Game Design
TC 455Brian Magerko8.30.05From Rabin’s Intro. to Game Dev.
What is a Game?
How do games differ from static media?BooksFilmStories
How do they differ from toys?
Computer Games
A new form of entertainmentHow do they differ from traditional
games? Board games?Even the simplest games, like Pong,
give an experience wholly novel compared to others
What makes a game fun?
Natural Funativity Theory
Basic concept is that all fun derives from practicing survival and social skills
Key skills relate to early human context, but often in modern guise
Three overlapping categoriesPhysical, Social, and Mental
Physical Fun
Sports generally enhance our strength, stamina, coordination skills
Exploration is funBoth of local area and knowledge of exotic
placesHand/eye coordination and tool use are
often parts of fun activities – crafts
Social Fun
Storytelling is a social activityA way to learn important survival and social
lessons from othersGossip, sharing info w/friends popularFlirting, showing off, finding mates is a
key interest in social funLanguage has become paramount
Mental Fun
Our large brains make humans uniquePure abstract reasoning practice is funPattern matching and generation
Music, Art, and Puzzles all pattern based
Multipurpose Fun
Many fun activities have physical, social and mental aspects in combination
Games that mix these aspects tend to be very popular
Incorporate ways to practice these skills to increase the popularity of games
Descontructing Halo
Physical Mastering controls Hand-eye coordination Move combinations
Social Playing in teams against others Following stories Sharing stories of previous games
Mental Developing tactics Choosing weapons Adapting to others
Definition of a Great Game
Sid Meier’s paraphrased canonical definition:
A great game is a series of interesting and meaningful choices made by the player in pursuit of a clear and compelling goal
Interesting and Meaningful Choices
Choices may be dull and uninteresting because it was easy to code that way
Or it may be the reflection of a lazy designer
Meaningful choices are perceived by the player as having significant consequences
May not have actual consequences…
Clear and Compelling Goal
Clear goalsBecause it is not fun to flounder aimlessly
Avoid the “protagonist with amnesia” cliché
Compelling goals follow the concepts in Natural Funativity
Survival is always a compelling goal
A Series of Choices
No choice
A Series of Choices
Meaningless choicesObviously fold back into same pathPlayers discover this quickly
A Series of Choices
Infinite choicesQuickly become unmanageable
A Series of Choices
Choose wiselyKill off player with any wrong choiceBetter but frustrating (Dragon’s Lair)
Classic Game Structure
A convexityStarts with a single choice, widens to
many choices, returns to a single choice
Convexity Qualities
Go from one to many to oneCan be a level, an act, an episodeCan be any kind of choice
Geography, weapons, tools, skills, technologies, quests
ExamplesExploring an islandTechnology build tree
Fractal Structure
Large scale structure repeated on medium, smaller scales, like a coastline
In the case of convexities, each circle is not a single choice, but a convexity
Age of Empires example “Take a defensive stance” create squad
to defend left flank, collect resources to build a legionnaire, etc.
A Series of Convexities
Many games are chains of convexities
Points of limited choice (A) alternate with points of many choices (B)
A A A A ABB B B
A Series of Convexities
Many overlapping convexities in great games
Examples include Halo, Zelda games, Civilization, Diablo II, many others
Player can be starting one task or area, in the middle of another, and at the end of a third, all simultaneously
E.g. choosing which skills to build right before a boss encounter
Why Is This Structure So Good?
Give the player choice but not an infinitely expanding set of choices
Mix of some “any order” choices (B) and some in fixed order (A), blending freedom with linear storytelling
Can be structured so players see most of the game, minimizing waste
Can have difficulty go up in new levels
Design Overview
There is no one “right” way to designThere are many successful approaches
Specific requirements and constraints of each project and team determine what works and what does not.
This introduction is but a scratch
The Language of Games
Game development – a young industry
Standards are still being formulatedTheoryPracticeTerminology
The Language of Games
Debate continues over high-level views
Lack of standard (concrete) definitionsGamePlay
High-level concepts tricky to articulate
Aesthetics and Frame
AestheticsEmotional responses during play
Naïve practical approach, not classical
FrameThe border of a game’s context
Inside the frame is in the gameOutside the frame is real life
Approaching Design
Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Technical discipline like music, film, poetry
The art of making dynamic models
Approaching Design
Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps
Examples: Locations Relationships
Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms
A model represents something
Approaching Design
Abstract model Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false
Abstract game One rule
The piece is moved to the open square
Designs as Models
Game designs are formal models of games
We need to understand and focus on the player experience
Games as a “co-processor model”Good abstraction is key“Potato chip” model of player reward
Game Rules
ProceduresThe processes and techniques used to
reach the game goalsDelimiters
The restrictions placed on possible actions (i.e. challenges)
A Player-Game Model
MechanicsThings the player does
InterfaceCommunication between player and game
SystemUnderlying structure and behavior
A Player-Game Model
A model of the player – game relationship
M e c hanic s Inte r fac e Sys te m
P LAYER G AM E
Control and State Variables
Defined by Isaacs in Differential Games
Control variables Inputs from players
State variablesQuantities indicating game state
Play Mechanics
GameplayFeelings of playing a particular gameActivities engaged in a particular game
(Play/game) MechanicsSpecific to game activities “What the player does”
Seven Stages of Action
Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action
sequence
Evaluation Evaluating
interpretations Interpreting perceptions Perceiving states
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
Seven Stages of Action
A goal is formed Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples:
Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
Seven Stages of Action
Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
Seven Stages of Action
Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
Seven Stages of Action
The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
Seven Stages of Action
The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
Seven Stages of Action
Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
Seven Stages of Action
Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and
goals
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
Seven Stages of Action
Donald Norman’s approximate modelA game mechanic, at finest level of detail, is
one complete turn of the seven stages (e.g. jumping)
Actions not often in discrete stagesNot all actions progress through all stages
Seven Stages of Action
Scales to……an individual mechanic
A “primary element” Examples:
Move Shoot Talk
…an entire gameA generalized model of interaction
Designer and Player Models
Systems are built from designer mental models Design models may only anticipate player goals
Designer U ser
Us er 'sM o d el
D es ig nM o d el
S y s tem I m ag e
System
Designer and Player Models
Players build mental models from mechanics Based upon interactions with the system image
The reality of the system in operation Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly
“The user is not like me…”
Designer U ser
Us er 'sM o d el
D es ig nM o d el
S y s tem I m ag e
System
Core Mechanics
Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled repeatedly
Examples: Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit, exterminate
referred to as the “four X’s”
Premise
The metaphors of action and settingDirects the player experience
Provides a context in which mechanics fitPlayers map game states to the premise
E.g. The objects, characters and actions available to Link in The Legend of Zelda
Premise
Story is the typical example of premiseTimePlaceCharactersRelationshipsMotivationsEtc.
Premise
Premise may also be abstractTetris operates under a metaphor
The metaphor: arranging colored shapes
Encompasses all game elementsPlayer discussions use the language of the
premise
Premise
Goes beyond setting and toneAlters the players mental model
Basis of player understanding and strategyDifferent premise with the same underlying
representation can vastly affect player’s model
Choice and Outcome
Choice A question asked of the player
Outcome The end result of a given choice
Possibility space Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome
“A game is a series of interesting choices…” -Sid Meier
Choice and Outcome
Consequence or WeightThe significance of an outcome
Greater consequences alter the course of the game more significantly
Choices are balanced first by consequence
Choice and Outcome
Well-designed choiceOften desirable and undesirable effectsShould relate to player goalsBalanced against neighboring choices
Too much weight to every choice is melodramaOrthogonal choices – distinct from others
Not just “shades of grey”
Qualities of Choice
Terms in which to discuss choices Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other
Goals and Objectives
ObjectivesDesigned tasks players must perform
Rigid requirements – formal
GoalsAn intentional outcome
Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation
From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)
Goals and Objectives
Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates with
players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used
D esigner U serSystem
F in d s w o r dKill d r ag o nR es c u e p r in c es s
F in d s w o r dR es c u e d r ag o nKill p r in c es s
Resources
ResourcesThings used by agents to reach goalsTo be meaningful, they must be…
Useful – provide some valueLimited – in total or rate of supply
Economies
Economies Systems of supply, distribution, consumption
Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?
Constraints
Platform General description of hardware and software
Personal computer – PC, Mac, etc. Console – Game Cube, PlayStation, Xbox, etc. Handheld – DS, Game Boy Advance, PSP, etc. Mobile device – Cel Phones, NGage, PDA, etc. Arcade – custom vending games (e.g. Time Crisis)
Constraints
Game SavesSave triggersSave-anywhereSave pointsCoded text saves
Genres
Genre – a category describing generalities of conventions, style, and content
Genres
Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person shooter Platform
Racing Rhythm Role-Playing (RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional
Audiences
Target audienceGroup of expected consumers
DemographicsStudy of relevant economic and social
statistics about a given populationDemographic variables
The relevant factors
Audiences
MarketDemographic segmentation of consumers
Market segments Smaller sub-segment of the market; more tightly defined
Demographic profileTypical consumer attributes in a market
Audiences
Heavy Users Those of the numeric minority of potential users responsible
for majority of sales of any product “80/20 rule”
Hardcore gamer Game industry term for heavy video game users
Casual gamer Game industry term for all other gamers
Audiences
Typically assumptions of the hardcore: Play games over long sessions Discuss games frequently and at length Knowledgeable about the industry Higher threshold for frustration Desire to modify or extend games creatively Have the latest game systems Engage in competition with themselves, the game, and others
Audiences
Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro Internal experience
Enjoyment from visceral activities
Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving
Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure
Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition, teamwork,
bonding, and recognition
Iterating
Waterfall method Development methodology Design and production are broken into phases
Iterative development Practice of producing things incrementally
Refining and re-refining the product
Iterating
Prototypes Early working models of the product Used to test ideas and techniques
Physical prototypes Non-electronic models; physical materials
Software prototypes Used regularly during iterative development
Iterating
Software testing Process of verifying performance and reliability of a software
product
Tester Person trained in methods of evaluation
Bug Discrepancy between expected and actual behavior
Problem/Bug report Description of the behavior of the discrepancy
Iterating
Focus testTesting session using play-testersTesters represent the target audienceLots of feedback at one timeData can be compromised by group think
Iterating
TuningDeveloping solutions by adjusting systems Iterations are fasterChanges are less dramatic
BalanceEquilibrium in a relationship
Player relationships, mechanics, systems, etc.
Iterating
Intransitive relationships Multiple elements offer weaknesses and strengths
relative to each other as a whole Balanced as a group Example: Rock-Paper-Scissors (RPS)
H e a v yI n f a n t r y
C a v a lr yA r c h e r s
Creativity
Ability to createAbility to produce an idea, action, or
object considered new and valuable
Creativity
Classic approach - Graham Wallace Preparation
Background research and comprehension Incubation
Mulling things over Insight
Sudden illumination – Eureka! Evaluation
Validating revealed insights Elaboration
Transforming the idea into substance
Creativity
BrainstormingGenerating ideas without discriminationEvaluation after elaborationCan be unfocused
Creativity
Six Thinking Hats White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control
Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor
Edward de Bono
Inspiration
Board games Spatial relationships
Card games Resource management
Paper RPGs Dynamic narratives
Books Fantasy and agency
Sports Team competition
Film Continuity techniques
Television Serialized stories
Music Temporal systems
Martial arts Discipline in action
Children Invention