that would eventually replace capitalism andthat the Soviet Union should encourage communismin other nations. Soviet leaders also accepted Lenin’stheory that capitalist countries eventually would tryto destroy communism. This made Soviet leaderssuspicious of capitalist nations.

American Economic Concerns While Soviet lead-ers focused on securing their borders, American lead-ers focused on economic problems. Many Americanofficials believed that the Depression had causedWorld War II. Without it, Hitler would never havecome to power, and Japan would not have wanted toexpand its empire.

American advisers also thought the Depressionhad been overly severe because countries cut back ontrade. They believed that when nations seal them-selves off economically, it forces them to go to war toget the resources they need. By 1945 PresidentRoosevelt and his advisers were convinced that economic growth was the keyto world peace. They wantedto promote economic growthby increasing world trade.

Similar reasoning convincedAmerican leaders to promotedemocracy and free enterprise.They believed that democraticgovernment with protectionsfor people’s rights made coun-tries more stable and peaceful.They also thought that the freeenterprise system, with privateproperty rights and limitedgovernment intervention in theeconomy, was the best route toprosperity.

Describing Why did U.S. leaderspromote both international tradeand free enterprise?

The Yalta ConferenceIn February 1945, with the war in Europe almost

over, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta—aSoviet resort on the Black Sea—to plan the postwarworld. Although the conference seemed to go well,several agreements reached at Yalta later played animportant role in causing the Cold War.

Poland The first issue discussed at Yalta was whatto do about Poland. Shortly after the Germansinvaded Poland, the Polish government leaders hadfled to Britain. In 1944, however, Soviet troops droveback the Germans and entered Poland. As they liber-ated Poland from German control, the Sovietsencouraged Polish Communists to set up a new gov-ernment. This meant there were now two govern-ments claiming the right to govern Poland, oneCommunist and one non-Communist.

President Roosevelt and Prime MinisterChurchill both argued that the Poles should be freeto choose their own government. “This is what wewent to war against Germany for,” Churchillexplained, “that Poland should be free and sovereign.”

Stalin quickly responded to Churchill’s comments.According to Stalin, the Polish government had to befriendly to the Soviet Union. It was a matter of “lifeand death.” Eventually, the three leaders compro-mised. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to recognizethe Polish government set up by the Soviets. Stalinagreed that the government would include members

Reading Check

Germany in Ruins World War II devastated many German cities. Here a woman sits among the ruins ofCologne, a northern city on the Rhine River.

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of the prewar Polish government and that freeelections would be held as soon as possible.

Declaration of Liberated Europe After reaching acompromise on Poland, Roosevelt, Churchill, andStalin agreed to issue the Declaration of LiberatedEurope. The declaration asserted “the right of allpeople to choose the form of government underwhich they will live.”

The Allies promised that the people of Europewould be allowed “to create democratic institutionsof their own choice.” They also promised to createtemporary governments that represented “all demo-cratic elements” and pledged “the earliest possibleestablishment through free elections of governmentsresponsive to the will of the people.”

Dividing Germany After agreeing to a set of principles for liberating Europe, the conferencefocused on Germany. Roosevelt, Churchill, andStalin agreed to divide Germany into four zones.Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union,and France would each control one zone. The same

four countries would also divide the city of Berlin,even though it was in the Soviet zone.

Although pleased with the decision to divideGermany, Stalin also wanted to weaken the countryeconomically. He demanded that Germany payheavy reparations for the war damage it caused.Roosevelt agreed, but he insisted reparations bebased on Germany’s ability to pay. He also sug-gested, and Stalin agreed, that Germany pay repara-tions with trade goods and products instead of cash.The Allies would also be allowed to remove indus-trial machinery, railroad cars, and other equipmentfrom Germany as reparations.

This decision did not resolve the issue. Over thenext few years, arguments about reparations and eco-nomic policy in Germany increased tensions betweenthe United States and the Soviet Union. These argu-ments became one of the major causes of the Cold War.

Tensions Begin to Rise The Yalta decisions shapedthe expectations of the United States. Two weeks afterYalta, the Soviets pressured the King of Romania into

780 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

MOMENTinHISTORYAID FOR WAR’SYOUNGEST VICTIMSThe gift of a new pair of shoesfrom the American Red Crosslights up the face of a youngAustrian refugee. Millions ofpeople across Europe wereuprooted by almost six years of fighting that seldom distin-guished between combatantsand civilians. Millions more fledas victorious Soviet troopsadvanced through EasternEurope into Germany at theend of World War II. The fateof the refugees becameenmeshed in the growingpower struggle between theUnited States and the SovietUnion, which turned the formerallies into Cold War enemies.

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appointing a Communist govern-ment. The United States accusedthe Soviets of violating the Dec-laration of Liberated Europe.

Soon afterward, the Sovietsrefused to allow more than threenon-Communist Poles to serve inthe 18-member Polish govern-ment. There was also no indicationthat they intended to hold freeelections in Poland as promised.On April 1, President Rooseveltinformed the Soviets that theiractions in Poland were not accept-able. Eleven days later, withSoviet-American relations deterio-rating, President Roosevelt died,and Vice President Harry Trumantook office.

IdentifyingWhat did the Allies decide at Yalta?

Truman Takes ControlAlthough inexperienced in diplomacy, Truman

already had his own views about how to deal withthe Soviets. Truman was strongly anticommunist andsuspicious of Stalin. He believed World War II hadbegun because Britain had tried to appease Hitler. Hewas determined not to make the same mistake withStalin. “We must stand up to the Russians,” he toldSecretary of State Edward Stettinius, the day aftertaking office.

Ten days later, Truman did exactly that duringhis meeting with Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov.Truman immediately brought up the issue ofPoland and demanded that Stalin hold free elec-tions as he promised at Yalta. Molotov took theunexpectedly strong message back to Stalin. Themeeting marked an important shift in Soviet-American relations and set the stage for furtherconfrontations.

The Potsdam Conference In July 1945, with thewar against Japan still raging, Truman finally metStalin at Potsdam, near Berlin. Both men had come toPotsdam primarily to work out a deal on Germany.

Truman was now convinced that German industrywas critical. Unless Germany’s economy wasallowed to revive, the rest of Europe would neverrecover, and the German people might turn to com-munism out of desperation.

Stalin and his advisers were equally convincedthat they needed reparations from Germany. The warhad devastated their economy. Soviet troops hadbegun stripping their zone in Germany of its machin-ery and industrial equipment for use back home, butStalin wanted Germany to pay much more.

At the conference, Truman took a firm standagainst heavy reparations. He insisted thatGermany’s industry had to be allowed to recover.Truman suggested that the Soviets take reparationsfrom their zone, while the Allies allowed industry torevive in the other zones. Stalin opposed this ideasince the Soviet zone was mostly agricultural. Itcould not provide all of the reparations the Sovietswanted.

To get the Soviets to accept the deal, Trumanoffered Stalin a small amount of German industrialequipment from the other zones but required theSoviets to pay for part of it with food shipments fromtheir zone. He also offered to accept the newGerman-Polish border the Soviets had established.

Stalin did not like Truman’s proposal. At Potsdam,Truman learned that the atomic bomb had been suc-cessfully tested, and he told Stalin about the test.Stalin suspected Truman was trying to bully him intoa deal and that the Americans were trying to limitreparations to keep the Soviets weak.

Despite his suspicions, Stalin had to accept the deal. American and British troops controlled

Reading Check

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 781

Potsdam Trio Issues about Germany dominated the Potsdam meeting, which was attended by (from left toright) Britain’s Clement Attlee, President Truman, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. What agreement did theyreach regarding reparations?

History

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Germany’s industrial heartland, and there was noway for the Soviets to get any reparations except bycooperating. Nevertheless, the Potsdam conferencemarked yet another increase in tensions between theSoviets and the Americans, further paving the wayfor the Cold War.

The Iron Curtain Descends Although Truman hadwon the argument over reparations, he had less suc-cess on other issues at Potsdam. The Soviets refusedto make any stronger commitments to uphold the

Declaration of Liberated Europe. The presence of theSoviet army in Eastern Europe ensured that eventu-ally, pro-Soviet Communist governments would beestablished in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary,and Czechoslovakia. “This war is not as in the past,”Stalin commented. “Whoever occupies a territoryalso imposes his own social system. . . . It cannot beotherwise.”

The Communist countries of Eastern Europe cameto be called satellite nations. Although not underdirect Soviet control, they had to remain Communistand friendly to the Soviet Union. They also had tofollow policies that the Soviets approved.

As he watched the Communist takeover in EasternEurope, Winston Churchill coined a phrase todescribe what had happened. On March 5, 1946, in aspeech delivered in Fulton, Missouri, Churchill said:

“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic,an iron curtain has descended across the continent.Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancientstates of central and Eastern Europe. . . . All are sub-ject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influ-ence, but to a very high and increasing measure ofcontrol from Moscow.”

—quoted in The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947

With the iron curtain separating the Communistnations of Eastern Europe from the West, the WorldWar II era had come to an end. The Cold War wasabout to begin.

Explaining How did the Potsdamconference hurt Soviet-American relations?

Reading Check

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection200 kilometers

200 miles0

0

N

SE

W

50°N

0° 10°E 20°E

FRANCE

ITALY

SWITZ. AUSTRIA

BELG.

NETH.

UNITEDKINGDOM

WESTGERMANY

EASTGERMANY POLAND

CZECH.

HUNGARY

YUGOSLAVIA

ALBANIAGREECE

BULGARIA

ROMANIA

SOVIETUNIONLUX.

SPAIN

POR

TUG

AL

BerlinWarsaw

Prague

ViennaBudapest

London

Paris

Rome

Divided Europe, 1948

Writing About History

Checking for Understanding1. Define: Cold War, iron curtain.2. Identify: Potsdam, satellite nation.3. Reviewing Facts Why did tensions

grow between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II?

Reviewing Themes4. Global Connections At Yalta, what

agreement did the “Big Three” come toabout Germany’s future after WorldWar II?

Critical Thinking5. Synthesizing Do you think Roosevelt

could have prevented the Cold War?Why or why not?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to list eventsthat led to the Cold War.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Maps Study the map on

this page. Why did the Soviet Unionwant the countries on its western border to have strong Communist governments?

8. Expository Writing Imagine you arean adviser to President Truman. Write areport explaining your interpretation ofChurchill’s iron curtain speech.

782 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

Events ThatLed to Cold War

1. Interpreting Maps What nation was divided intoCommunist and non-Communist zones?

2. Applying Geography Skills Why did so many EasternEuropean nations have Communist governments?

Communist nationsNon-Communist nations

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March 1947Truman Doctrinedeclared

✦ 1948 ✦ 1950

Containing CommunismThe early Cold War shaped the politics and economics of many parts of the world,

especially Europe. The airlift of supplies to Berlin, like Halvorsen’s own candy airlift,reassured Europeans that the United States would help them rebuild their lives, even inthe shadow of growing Soviet hostility.

Air Force lieutenant Gail Halvorsen was one of the pilots who airlifted supplies into Berlinin 1948. On one of his days off, he was shooting a home movie outside Berlin’s TempelhofAirport and soon drew a crowd of curious boys and girls. As a wartime pilot, Halvorsen hadmet children in other cities. They would playfully confront American soldiers, asking, “Anygum, chum?” While digging into his pockets for gum, Halvorsen had an idea. He said that ifthe children would wait at the end of the runway the next day, he would drop candy fromhis airplane.

The next day, eager children gathered at the airport. As Halvorsen’s plane flew over-head, three small white parachutes floated down with a payload of candy. Halvorsen’s“chocolate bombs” became a routine, earning him the nickname Schokoladenflieger (“chocolate-flyer”). Other pilots joined in, and by the end of the airlift, American pilots haddropped 250,000 candy parachutes for the children of Berlin.

—adapted from Berlin in the Balance

The Early Cold War Years

Main IdeaAs the Cold War began, the United Statesstruggled to oppose Communist aggres-sion in Europe and Asia through political,economic, and military measures.

Key Terms and NamesGeorge Kennan, containment, MarshallPlan, NATO, limited war

Reading StrategySequencing As you read about the ColdWar, complete a time line similar to theone below by recording the major eventsinvolving the Korean War.

Reading Objectives• Describe the American view of

the Soviet Union and the policy of containment.

• Explain the causes of the Korean War.

Section ThemeGlobal Connections Beliefs about Sovietgoals and actions had a lasting effect onAmerican policies abroad and on theagencies used to carry them out.

✦ 1947 ✦ 1949

June 1948Berlin airlift begins

April 1949NATO forms

October 1949People’s Republic ofChina established

June 1950Korean Warbegins

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 783

1945 1951

Lieutenant GailHalvorsen

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Despite the growing tensions between the SovietUnion and the United States, many American offi-cials continued to believe cooperation with theSoviets was possible. In late 1945, the foreign minis-ters of the former wartime Allies met first inLondon, then in Moscow, to discuss the future ofEurope and Asia.

Although Ernest Bevin, the British foreign minis-ter, and James Byrnes, the American secretary ofstate, pushed the Soviets to hold free elections inEastern Europe, the Soviets refused to budge. “Ourrelations with the Russians,” Bevin gloomily con-cluded, “are drifting into the same condition as thatin which we had found ourselves with Hitler.”

The Long Telegram Increasingly exasperated bythe Soviets’ refusal to cooperate, officials at the StateDepartment asked the American Embassy inMoscow to explain Soviet behavior. On February 22,1946, diplomat George Kennan responded withwhat came to be known as the Long Telegram, a5,540-word cable message explaining his views ofSoviet goals.

According to Kennan, the Soviets’ view of theworld came from a traditional “Russian sense of inse-curity” and fear of the West, intensified by theCommunist ideas of Lenin and Stalin. BecauseCommunists believed that they were in a long-termhistorical struggle against capitalism, Kennanargued, it was impossible to reach any permanentsettlement with them.

Kennan therefore proposed what became the basicAmerican policy throughout the Cold War: “a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of

Russian expansive tendencies.” Kennan explainedthat, in his opinion, the Soviet system had severalmajor economic and political weaknesses. If theUnited States could keep the Soviets from expandingtheir power, it was only a matter of time until theSoviet system would fall apart. Communism couldbe beaten without going to war. The Long Telegramcirculated widely in Truman’s administration. It gaverise to the policy of containment—keeping commu-nism within its present territory through the use ofdiplomatic, economic, and military actions.

Crisis in Iran While Truman’s administration dis-cussed Kennan’s ideas, a series of crises erupted inthe spring and summer of 1946. These crises seemedto prove that Kennan was right about the Soviets.The first crisis began in Iran in March 1946.

During World War II, the United States had puttroops in southern Iran while Soviet troops occupiednorthern Iran to secure a supply line from the PersianGulf. After the war, instead of withdrawing as prom-ised, the Soviet troops remained in northern Iran.Stalin then began demanding access to Iran’s oil sup-plies. To increase the pressure, Soviet troops helpedlocal Communists in northern Iran establish a sepa-rate government.

To American officials, these actions signaled a Sovietpush into the Middle East. Secretary of State JamesByrnes sent Moscow a strong message demanding thatthey withdraw. At the same time, the battleship USSMissouri sailed into the eastern Mediterranean. Thepressure seemed to work. Soviet forces withdrew, hav-ing been promised a joint Soviet-Iranian oil company.The Iranian parliament later rejected the plan.

784 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

Causes and Effects of the Cold War

Causes Effects• Soviet Union controls Eastern Europe after

World War II.• Chinese Communists win control of mainland China.• United States and Soviet Union explode atomic bombs.

• Marshall Plan provides aid to Western Europe.

• Western nations form NATO; Communistnations respond with Warsaw Pact.

• Korean War erupts.• American and Soviet arms race begins.• Red Scare leads to hunt for Communists in

the United States.

Evaluating What do you think was the most important cause of the Cold War? Why?

The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union dominated postwar politics.

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The Truman Doctrine Frustrated in Iran, Stalinturned to Turkey. There the straits of the Dardanelleswere a vital route from Soviet Black Sea ports to theMediterranean. For centuries Russia had wanted tocontrol this strategic route. In August 1946, Stalindemanded joint control of the Dardanelles withTurkey. Presidential adviser Dean Acheson saw thismove as the first step in a Soviet plan to control theMideast, and he advised Truman to make a show offorce. The president declared, “We might as well findout whether the Russians are bent on world con-quest.” He then ordered the new aircraft carrierFranklin D. Roosevelt to join the Missouri in protectingTurkey and the eastern Mediterranean.

While the United States supported Turkey, Britaintried to help Greece. In August 1946, GreekCommunists launched a guerrilla war against theGreek government. For about six months, Britishtroops helped the Greeks fight the guerrillas. Theeffort strained Britain’s economy, which was stillweak from World War II. In February 1947, Britaininformed the United States that it could no longerafford to help Greece.

On March 12, 1947, Truman went before Congressto ask for $400 million to fight Communist aggres-sion in Greece and Turkey. His speech outlined a pol-icy which became known as the Truman Doctrine. Itsgoal was to aid “free peoples who are resistingattempted subjugation by armed minorities or byoutside pressures.” Its immediate effects were to sta-bilize the Greek government and ease Sovietdemands in Turkey. In the long run, it pledged theUnited States to fight communism worldwide. ; (See page 1076 for more on the Truman Doctrine.)

ECONOMICS

The Marshall Plan Meanwhile, postwar WesternEurope faced grave problems. Economies were inruin, people were near starvation, and political chaoswas at hand. The terrible winterof 1946 made things worse.

In June 1947, Secretary ofState George C. Marshallproposed the EuropeanRecovery Program, orMarshall Plan, whichwould give Europeannations American aid torebuild their economies.Truman saw the MarshallPlan and the TrumanDoctrine as “two halves of thesame walnut,” both essential

for containment. Marshall offered help to all nationsplanning a recovery program:

“Our policy is not directed against any country ordoctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperationand chaos. Its purpose should be the revival of aworking economy in the world so as to permit theemergence of political and social conditions in whichfree institutions can exist. . . .”

—quoted in Marshall: A Hero for Our Times

The Soviet Union and its satellite nations inEastern Europe rejected the offer. Instead, theSoviets developed their own economic program.This action further separated Europe into compet-ing regions. The Marshall Plan pumped billions ofdollars worth of supplies, machinery, and food intoWestern Europe. Western Europe’s recovery weak-ened the appeal of communism and opened newmarkets for trade.

Summarizing What were the goalsof the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan?

The Berlin CrisisThe Marshall Plan was only one part of the

American strategy for rebuilding Europe. PresidentTruman and his advisers believed that WesternEurope’s prosperity depended on Germany’srecovery. The Soviets, however, still wantedGermany to pay reparations to the Soviet Union.Eventually, the dispute over Germany brought theUnited States and the Soviet Union to the brink of war.

West Germany Is Founded By early 1948, U.S. offi-cials had concluded that the Soviets were deliber-ately trying to undermine Germany’s economy. Inresponse, the United States, Great Britain, and Franceannounced that they were merging their zones inGermany and allowing the Germans to have theirown government. They also agreed to merge theirzones in Berlin and to make West Berlin part of thenew German republic.

The new nation was officially called the FederalRepublic of Germany, but it became known as WestGermany. West Germany’s economy was completelyseparate from the Soviet zone, which eventuallybecame known as East Germany. West Germany wasnot allowed to have a military, but in most respects, itwas independent.

Reading Check

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 785

George Marshall

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The Berlin Airlift The decision to create WestGermany convinced the Soviets that they wouldnever get the reparations they wanted. In late June1948, Soviet troops cut all road and rail traffic to WestBerlin. The blockade provoked a crisis. PresidentTruman sent long-range bombers with atomicweapons to bases in Britain. General Lucius Clay, theAmerican commander in Germany, warned of whatmight happen. “If we mean to hold Europe againstcommunism, then we must not budge,” he said.

The challenge was to keep West Berlin alivewithout provoking war with the Soviets. In June1948, Truman ordered the Berlin airlift to begin.For 11 months, cargo planes supplied Berlinerswith food, medicine, and coal. The airlift continuedthrough the spring of 1949, bringing in over 2 million tons of supplies. Stalin finally lifted theblockade on May 12. The Berlin airlift symbolizedAmerican determination to stand by Berlin.

NATO The Berlin blockade convinced many Amer-icans that the Soviets were bent on conquest. Thepublic began to support a military alliance withWestern Europe. By April 1949, an agreement had beenreached to create the North Atlantic Treaty Organ-ization (NATO)—a mutual defense alliance.

NATO initially included 12 countries: the UnitedStates, Canada, Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Denmark,Portugal, the Netherlands, Norway, Luxembourg, and

Iceland. NATO members agreed to come tothe aid of any member who was attacked.For the first time in its history, the UnitedStates had committed itself to maintainingpeace in Europe. Six years later, NATOallowed West Germany to rearm and join itsorganization. This decision alarmed Sovietleaders. They responded by organizing amilitary alliance in Eastern Europe, whichbecame known as the Warsaw Pact. TheUnited States also created other regionalalliances. The Organization of AmericanStates (OAS) started in 1948 and the South-east Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)formed in 1954.

Evaluating What

triggered the beginning of the Berlin airlift?

The Cold War Spreads toEast Asia

The Cold War eventually spread beyondEurope. Conflicts also emerged in Asia,

where events in China and Korea brought about anew attitude toward Japan.

Civil War and Revolution in China In China,Communist forces led by Mao Zedong had beenstruggling against the Nationalist government led byChiang Kai-shek since the late 1920s. During WorldWar II, the two sides suspended their war to resistJapanese occupation. With the end of World War II,however, civil war broke out again. Although Maomade great gains, neither side could win, and neitherwould accept a compromise.

To prevent a Communist revolution in Asia, theUnited States sent the Nationalist government $2 bil-lion in aid beginning in the mid-1940s, but it squan-dered this advantage with poor military planning andcorruption. By 1949 the Communists had capturedthe Chinese capital of Beijing and moved southward,while support for the Nationalists declined.

In August 1949, the State Department discontin-ued aid to the Chinese Nationalists. The defeatedNationalists then fled the Chinese mainland for thesmall island of Taiwan (Formosa). The victoriousCommunists established the People’s Republic ofChina in October 1949.

After the Fall China’s fall to communism shockedAmericans. To make matters worse, in September 1949the Soviet Union announced that it had successfully

Reading Check

Bucking the Blockade The Berlin airlift became a symbol of American determination to resist

the Soviet Union’s effort to control Berlin. For how many months did American pilots supply

Berlin with food and supplies?

History

786 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

The Berlin Airlift The decision to create WestGermany convinced the Soviets that they wouldnever get the reparations they wanted. In late June1948, Soviet troops cut all road and rail traffic to WestBerlin. The blockade provoked a crisis. PresidentTruman sent long-range bombers with atomicweapons to bases in Britain. General Lucius Clay, theAmerican commander in Germany, warned of whatmight happen. “If we mean to hold Europe againstcommunism, then we must not budge,” he said.

The challenge was to keep West Berlin alivewithout provoking war with the Soviets. In June1948, Truman ordered the Berlin airlift to begin.For 11 months, cargo planes supplied Berlinerswith food, medicine, and coal. The airlift continuedthrough the spring of 1949, bringing in over 2 million tons of supplies. Stalin finally lifted theblockade on May 12. The Berlin airlift symbolizedAmerican determination to stand by Berlin.

NATO The Berlin blockade convinced many Amer-icans that the Soviets were bent on conquest. Thepublic began to support a military alliance withWestern Europe. By April 1949, an agreement had beenreached to create the North Atlantic Treaty Organ-ization (NATO)—a mutual defense alliance.

NATO initially included 12 countries: the UnitedStates, Canada, Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Denmark,Portugal, the Netherlands, Norway, Luxembourg, and

Iceland. NATO members agreed to come tothe aid of any member who was attacked.For the first time in its history, the UnitedStates had committed itself to maintainingpeace in Europe. Six years later, NATOallowed West Germany to rearm and join itsorganization. This decision alarmed Sovietleaders. They responded by organizing amilitary alliance in Eastern Europe, whichbecame known as the Warsaw Pact. TheUnited States also created other regionalalliances. The Organization of AmericanStates (OAS) started in 1948 and the South-east Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)formed in 1954.

Evaluating What

triggered the beginning of the Berlin airlift?

The Cold War Spreads toEast Asia

The Cold War eventually spread beyondEurope. Conflicts also emerged in Asia,

where events in China and Korea brought about anew attitude toward Japan.

Civil War and Revolution in China In China,Communist forces led by Mao Zedong had beenstruggling against the Nationalist government led byChiang Kai-shek since the late 1920s. During WorldWar II, the two sides suspended their war to resistJapanese occupation. With the end of World War II,however, civil war broke out again. Although Maomade great gains, neither side could win, and neitherwould accept a compromise.

To prevent a Communist revolution in Asia, theUnited States sent the Nationalist government $2 bil-lion in aid beginning in the mid-1940s, but it squan-dered this advantage with poor military planning andcorruption. By 1949 the Communists had capturedthe Chinese capital of Beijing and moved southward,while support for the Nationalists declined.

In August 1949, the State Department discontin-ued aid to the Chinese Nationalists. The defeatedNationalists then fled the Chinese mainland for thesmall island of Taiwan (Formosa). The victoriousCommunists established the People’s Republic ofChina in October 1949.

After the Fall China’s fall to communism shockedAmericans. To make matters worse, in September 1949the Soviet Union announced that it had successfully

Reading Check

Bucking the Blockade The Berlin airlift became a symbol of American determination to resist

the Soviet Union’s effort to control Berlin. For how many months did American pilots supply

Berlin with food and supplies?

History

786 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

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CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 787

tested its first atomic weapon. Then, early in 1950, thePeople’s Republic of China and the Soviet Unionsigned a treaty of friendship and alliance. ManyWestern leaders feared that China and the SovietUnion would support Communist revolutions inother nations.

The United States kept formal diplomatic relationswith only the Nationalists in Taiwan. It used its veto power in the UN Security Council to keeprepresentatives of the new Communist China out ofthe UN, allowing the Nationalists to retain their seat.

The Chinese revolution brought about a signifi-cant change in American policy toward Japan. At theend of World War II, General Douglas MacArthurhad taken charge of occupied Japan. His missionwas to introduce democracy and keep Japan from

threatening war again. Once the United States lostChina as its chief ally in Asia, it adopted policies toencourage the rapid recovery of Japan’s industrialeconomy. Just as the United States viewed WestGermany as the key to defending all of Europeagainst communism, it saw Japan as the key todefending Asia.

Analyzing How did the revolutionin China affect American foreign policy with Japan?

The Korean WarAt the end of World War II, American and Soviet

forces entered Korea to disarm the Japanese troopsstationed there. The Allies divided Korea at the 38th

Reading Check

MacArthur lands,Sept. 15, 1950

Taken by UN,Oct. 19, 1950

Liberated by UN,Sept. 28, 1950

2

1

3

N

S

EW

100 kilometers

100 miles0

0

Lambert Conformal Conic projection

40°N

130°E

38th Parallel

YellowSea

Sea ofJapan

Yalu RiverCHINA

SOVIET UNION

NORTHKOREA

SOUTHKOREA

JAPAN

Pyongyang

Inchon

Seoul

Pusan

Chinese counteroffensive,Nov. 26, 1950

Armistice line,July 27, 1953

5

4

N

S

EW

100 kilometers

100 miles0

0

Lambert Conformal Conic projection

40°N

130°E

38th Parallel

YellowSea

Sea ofJapan

Yalu River

CHINA

SOVIET UNION

SOUTHKOREA

JAPAN

NORTHKOREA

Pyongyang

Inchon

PanmunjomSeoul

Pusan

Taegu

UN-held territory, Sept. 15, 1950

North Korean advanceUN counteroffensiveUN front line, Nov. 24, 1950

June 25, 1950–November 24, 1950

UN front line, Nov. 24, 1950Chinese counteroffensive, Nov. 25, 1950Farthest Chinese advance, Jan. 24, 1951UN advance, Jan. 25, 1951

November 24, 1950–July 27, 1953

1. Interpreting Maps Along what latitude was Koreadivided into two nations after World War II?

2. Applying Geography Skills In debates over expandingthe Korean War, why do you think Truman opposedMacArthur’s request to bomb bridges on the Yalu River?

Korean War, 1950–1953

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Should the War in Korea Be Expanded?

A controversy between President Harry S Truman andGeneral Douglas MacArthur began shortly after the outbreakof the Korean War. It reached a climax when the presidentrelieved MacArthur of his command. Truman believed in alimited war in Korea, while MacArthur wanted total victory.

President Harry S Truman defends limited war:

The Kremlin [Soviet Union] is trying, and has beentrying for a long time, to drive a wedge between us andthe other nations. It wants to see us isolated. It wants tosee us distrusted. It wants to see us feared and hated byour allies. Our allies agree with us in the course we arefollowing. They do not believe that we should take theinitiative to widen the conflict in the Far East. If theUnited States were to widen the conflict, we might wellhave to go it alone.

If we go it alone in Asia, we may destroy the unity ofthe free nations against aggression. Our European alliesare nearer to Russia than we are. They are in far greaterdanger. . . . Going it alone brought the world to the dis-aster of World War II. . . .

I do not propose to strip this country of its allies inthe face of Soviet danger. The path of collective securityis our only sure defense against the dangers thatthreaten us.

788 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

GeneralDouglas MacArthuraddresses Congress, April 19, 1951:

History teaches with unmistakable emphasis that appeasementbut begets new and bloodier war. . . . Like blackmail, it lays thebasis for new and successively greater demands, until, as in black-mail, violence becomes the only other alternative. Why, my sol-diers asked of me, surrender military advantage to an enemy inthe field? I could not answer.

It was my constant effort to preserve them and end this savageconflict honorably and with the least loss of time and minimumsacrifice of life.

I am closing 52 years of military service. . . . But I still remem-ber the refrain of one of the most popular barrack ballads of thatday which proclaimed most proudly that—

“Old soldiers never die, they just fade away.” And like the oldsoldier of that ballad, I now close my military career and just fadeaway—an old soldier who tried to do his duty as God gave himthe light to see that duty. Good-by.

Learning From History

parallel of latitude. Soviet troops controlled thenorth, while American troops controlled the south.

As the Cold War began, talks to reunify Korea brokedown. A Communist Korean government was organ-ized in the north, while an American-backed govern-ment controlled the south. Both governments claimedauthority over all of Korea, and border clashes werecommon. The Soviet Union provided extensive mili-tary aid to the North Koreans, who quickly built up alarge, well-equipped army. On June 25, 1950, NorthKorean troops invaded into the south, rapidly drivingback the poorly equipped South Korean forces.

The UN Intervenes Truman saw the Communistinvasion of South Korea as a test of the containmentpolicy and ordered United States naval and airpower

into action. He then called on the United Nations to act.Truman succeeded because the Soviet delegate wasboycotting the Security Council over its China policyand was not present to veto the American proposal.With the pledge of UN troops, Truman orderedGeneral MacArthur to send American troops fromJapan to the Korean peninsula.

The American and South Korean troops weredriven back into a small pocket of territory near theport of Pusan. Inside the “Pusan perimeter,” as itcame to be called, the troops stubbornly resisted theNorth Korean onslaught, buying time for MacArthurto organize reinforcements.

1. Identifying Central Issues How didMacArthur view Truman’s decisionto fight a limited war in Korea? Howdid Truman see it?

2. Making Inferences On the basis ofwhat authority did Truman fireMacArthur?

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On September 15, MacArthur ordered a daringinvasion behind enemy lines at the port of Inchon.The Inchon landing took the North Koreans by sur-prise. Within weeks they were in full retreat backacross the 38th parallel. Truman then gave the orderto pursue the North Koreans beyond the 38th paral-lel. MacArthur pushed the North Koreans north tothe Yalu River, the border with China.

China Enters the War The Communist Chinesegovernment saw the advancing UN troops as a threatand warned the forces to halt their advance. Whenthose warnings were ignored, China launched a mas-sive attack across the Yalu River in November.Hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops floodedacross the border, driving the UN forces back acrossthe 38th parallel.

As his troops fell back, an angry MacArthurdemanded approval to expand the war againstChina. He asked for a blockade of Chinese ports, theuse of Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist forces, and thebombing of Chinese cities with atomic weapons.

Truman Fires MacArthur President Truman re-fused MacArthur’s demands because he did notwant to expand the war into China or to use theatomic bomb. MacArthur persisted. He publicly criti-cized the president, saying, “There is no substitutefor victory.”

Determined to maintain control of policy and showthat the president commanded the military, an exas-perated Truman fired MacArthur for insubordinationin April 1951. MacArthur, who remained populardespite being fired, returned home to parades and ahero’s welcome. Despite criticism, Truman remained

committed to limited war—a war fought to achieve alimited objective, such ascontaining communism.

Changes in Policy Trumanchose General MatthewRidgway to replaceMacArthur. By mid-1951, theUN forces had pushed theChinese and North Koreanforces back across the 38thparallel. The war then set-tled down into a series of relatively small battles overhills and other local objectives. In November 1951,peace negotiations began, but an armistice would notbe signed until July 1953. More than 33,600 Americansoldiers died in action in the Korean War, and morethan 2,800 died from accidents or from disease.

The Korean War marked an important turning pointin the Cold War. Until 1950 the United States had pre-ferred to use political pressure and economic aid tocontain communism. After the Korean War began, theUnited States embarked on a major military buildup.

The Korean War also helped expand the Cold Warto Asia. Before 1950 the United States had focused onEurope as the most important area in which to con-tain communism. After the Korean War began, theUnited States became more militarily involved inAsia. Defense agreements were signed with Japan,South Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Australia.American aid also began to flow to the French forcesfighting Communist guerrillas in Vietnam.

Analyzing How did PresidentTruman view the Communist invasion of South Korea?

Reading Check

Writing About History

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 789

Checking for Understanding1. Define: containment, limited war.2. Identify: George Kennan, Marshall

Plan, NATO.3. Review Facts How did the Truman

Doctrine and the Marshall Plan addressthe spread of communism?

Reviewing Themes4. Global Connections What long-term

Cold War strategy did the United Statesfollow?

Critical Thinking5. Evaluating How did the Long Telegram

influence American policy?6. Categorizing Use a graphic organizer

similar to the one below to list earlyconflicts between the USSR and the U.S.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Maps Study the maps of

the Korean War on page 787. When did the United Nations control themost territory in Korea? When didboth sides finally agree upon anarmistice line?

8. Persuasive Writing Write a letter tothe editor of a newspaper explainingwhether you agree or disagree withPresident Truman’s firing of GeneralMacArthur.

ConflictsBetween the USSR

and the U.S.

Student WebActivity Visit theAmerican Vision Website at tav.glencoe.comand click on StudentWeb Activities—Chapter 26 for anactivity on the Cold War.

HISTORY

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March 1947Loyalty Review Boardestablished

790 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

✦ 1950 ✦ 1953

In the 1940s, Ruth Goldberg belonged to the Parent-Teacher Association in Queens, NewYork. In 1947 she agreed to run for PTA president, but the campaign turned nasty. BecauseGoldberg had associated with people with left-wing interests, a rumor spread through theneighborhood that she was a Communist. Suddenly Goldberg’s quiet life became terrifying.Callers threatened her, and the local priest denounced her in his sermons. One afternoon,Goldberg’s eight-year-old son came home in tears. A playmate had told him, “You know,your mother’s a Red. She should be put up against a wall and shot.”

Looking back much later, Goldberg saw the PTA campaign as part of a bigger and morecomplex pattern of distrust and hatred. “It was a small thing, but it was an indication of whathad happened with the Cold War, with this Red specter—that somebody like me could be adanger to a community.”

—adapted from Red Scare

A New Red ScareDuring the 1950s, thousands of ordinary people—from teachers to autoworkers to

high government officials—shared Ruth Goldberg’s disturbing experience. Rumors andaccusations of Communists in the United States and of Communist infiltration of thegovernment tapped into fears that the Communists were trying to take over the world.

The Cold War andAmerican Society

Main IdeaThe Cold War heightened Americans’fears of Communist infiltration andatomic attack.

Key Terms and Namessubversion, loyalty review program, Alger Hiss, perjury, McCarran Act,McCarthyism, censure, fallout, fallout shelter

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read aboutAmerican reaction to the Cold War, usethe major headings of the section to create an outline similar to the onebelow.

Reading Objectives• Describe the new Red Scare.• Discuss how American society reflected

fears of the nuclear age.

Section ThemeCivic Rights and Responsibilities In theearly part of the Cold War, the fear ofcommunism led to a hunt for spies and tointolerance and suspicion of people withradical ideas in the United States.

✦ 1947

February 1950McCarthy claims to have a list ofCommunists in the State Department

June 1953Rosenbergs executed

September 1950McCarran Act passed

The Cold War and American SocietyI. A New Red Scare

A. The Loyalty Review ProgramB.C.D.

Book produced during theRed Scare of the 1950s

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The Red Scare began in September 1945, when aclerk named Igor Gouzenko walked out of the SovietEmbassy in Ottawa, Canada, and defected. Gouzenkocarried documents revealing a massive effort by theSoviet Union to infiltrate organizations and govern-ment agencies in Canada and the United States withthe specific goal of obtaining information about theatomic bomb.

The Gouzenko case stunned Americans. It impliedthat spies had infiltrated the American government.Soon, however, the search for spies escalated into ageneral fear of Communist subversion. Subversionis the effort to secretly weaken a society and over-throw its government. As the Cold War intensified in1946 and early 1947, Americans began to fear thatCommunists were secretly working to subvert theAmerican government.

GOVERNMENT

The Loyalty Review Program In early 1947, justnine days after his powerful speech announcing theTruman Doctrine, the president established a loyaltyreview program to screen all federal employees.Rather than calm public suspicion, Truman’s actionseemed to confirm fears that Communists had infil-trated the government and helped increase the fear ofcommunism sweeping the nation.

Between 1947 and 1951, over 6 million federalemployees were screened for their loyalty—a termdifficult to define. A person might become a suspectfor reading certain books, belonging to variousgroups, traveling overseas, or even seeing certain for-eign films. About 14,000 employees were subject tointensive scrutiny from the Federal Bureau ofInvestigation (FBI). Some 2,000 employees quit theirjobs during the check, many under pressure. Another212 were fired for “questionable loyalty,”though no actual evidence against themwas uncovered.

HUAC Although the FBI helped screenfederal employees, FBI Director J. EdgarHoover was not satisfied. In 1947 Hooverwent before the House Un-AmericanActivities Committee (HUAC). Formed in1938 to investigate both Communist andFascist activities in the United States,HUAC was a relatively minor committeeuntil Hoover catapulted it to prominence.

Hoover urged HUAC to hold publichearings on Communist subversion. Thecommittee, Hoover said, could reveal “thediabolic machinations of sinister figures

engaged in un-American activities.” Once Com-munists were identified, he explained, the publicwould isolate them and end their influence.Hoover’s aim was to expose not just Communistsbut also “Communist sympathizers” and “fellowtravelers.” Under Hoover’s leadership, the FBI sentagents to infiltrate groups suspected of subversionand wiretapped thousands of telephones.

Alger Hiss In 1948 Whittaker Chambers, a Timemagazine editor and former Communist Party mem-ber, testified to HUAC that several government offi-cials were also former Communists or spies.

The most prominent government official namedby Chambers was Alger Hiss, a lawyer and diplomatwho had served in Roosevelt’s administration,attended the Yalta conference, and taken part inorganizing the United Nations. After Hiss sued himfor libel, Chambers testified before a grand jury thatin 1937 and 1938 Hiss gave him secret documentsfrom the State Department. Hiss denied being eithera spy or a member of the Communist Party, and healso denied ever having known Chambers.

The committee was ready to drop the investiga-tion until Representative Richard Nixon of Californiaconvinced his colleagues to continue the hearings todetermine whether Hiss or Chambers had lied. Asthe committee continued to question Hiss, he admit-ted that he had indeed met Chambers in the 1930s.When Chambers continued to claim that Hiss was aCommunist, Hiss sued him, claiming that his accusa-tions were unfounded and malicious.

To defend himself, Chambers produced copies ofsecret documents along with microfilm that he hadhidden in a hollow pumpkin on his farm. These“pumpkin papers,” Chambers claimed, proved that

Convicted of Conspiracy Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were convicted of transmitting atomicsecrets to Soviet Russia. What sentence did they receive?

History

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Hollywood on TrialOne of HUAC’s first hearings focused on

the film industry as a powerful cultural forcethat Communists might use and manipulate.Its interviews routinely began, “Are you now,or have you ever been, a member of theCommunist Party?” As fear of Communists inHollywood spread, producers then drew upa blacklist and agreed not to hire anyone inthe film industry who was believed to be aCommunist or who refused to cooperatewith the committee. The blacklist createdan atmosphere of distrust and fear.People could be blacklistedfor making chance remarks,criticizing HUAC, or knowinga suspected Communist.

Ronald Reagan, head of the ScreenActors Guild at the time, testifiedthat there were Communists inHollywood.

Ten screenwriters, known as the “Hollywood Ten”(shown here with their lawyers), used their FifthAmendment right to protect themselves from self-incrimination and refused to testify before HUAC.

he was telling the truth. A jury agreed and con-victed Hiss of perjury, or lying under oath.

The Rosenbergs Another sensational spy case cen-tered around accusations that American Communistshad sold the secrets of the atomic bomb. Many people did not believe that the Soviet Union couldhave produced an atomic bomb in 1949 without help.This belief intensified the hunt for spies.

In 1950 the hunt led to Klaus Fuchs, a British scien-tist who admitted sending information to the SovietUnion. His testimony led the FBI to arrest Julius andEthel Rosenberg, a New York couple who weremembers of the Communist Party. The governmentcharged them with heading a Soviet spy ring.

The Rosenbergs denied the charges but were con-demned to death for espionage. Many peoplebelieved that they were not leaders or spies, but vic-tims caught up in the wave of anti-Communistfrenzy. Appeals, public expressions of support, andpleas for clemency failed, however, and the couplewas executed in June 1953.

Project Venona The American public hotly debatedthe guilt or innocence of individuals like theRosenbergs who were accused as spies. There was,however, solid evidence of Soviet espionage,although very few Americans knew it at the time. In1946 American cryptographers working for a projectcode-named “Venona” cracked the Soviet spy code ofthe time, enabling them to read approximately 3,000

messages between Moscow and the United Statescollected during the Cold War. The messages con-firmed extensive Soviet spying and sent federalinvestigators on a massive hunt. To keep the Sovietsfrom learning how thoroughly the United States hadpenetrated their codes, authorities chose not to makethe intercepted messages public. Not until 1995 didthe government reveal Project Venona’s existence.The Venona documents provided strong evidencethat the Rosenbergs were guilty.

The Red Scare Spreads Following the federal gov-ernment’s example, many state and local govern-ments, universities, businesses, unions, and churchesbegan their own efforts to find Communists. TheUniversity of California required its 11,000 facultymembers to take loyalty oaths and fired 157 whorefused to do so. Many Catholic groups becamestrongly anticommunist and urged their members toidentify Communists within the church.

The Taft-Hartley Act required union leaders to takeoaths that they were not Communists, but many unionleaders did not object. Instead they launched their ownefforts to purge Communists from their organizations.The president of the CIO called Communist sympa-thizers “skulking cowards” and “apostles of hate.” TheCIO eventually expelled 11 unions that refused toremove Communist leaders from their organization.

Explaining What was the purposeof the loyalty review boards and HUAC?

Reading Check

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Red Channels, published in 1950, wasprepared by three ex-FBI agents. Thebooklet claimed to identify 151 subver-sive entertainers in radio and television.

A number of well-known Hollywood celebrities,including actors Humphrey Bogart and LaurenBacall (front row), went to Washington to protestHUAC’s investigation of alleged Communists.

“A Conspiracy So Immense”In 1949 the Red Scare intensified even further. That

year, the Soviet Union successfully tested an atomicbomb, and China fell to communism. To manyAmericans these events seemed to prove that theUnited States was losing the Cold War. Deeply con-cerned, they wanted an explanation as to why theirgovernment was failing. As a result, many continuedto believe that Communists had infiltrated the gov-ernment and remained undetected.

In February 1950, soon after Alger Hiss’s perjuryconviction, a little-known Wisconsin senator gave apolitical speech to a Republican women’s group inWest Virginia. Halfway through his speech, SenatorJoseph R. McCarthy made a surprising statement:

“While I cannot take the time to name all the menin the State Department who have been named asmembers of the Communist Party and members of aspy ring, I have here in my hand a list of 205 thatwere known to the Secretary of State as being mem-bers of the Communist Party and who neverthelessare still working and shaping the policy of the StateDepartment.”

—quoted in The Fifties

By the next day, the Associated Press had picked upthe statement and sent it to papers all over the country.When McCarthy arrived at the Denver airport,

reporters crowded around him and asked to see hislist of Communists in the state department. McCarthyreplied that he would be happy to show them the list,but unfortunately, it was packed in his bag on theplane. In fact, the list never appeared. McCarthy, how-ever, continued to make charges and draw attention.

McCarthy’s Charges Born in 1908 near Appleton,Wisconsin, Joseph R. McCarthy studied law andserved in World War II before his first run for theSenate. McCarthy’s 1946 political campaign soundedthe keynote of his career. Without making any spe-cific charges or offering any proof, McCarthyaccused his opponent, Robert M. La Follette, Jr., ofbeing “communistically inclined.” Fear of commu-nism, plus McCarthy’s intense speeches, won himthe election.

After becoming a senator, McCarthy continued toproclaim that Communists were a danger both athome and abroad. To some of his audiences, he dis-tributed a booklet called “The Party of Betrayal,”which accused Democratic Party leaders of corrup-tion and of protecting Communists. Secretary ofState Dean Acheson was a frequent target.According to McCarthy, Acheson was incompetentand a tool of Stalin. He wildly accused George C.Marshall, the former army chief of staff and secre-tary of state, of disloyalty as a member of “a conspir-acy so immense as to dwarf any previous suchventures in the history of man.”

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 793

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794 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

McCarthy Goes Too Far Army lawyer Joseph Welch listensto Senator McCarthy during the televised Army-McCarthy hear-ings. How did televising the hearings affect McCarthyism?

History

McCarthy was not alone in making such charges.In the prevailing mood of anxiety about communism,many Americans were ready to believe them.

The McCarran Internal Security Act In 1950, withthe Korean War underway and McCarthy and othersarousing fears of Communist spies, Congress passedthe Internal Security Act, usually called theMcCarran Act. Declaring that “world Communismhas as its sole purpose the establishment of a totali-tarian dictatorship in America,” Senator PatMcCarran of Nevada offered a way to fight “treach-ery, infiltration, sabotage, and terrorism.” The actmade it illegal to “combine, conspire, or agree withany other person to perform any act which wouldsubstantially contribute to . . . the establishment of atotalitarian government.” The law required all Com-munist Party and “Communist-front” organizationsto register with the United States attorney generaland publish their records. The act also created otherrestrictions for Communists. For example, they couldnot get passports to travel abroad.

The McCarran Act did not stop there. In case of anational emergency, it allowed the arrest and deten-tion of Communists and Communist sympathizers.Unwilling to punish people for their opinions,Truman vetoed the bill, but Congress easily passed it

over his veto in 1950. Later Supreme Court cases,however, ensured that the McCarran Act wouldnever be very effective.

McCarthy’s Tactics After the 1952 election gave theRepublicans control of Congress, McCarthy becamechairman of the Senate subcommittee on investiga-tions. Using the power of his committee to force gov-ernment officials to testify about alleged Communistinfluences, McCarthy turned the investigation into awitch hunt—a search for disloyalty based on flimsyevidence and irrational fears. His tactic of damagingreputations with vague and unfounded chargesbecame known as McCarthyism.

McCarthy’s theatrics and sensational accusationsdrew the attention of the press, which put him in theheadlines and quoted him widely. When he ques-tioned witnesses, McCarthy would badger themand then refuse to accept their answers. His tacticsleft a cloud of suspicion that McCarthy and othersinterpreted as guilt. Furthermore, people wereafraid to challenge him for fear of becoming targetsthemselves.

McCarthy’s Downfall In 1954 McCarthy began tolook for Soviet spies in the United States Army.Alerted to his intentions, the army conducted its

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own internal investigation and found no spies orany suspicion of espionage. Furious at the denial,McCarthy took his investigation onto television. Hequestioned and challenged officers in a harsh voice,harassing them about trivial details and accusingthem of misconduct.

During weeks of televised Army-McCarthyhearings in the spring of 1954, millions ofAmericans watched McCarthy bully witnesses. Hispopular support started to fade. Finally, to strikeback at the army lawyer, Joseph Welch, McCarthybrought up the past of a young lawyer in Welch’sfirm who had been a member of a Communist-frontorganization during his law school years. Welch,who was fully aware of the young man’s past, nowexploded at McCarthy for possibly ruining theyoung man’s career: “Until this moment, I think Inever really gauged your cruelty or your reckless-ness. . . . You have done enough. Have you nosense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left nosense of decency?”

Spectators cheered. Welch had said aloud whatmany Americans had been thinking. One senator onthe committee, Stuart Symington of Missouri, was alsorepelled: “The American people have had a look at youfor six weeks. You are not fooling anyone.” McCarthyhad lost the power to arouse fear. Newspaper head-lines repeated, “Have you no sense of decency?”

Later that year, the Senate passed a vote ofcensure, or formal disapproval, against McCarthy—one of the most serious criticisms it can level againsta member. His influence gone, McCarthy faded frompublic view. Although he remained in the Senate, hehad little influence. He died in 1957, a broken andembittered man.

Evaluating What were the effects ofMcCarthyism?

Life During the Early Cold WarThe Red Scare and the spread of nuclear weapons

had a profound impact on life in the 1950s. Fear ofcommunism and of nuclear war dominated life forordinary Americans as well as for government lead-ers throughout the era.

Facing the Bomb Already upset by the first Sovietatomic test in 1949, Americans were shocked whenthe USSR again successfully tested the much morepowerful hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb, in 1953. Thiswas less than a year after the United States had testedits own H-bomb.

Americans prepared for a surprise Soviet attack.Schools set aside special areas as bomb shelters. Inbomb drills, students learned to duck under their

Reading Check

Signs of the Times During the Cold War, the media often gave survival tips for the nuclear holocaust many saw just around the corner. At right, aCalifornia resident works on his fallout shelter. How did such fears affect American politics?

History

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desks, turn away from the windows, and covertheir heads with their hands. These “duck-and-cover” actions were supposed to protect them froma nuclear bomb blast.

“Duck-and-cover” might have made people feelsafe, but it would not have protected them fromdeadly nuclear radiation. According to experts, forevery person killed outright by a nuclear blast, fourmore would die later from fallout, the radiation leftover after a blast. To protect themselves, some fami-lies built backyard fallout shelters and stocked themwith canned food.

Popular Culture in the Cold War Worries aboutnuclear war and Communist infiltration filled people’simaginations. Cold War nightmares soon appeared infilms and popular fiction.

Matt Cvetic was an FBI undercover informantwho secretly infiltrated the Communist Party inPittsburgh. His story captivated magazine readers inthe Saturday Evening Post in 1950 and came to thescreen the next year as I Was a Communist for the FBI.Another suspense film, Walk East on Beacon (1951),features the FBI’s activities in an espionage case. In1953 television took up the theme with a series aboutan undercover FBI counterspy who was also aCommunist Party official. Each week, I Led ThreeLives kept television viewers on edge.

In 1954 author Philip Wylie published Tomorrow!This novel describes the horrific effects of nuclearwar on an unprepared American city. As an adviseron civil defense, Wylie had failed to convince the fed-eral government to play a strong role in buildingbomb shelters. Frustrated, he wrote this novel to edu-cate the public about the horrors of atomic war.

At the same time these fears were hauntingAmericans, the country was enjoying postwar pros-perity and optimism. That spirit, combined withMcCarthyism, witch hunts, fears of Communist infil-tration, and the threat of atomic attack, made theearly 1950s a time of contrasts. As the 1952 electionapproached, Americans were looking for someone orsomething that would make them feel secure.

Describing How did the Cold Waraffect life in the 1950s?

Reading Check

Writing About History

Checking for Understanding1. Define: subversion, perjury, censure,

fallout, fallout shelter.2. Identify: loyalty review program, Alger

Hiss, McCarran Act, McCarthyism.3. Explain the goals of Project Venona.4. Review Facts What did the McCarran

Act propose to do?

Reviewing Themes5. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

How did McCarthyism and the RedScare change American society andgovernment?

Critical Thinking6. Interpreting Why did McCarthy ini-

tially receive a lot of support for hisefforts to expose Communists?

7. Organizing Use a graphic organizer tolist the causes and effects of the newRed Scare.

Analyzing Visuals8. Analyzing Photographs Study the

photograph on page 794 of the Army-McCarthy hearings. From theirpostures, how would you describe theattitude of army lawyer Joseph Welchtoward Senator Joseph McCarthy? Doyou think Welch respects McCarthy’spresentation?

9. Persuasive Writing Imagine you are anewspaper editor during the McCarthyhearings. Write an editorial supportingor condemning Senator McCarthy.Defend your position.

796 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

RedScare

EffectsCauses

Cold War Words The development of nuclearweapons and artificial satellites created not only newanxieties but also new words and expressions.

“Sputnik,” the name of the Soviet satellite, startedits own language trend, as words gained a -nik end-ing for a foreign-sounding effect. One new word,beatnik, described a young person influenced by thestyle of Beat writers such as Jack Kerouac and AllenGinsberg. Another word, peacenik, was used todescribe a peace activist.

The atomic bomb test on Bikini Atoll gave theNuclear Age two new words: fallout, the term for theharmful radiation left over after an atomic blast, andbikini, a skimpy swimsuit that French designerspromised would produce an “explosion” on the beach.

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On May 1, 1960, CIA pilot Francis Gary Powers sat in the cockpit of his U-2 spy plane, fly-ing at more than 60,000 feet over Afghanistan. His mission was to fly over suspected Sovietmissile bases and photograph them.

As Powers passed over the forbidden border into the Soviet Union, he felt a familiar thrill.“There was no abrupt change in topography,” he remembered, “yet the moment you crossedthe border, you sensed the difference. . . . Knowing there were people who would shoot youdown if they could created a strange tension. . . . I wondered how the Russians felt, knowingI was up here, unable to do anything about it. . . . I could imagine their frustration and rage.”

Suddenly, Powers heard a dull thump. A surface-to-air missile exploded nearby in a flashof orange. The plane’s wings snapped off, leaving the spinning aircraft plummeting downtowards the earth. Powers screamed, “I’ve had it now!”

The downing of Powers’s plane set off one of the major confrontations of the Cold Warduring the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower.

—adapted from May-Day: The U-2 Affair

July 1953Armistice inKorean War

✦ 1955 ✦ 1961

Eisenhower’s “New Look”By the end of 1952, many Americans were ready for a change in leadership. The Cold

War had much to do with that attitude. Many Americans believed that Truman’s foreignpolicy was not working. The Soviet Union had acquired the atomic bomb and consoli-dated its hold on Eastern Europe. China had fallen to communism, and American troopshad been sent across the Pacific to fight in the Korean War.

Eisenhower’s Policies

Francis Gary Powers

Main IdeaAs president, Eisenhower developedplans to reduce world tensions while con-taining and competing with communism.

Key Terms and Namesmassive retaliation, Sputnik, brinkman-ship, covert, Central Intelligence Agency,developing nation, military-industrialcomplex

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read aboutEisenhower’s presidency, complete agraphic organizer similar to the onebelow by filling in aspects of Eisenhower’s“New Look.”

Reading Objectives• Evaluate Eisenhower’s military policy

known as the “New Look.”• Debate the effectiveness of

Eisenhower’s foreign policy.

Section ThemeScience and Technology Nuclear tech-nology enabled Eisenhower to changeAmerican military policy, while new missile technology marked the beginningof the space age.

✦ 1952 ✦ 1958

October 1956Hungarianrevolution

October 1956Suez Canal crisis

October 4, 1957Soviet Unionlaunches Sputnik

May 1960U-2 incident

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 797

Eisenhower´s“New Look”

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Tired of the criticism and uncertain he could win,Truman decided not to run again. The Democratsnominated Adlai Stevenson, governor of Illinois. TheRepublicans chose Dwight D. Eisenhower, the gen-eral who had organized the D-Day invasion.

Despite Stevenson’s charming personality andskilled speech making, he had no chance against anational hero who had helped win World War II.Americans were looking for someone they couldtrust to lead the nation in its Cold War struggleagainst communism. Eisenhower won in a landslide.

“More Bang for the Buck” The Cold War shapedEisenhower’s thinking from the moment he tookoffice. Eisenhower was convinced that the key to vic-tory in the Cold War was not simply military mightbut also a strong economy. The United States had toshow the world that free enterprise could produce abetter and more prosperous society than commu-nism. At the same time, economic prosperity wouldprevent Communists from gaining support in theUnited States and protect society from subversion.

As a professional soldier, Eisenhower knew thecosts associated with large-scale conventional war.Preparing for that kind of warfare, he believed,would cost far too much money. “We cannot defend

the nation in a way which will exhaust our econ-omy,” Eisenhower declared. A “New Look” indefense policy was needed. Instead of maintaining alarge and expensive army, the nation “must be pre-pared to use atomic weapons in all forms.” Nuclearweapons, he said, gave “more bang for the buck.”

Massive Retaliation The Korean War had con-vinced Eisenhower that the United States could notcontain communism by fighting a series of smallwars. Such wars were unpopular and too expensive.Instead, they had to be prevented from happening inthe first place. The best way to do that seemed to beto threaten to use nuclear weapons if a Communiststate tried to seize territory by force. This policy cameto be called massive retaliation.

The new policy enabled Eisenhower to cut mili-tary spending from $50 billion to $34 billion. He didthis by cutting back the army, which required a lot ofmoney to maintain. At the same time, he increasedAmerica’s nuclear arsenal from about 1,000 bombs in1953 to about 18,000 bombs in 1961.

The Sputnik Crisis The New Look’s emphasis onnuclear weapons required new technology to deliverthem. In 1955 the air force unveiled the huge B-52

798 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

TheHydrogenBombThe atomic bomb droppedon Hiroshima in 1945 hadan explosive force of 20,000tons of TNT. As devastatingas that bomb was, thehydrogen bomb was expo-nentially more powerful.Designed by Edward Tellerand Stanislaw Ulam, thehydrogen test bomb, nick-named “Mike,” was first det-onated on November 1,1952. Its explosive force wasequal to 10 million tons ofTNT. How did the twoexplosive devices combineto create an explosion?

1

23

The plutonium core provides the radiationfrom plutonium essential for a fusion reaction.

The primary device sets off a smaller atomicexplosion that creates x-ray radiation pressure.

In the secondary device, the fusion processbegins when pressure builds inside the bombcasing from the release of radiation.

2

1

3

High explosivecharges

Uranium shield

Plutonium 239

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bomber, which was designed to fly across continentsand drop nuclear bombs anywhere in the world.Because bombers could be shot down, Eisenhoweralso began development of intercontinental ballisticmissiles (ICBMs) that could deliver bombs anywherein the world. He also began a program to build sub-marines capable of launching nuclear missiles.

As the United States began to develop long-rangenuclear missiles, Americans were stunned to dis-cover the Soviet Union had already developed theirown. On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launchedSputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth.This technological triumph alarmed Americans, whotook it as a sign that the United States was fallingbehind the Soviet Union in missile technology.

Eisenhower insisted he was not worried justbecause the Soviets “put one small ball into the air.”Members of Congress, on the other hand, feared thenation was falling behind in scientific research. Thefollowing year, Congress created the NationalAeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) tocoordinate research in rocket science and space explo-ration. It also passed the National Defense EducationAct (NDEA), which provided funds for educationand training in science, math, and foreign languages.

Summarizing How did Eisenhoweralter the nature of defense spending?

Brinkmanship In ActionPresident Eisenhower’s apparent willingness to

threaten nuclear war to maintain the peace worriedsome people. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles,however, the dominant figure in the nation’s foreignpolicy in the 1950s, strongly defended the policy:

“You have to take chances for peace, just as youmust take chances in war. Some say that we werebrought to the verge of war. Of course we werebrought to the verge of war. The ability to get to theverge without getting into the war is the necessaryart. . . . If you try to run away from it, if you arescared to go to the brink, you are lost. We’ve had tolook it square in the face. . . . We walked to the brinkand we looked it in the face. We took strongaction.”

—quoted in Rise to Globalism

Critics called this brinkmanship—the willingnessto go to the brink of war to force the other side toback down—and argued that it was too dangerous.

Several times, however, President Eisenhower feltcompelled to threaten nuclear war during a crisis.

The Korean War Ends During his campaign for thepresidency, Eisenhower had said, “I shall go toKorea,” promising to end the costly and increasinglyunpopular war. On December 4, 1952, just weeksafter his election, he kept his promise. Bundledagainst the freezing Korean winter, the president-elect talked with frontline commanders and theirtroops.

Eisenhower became convinced that the ongoingbattle was costing too many lives and bringing toofew victories. “Small attacks on small hills,” the for-mer general declared, “[will] not end this war.” Thepresident then quietly let the Chinese know that theUnited States might continue the Korean War “undercircumstances of our own choosing”—a hint atnuclear attack.

The threat to go to the brink of nuclear war seemedto work. In July 1953, negotiators signed an armistice.The battle line between the two sides, which was verynear the prewar boundary, became the borderbetween North Korea and South Korea. A “demilita-rized zone” (DMZ) separated them. There was no vic-tory, but the war had at least stopped the spread ofcommunism in Korea—the goal of containment.American troops are still based in Korea, helpingSouth Korea defend its border.

Reading Check

Cold War Worries The speaker here is comparing American prosperity withthe Soviets’ launching of Sputnik. What is the cartoonist’s intent?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 799

“So Russia Launched a Satellite, but Has It Made Cars With Fins Yet?”

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The Taiwan Crisis Shortly after the war ended, anew crisis erupted in Asia. Although the ChineseCommunists had taken power in mainland China, theChinese Nationalists still controlled Taiwan and sev-eral small islands along China’s coast.

In the fall of 1954, China threatened to seize two ofthe islands from the Nationalists. Eisenhower sawTaiwan as part of the “anticommunist barrier” inAsia. When China began shelling the islands andannounced that Taiwan would soon be liberated,Eisenhower asked Congress to authorize the use offorce to defend Taiwan.

Eisenhower then warned the Chinese that anyattempt to invade Taiwan would be resisted byAmerican naval forces stationed nearby. He and Dulleshinted that they would use nuclear weapons to stop aninvasion. Soon afterward, China backed down.

The Suez Crisis The year after Eisenhower went tothe brink of war with China, a serious crisis eruptedin the Middle East. Eisenhower’s goal in the Middle

East was to prevent Arab nations from aligning withthe Soviet Union. To build support among Arabs,Dulles offered to help Egypt finance the constructionof a dam on the Nile River. The Egyptians eagerlyaccepted the American offer.

The deal ran into trouble in Congress, however,because Egypt had bought weapons from CommunistCzechoslovakia. Dulles was forced to withdraw theoffer. A week later, Egyptian troops seized control ofthe Suez Canal from the Anglo-French company thathad controlled it. The Egyptians intended to use thecanal’s profits to pay for the dam.

The British and French responded quickly to theSuez Crisis. In October 1956, British and French troopsinvaded Egypt. Eisenhower was furious with Britainand France. He declared they had made a “completemess and botch of things.” The situation became evenmore tense when the Soviet Union threatened rocketattacks on Britain and France and offered to sendtroops to help Egypt. Eisenhower immediately putAmerican nuclear forces on alert, noting, “If those

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NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1955

By the mid-1950s, two powerful military alliances, NATOand the Warsaw Pact, were facing each other in Europe.Applying Geography Skills How many European nationshad Communist governments in 1955?

"Iron Curtain"Communist nations not in Warsaw Pact

Non-Communist nations not in NATONATO countries

Warsaw Pact countries

Capital

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fellows start something, we may have to hit them—and if necessary, with everything in the bucket.”

Under strong American pressure, the British andFrench called off their invasion. The Soviet Unionhad won a major diplomatic victory, however, bysupporting Egypt. Soon afterward, other Arabnations began accepting Soviet aid as well.

Identifying What was brinkmanship?

Fighting Communism Covertly President Eisenhower relied on brinkmanship on

several occasions, but he knew it could not work inall situations. It could prevent war, but it could not,for example, prevent Communists from staging revo-lutions within countries. To prevent Communistuprisings in other countries, Eisenhower decided touse covert, or hidden, operations conducted by theCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA).

Containment in Developing Nations Many of theCIA’s operations took place in developing nations—nations with primarily agricultural economies. Manyof these countries blamed European imperialism andAmerican capitalism for their problems. Their leaderslooked to the Soviet Union as a model of how to in-dustrialize their countries. They often threatened tonationalize, or put under government control, foreignbusinesses operating in their countries.

American officials feared that these leaders mightalign their nations with the Soviet Union or evenstage a Communist revolution. One way to stop de-veloping nations from moving into the Communistcamp was to provide them with financial aid, asEisenhower had tried to do in Egypt. In some cases,however, where the threat of communism seemedstronger, the CIA staged covert operations to over-throw anti-American leaders and replace them withpro-American leaders.

Iran and Guatemala Two examples of covert oper-ations that achieved American objectives took placein Iran and Guatemala. By 1953 Iranian prime minis-ter Mohammed Mossadegh had already nationalizedthe Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. He seemed ready tomake an oil deal with the Soviet Union. In 1953Mossadegh moved against the pro-American Shah ofIran, who was temporarily forced into exile. Dullesquickly sent agents to organize street riots andarrange a coup that ousted Mossadegh, and the Shahreturned to power.

The following year, the CIA acted to protectAmerican-owned property in Guatemala. In 1951Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán won election as president ofGuatemala with Communist support. His landreform program took over large estates, includingthose of the American-owned United Fruit Company.In May 1954, Communist Czechoslovakia deliveredarms to Guatemala. The CIA responded by armingthe Guatemalan opposition and training them atsecret camps in Nicaragua and Honduras. Shortlyafter these CIA-trained forces invaded Guatemala,Arbenz Guzmán left office.

Uprising in Hungary Covert operations did notalways work as Eisenhower hoped. In 1953 Stalindied, and a power struggle began in the SovietUnion. By 1956 Nikita Khrushchev had emerged asthe leader of the Soviet Union. That year, Khrushchevdelivered a secret speech to Soviet leaders. Heattacked Stalin’s policies and insisted there were

Reading Check

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 801

Distinguished Brothers John Foster Dulles (right) became secretary of stateunder Eisenhower; his brother Allen Dulles (center) was director of the CIA inthe 1950s. With what policy is John Foster Dulles associated?

History

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many ways to build a Communist society. Althoughthe speech was secret, the CIA obtained a copy. WithEisenhower’s permission, the CIA arranged for it tobe broadcast to Eastern Europe.

Many Eastern Europeans had long been frustratedwith Communist rule. Hearing Khrushchev’s speechfurther discredited communism. In June 1956, riotserupted in Eastern Europe. By late October, a full-scale uprising had begun in Hungary. AlthoughKhrushchev was willing to tolerate greater freedomin Eastern Europe, he had never meant to imply thatthe Soviets would tolerate an end to communism inEastern Europe. Soon after the uprising began, Soviettanks rolled into Budapest, the capital of Hungary,and crushed the rebellion.

Explaining Why did Eisenhoweruse covert operations?

Continuing TensionsThe uprising in Hungary forced Khrushchev to

reassert Soviet power and the superiority ofcommunism. Previously, he had supported“peaceful coexistence” with capitalism. Now heaccused the “capitalist countries” of starting a“feverish arms race.” In 1957, after the launch ofSputnik, Khrushchev boasted, “We will burycapitalism. . . . Your grandchildren will live undercommunism.”

In late 1958 Khrushchev demanded that the UnitedStates, Great Britain, and France withdraw their troopsfrom West Berlin. Secretary of State Dulles rejectedKhrushchev’s demands. If the Soviets threatened

Berlin, Dulles announced, NATO would respond, “ifneed be by military force.” Brinkmanship workedagain, and Khrushchev backed down.

To try to improve relations, Eisenhower invitedKhrushchev to visit the United States in late 1959.The visit went well, and the two leaders agreed tohold a summit in Paris in 1960. A summit is a formalface-to-face meeting of leaders from different coun-tries to discuss important issues.

Shortly before the summit was to begin, the SovietUnion shot down the American U-2 spy plane pilotedby Francis Gary Powers. At first, Eisenhower claimedthat the aircraft was a weather plane that had strayedoff course. Then Khrushchev dramatically producedthe pilot. Eisenhower refused to apologize, saying theflights had protected American security. In response,Khrushchev broke up the summit.

In this climate of heightened tension, PresidentEisenhower prepared to leave office. In January1961, he delivered a farewell address to the nation.In the address, he pointed out that a new relation-ship had developed between the military establish-ment and the defense industry. He warnedAmericans to be on guard against the immenseinfluence of this military-industrial complex in ademocracy. Although he had avoided war and keptcommunism contained, Eisenhower admitted tosome frustration: “I confess I lay down my officialresponsibility in this field with a definite sense ofdisappointment. . . . I wish I could say that a lastingpeace is in sight.”

Evaluating Why did Eisenhowerwarn Americans about the military-industrial complex?

Reading Check

Reading Check

Writing About History

Checking for Understanding1. Define: massive retaliation, brinkman-

ship, covert, developing nation, military-industrial complex.

2. Identify: Sputnik, Central IntelligenceAgency.

3. Reviewing Facts What was the signifi-cance of the Soviet Union’s launching ofSputnik in 1957?

Reviewing Themes4. Science and Technology How did

technology shape Eisenhower’s militarypolicy?

Critical Thinking5. Interpreting Do you think

Eisenhower’s foreign policy was successful? Why or why not?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to listEisenhower’s strategies for containingCommunism.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Maps Study the map on

page 800. How many nations belongedto NATO? How many nations belongedto the Warsaw Pact? Which nations didnot belong to either NATO or theWarsaw Pact?

8. Persuasive Writing Imagine you are a member of Eisenhower’s cabinet.Defend or attack brinkmanship as a foreign policy tactic. Be sure to providespecific reasons for your point of view.

802 CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins

Strategies forContaining

Communism

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Critical Thinking

Why Learn This Skill?Suppose you have been given the choice of tak-

ing an art class or a music class during your freeperiod during school. How will you decide whichclass to take?

Learning the Skill When you make a decision, you are making a

choice between alternatives. In order to make thatchoice, you must be informed and aware. There arefive key steps you should follow that will help youthrough the process of making decisions.

• Identify the problem. What are you being askedto choose between?

• Gather information to identify and consider various alternatives that are possible.

• Determine the consequences for each alternative.Identify both positive and negative consequences.

• Evaluate the consequences. Consider both thepositive and negative consequences for eachalternative.

• Determine which alternative seems to have morepositive than negative consequences. Then makeyour decision.

Practicing the SkillDecisions throughout history have affected the

outcome of events and defined history as we knowit today. Identify the alternatives and describe theirconsequences for each of the following events thatoccurred after World War II. Each of these eventstook place as a result of a decision made by a per-son or a group of people.

1 Britain and the United States recognize theSoviet-backed government that takes control inPoland.

2 The United States orchestrates the Berlin airliftto assist residents of West Berlin after Stalin cutsoff surface transportation bringing suppliesfrom the West.

3 The Marshall Plan for rebuilding war-tornWestern Europe is approved.

4 President Truman relieves General DouglasMacArthur of his command because of insubordination.

Skills AssessmentComplete the Practicing Skills questions on

page 805 and the Chapter 26 Skill ReinforcementActivity to assess your mastery of this skill.

Making Decisions

Applying the SkillMaking Decisions Use a newspaper or magazine tofind a current issue that directly affects your life.Identify the issue, and then review the facts and whatyou already know about the issue. Identify variousalternatives and determine the consequences for each.Use this information to evaluate both positive and neg-ative consequences. Make a sound decision aboutwhich alternative would be best for you, and write aparagraph defending your decision.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive WorkbookCD-ROM, Level 2, provides instruction andpractice in key social studies skills.

803

President Truman and Dean Acheson

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Reviewing Key Facts15. Identify: Potsdam, Marshall Plan, NATO, McCarthyism.

16. How did Stalin’s postwar foreign policy goals add to thegrowing tensions between the United States and the USSR?

17. Why were NATO and the Warsaw Pact formed?

18. What was the long-term strategy of the United States duringthe Cold War?

19. What were the effects of the new Red Scare on federalemployees?

20. What was President Eisenhower’s “new look” for the military?

Critical Thinking21. Analyzing Themes: Global Connections How did the

Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan cause the UnitedStates to change its foreign policy goal of isolationism?

22. Evaluating How did the Korean War affect Americandomestic and international policy?

23. Organizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the onebelow to list the causes of the Cold War.

24. Interpreting Primary Sources Margaret Chase Smith, aRepublican from Maine, was elected to the Senate in 1948.As a newcomer and the only woman in the Senate, she hadvery little power. Smith was upset by Joseph McCarthy’saccusations, but she hoped her senior colleagues would reprimand him. When they failed to do so, Smith made her“Declaration of Conscience” speech. Read the excerpt andanswer the questions that follow.

1. Cold War

2. iron curtain

3. containment

4. limited war

5. subversion

6. perjury

7. censure

8. fallout

9. fallout shelter

10. massive retaliation

11. brinkmanship

12. covert

13. developing nation

14. military-industrial

complex

Reviewing Key TermsOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence.

Causes ofCold War

Soviet Union Western Allies

General Goals

In Europe

In the Middle East

In Asia

At Home

The Cold War

• To create a protective sphere of Communist countries along European border

• To promote the spread of communism

• Occupied Eastern European nations and saw that Communist governments were established

• Sought access to oil in Iran• Aided Communists in Greece and pressured

Turkey for access to the Mediterranean

• Communists seize power in China in 1949• China and Soviet Union signed treaty of

friendship and alliance• Communist North Korea invaded South Korea

to start Korean War• Chinese troops fought for North Korea

• Promoted development of high-technology weapons and surveillance

• To contain the spread of communism by supporting capitalist democratic governments

• Expected free elections to occur in Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe

• Forced Soviet withdrawal from Iran • Pledged aid to halt Soviet threats to Turkey

and Greece

• Aided China’s Nationalist government • Dedicated money and troops to establish

democratic stronghold in Japan• United Nations troops sent to fight for

South Korea in Korean War

• Focused on the development of advanced technology weapons

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“As a United States Senator, I am not proud of the

way in which the Senate has been made a publicity plat-

form for irresponsible sensationalism. I am not proud of

the reckless abandon in which unproved charges have

been hurled from this side of the aisle. I am not proud

of the obviously staged, undignified countercharges that

have been attempted in retaliation from the other side

of the aisle. . . . I am not proud of the way we smear

outsiders from the Floor of the Senate and hide behind

the cloak of congressional immunity. . . .

As an American, I am shocked at the way

Republicans and Democrats alike are playing directly

into the Communist design of ‘confuse, divide, and

conquer’. . . . I want to see our nation recapture the

strength and unity it once had when we fought the

enemy instead of ourselves.”—from Declaration of Conscience

a. With whom is Smith angry, and why?

b. According to Smith, who is really dividing the nation?

Practicing Skills 25. Making Decisions Study the text on the Truman Doctrine

on page 785. Then use the steps you learned about makingdecisions on page 803 to identify the alternatives the presi-dent had in making a decision to ask for aid to fight Sovietaggression in Turkey and Greece. Create a graphic organizerto list the alternatives.

Chapter Activity26. Technology Activity: Developing a Multimedia

Presentation Use the Internet and other resources to findout more about American popular culture during the ColdWar. Then create a multimedia report about popular cultureat this time, and present your report to the class. Your reportcould discuss films, books, and magazine articles.

Writing Activity27. Persuasive Writing Imagine that you have witnessed the

crowds giving General MacArthur a hero’s welcome. Writean opinion piece for a magazine justifying his reception orcriticizing it because of his disagreement with Truman.

Geography and History28. The map above shows the occupation of Berlin after World

War II. Study the map and answer the questions below. a. Interpreting Maps How was West Berlin’s location a dis-

advantage? How did Stalin use this disadvantage againstthe Western Allies?

b. Applying Geography Skills What transportation advan-tage did West Berlin have over East Berlin? How did theUnited States use this advantage when West Berlin wasstranded?

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 805

Self-Check QuizVisit the American Vision Web site at tav.glencoe.com

and click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 26 toassess your knowledge of chapter content.

HISTORY

StandardizedTest Practice

Directions: Choose the phrase that bestcompletes the following sentence.

One historical lesson from the McCarthy era is the realiza-tion that

A loyalty oaths prevent spying.

B communism is influential in prosperous times.

C Communist agents had infiltrated all levels of the U.S.government.

D public fear of traitors can lead to intolerance and discrimination.

Test-Taking Tip: Think about the definition of McCarthyism,

the use of unsubstantiated accusations to discredit people.

Which of the answers relates best to this definition?

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The Occupation of Berlin AfterWorld War II, 1945

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American sectorBritish sectorFrench sectorSoviet sector

“As a United States Senator, I am not proud of the

way in which the Senate has been made a publicity plat-

form for irresponsible sensationalism. I am not proud of

the reckless abandon in which unproved charges have

been hurled from this side of the aisle. I am not proud

of the obviously staged, undignified countercharges that

have been attempted in retaliation from the other side

of the aisle. . . . I am not proud of the way we smear

outsiders from the Floor of the Senate and hide behind

the cloak of congressional immunity. . . .

As an American, I am shocked at the way

Republicans and Democrats alike are playing directly

into the Communist design of ‘confuse, divide, and

conquer’. . . . I want to see our nation recapture the

strength and unity it once had when we fought the

enemy instead of ourselves.”—from Declaration of Conscience

a. With whom is Smith angry, and why?

b. According to Smith, who is really dividing the nation?

Practicing Skills 25. Making Decisions Study the text on the Truman Doctrine

on page 785. Then use the steps you learned about makingdecisions on page 803 to identify the alternatives the presi-dent had in making a decision to ask for aid to fight Sovietaggression in Turkey and Greece. Create a graphic organizerto list the alternatives.

Chapter Activity26. Technology Activity: Developing a Multimedia

Presentation Use the Internet and other resources to findout more about American popular culture during the ColdWar. Then create a multimedia report about popular cultureat this time, and present your report to the class. Your reportcould discuss films, books, and magazine articles.

Writing Activity27. Persuasive Writing Imagine that you have witnessed the

crowds giving General MacArthur a hero’s welcome. Writean opinion piece for a magazine justifying his reception orcriticizing it because of his disagreement with Truman.

Geography and History28. The map above shows the occupation of Berlin after World

War II. Study the map and answer the questions below. a. Interpreting Maps How was West Berlin’s location a dis-

advantage? How did Stalin use this disadvantage againstthe Western Allies?

b. Applying Geography Skills What transportation advan-tage did West Berlin have over East Berlin? How did theUnited States use this advantage when West Berlin wasstranded?

CHAPTER 26 The Cold War Begins 805

Self-Check QuizVisit the American Vision Web site at tav.glencoe.com

and click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 26 toassess your knowledge of chapter content.

HISTORY

StandardizedTest Practice

Directions: Choose the phrase that bestcompletes the following sentence.

One historical lesson from the McCarthy era is the realiza-tion that

A loyalty oaths prevent spying.

B communism is influential in prosperous times.

C Communist agents had infiltrated all levels of the U.S.government.

D public fear of traitors can lead to intolerance and discrimination.

Test-Taking Tip: Think about the definition of McCarthyism,

the use of unsubstantiated accusations to discredit people.

Which of the answers relates best to this definition?

5 kilometers0Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

5 miles0

N

S

EW

EASTGERMANY

Gatow

Brandenburg Gate

Tempelhof

Tegel

EastBerlin

WestBerlin

The Occupation of Berlin AfterWorld War II, 1945

Airports

American sectorBritish sectorFrench sectorSoviet sector


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