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GREEN NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY - AN OVERVIEW OF SYNTHESIS,
CHRACTERISATION AND APPLICATIONS
Shruti Singh*
*Assistant Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Mithibai College, Vile Parle
(W), Mumbai - 400056. India.
ABSTRACT
The recent development and implementation of new technologies have
led to new era, the nano- revolution which unfolds role of plants in bio
and green synthesis of nanoparticles which seem to have drawn quite
an unequivocal attention with a view of synthesizing stable
nanoparticles. Although nanoparticles can be synthesized through array
of conventional methods biological route of synthesizing are good
competent over the physical and chemical techniques. Green principle
route of synthesizing have emerged as alternative to overcome the
limitation of conventional methods among which plant and
microorganisms are majorly exploited. Plants extracts provide rapid,
cost effective and eco-friendly sources for fabrication of metallic
nanoparticles. Employing plants towards synthesis of nanoparticles are emerging as
advantageous compared to microbes with the presence of broad variability of bio-molecules
in plants can act as capping and reducing agents and thus increases the rate of reduction and
stabilization of nanoparticles. Biological synthesized nanoparticles have upsurge applications
in various sectors. Hence this review envisions on biosynthesis of nanoparticles from plants
which are emerging as nanofactories.
KEYWORD: Biosynthesized nanoparticles, Green Source, Biofabrication, Ecofriendly,
Applications.
INTRODUCTION
The emergence of nanotechnology has provided an extensive research in recent years by
intersecting with various other branches of science and forming impact on all forms of life.[1]
The concept of nanotechnology was first begun with lecture delivered by Richard Feynman
WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
SJIF Impact Factor 6.041
Volume 5, Issue 8, 501-531 Review Article ISSN 2278 – 4357
*Corresponding Author
Dr. Shruti Singh
Assistant Professor,
Department of
Biotechnology, Mithibai
College, Vile Parle(W),
Mumbai - 400056. India.
Article Received on
08 June 2016,
Revised on 28 June 2016,
Accepted on 18 July 2016
DOI: 10.20959/wjpps20168-7391
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in 1952.[2]
Nanotechnology is a field of science which deals with production, manipulation
and use of materials ranging in nanometers (1to100nm). In nanotechnology nanoparticles
research is an important aspect due to its innumerable applications. Evolution of Nano field
leads to tremendous growth in various areas such as food and agriculture, pharmaceutical,
material science, bio technology, medicine, energy and environment, bio-medical, sensors,
antimicrobials, catalysts, electronics, optical fibers, bio-labeling and in other areas.[3]
The surface to volume ratio of nano particles is increased compare than bulk materials with
the same composition which leads to developing a material with enhanced properties and
attributes such as catalytic activity, electrical conductivity, hardness, mechanical strength,
optical properties and melting point and antimicrobial effects. The reactivity of the surface
initiates from quantum phenomena which can make nanoparticle unpredictable. Therefore
another hand, Nano particle had large functional surface area which is able to bind, adsorb
and carry the other compounds. This surface is more chemically active than fine analogue.[4]
Therefore, this review was conducted to highlight the nanoparticle synthesis using green
technology and different techniques for characterization of nanoparticles to provide a better
understanding of nanoparticles and thus improve their uses in modern technology.
GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanoparticles can be synthesized using a variety of methods including physical, chemical,
biological, and hybrid techniques[5-7]
(figure-1). Methods employed for the synthesis of
nanoparticles are broadly classified under two processes such as “Top-down” process and
“Bottom-up” process (figure-1). Top-down approach: Bulk material is broken down into
particles at nanoscale with various lithographic techniques e.g.: grinding, milling etc.
Bottom-up approach: Atoms self-assemble to new nuclei which grow into a particle of
nanoscale. The production of nanoparticles through conventional physical and chemical
methods results in toxic byproducts that are environmental hazards. Additionally, these
particles cannot be used in medicine due to health-related issues, especially in clinical
fields.[8, 9]
Conventional methods can be used to produce nanoparticles in large quantities
with defined sizes and shapes in a shorter period of time; however, these techniques are
complicated, costly, inefficient and outdated. In recent years, there has been growing interest
in the synthesis of environmentally friendly nanoparticles that do not produce toxic waste
products during the manufacturing process.[10, 11, 12]
This can only be achieved through benign
synthesis procedures of a biological nature using biotechnological tools that are considered
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safe and ecologically sound for nanomaterial fabrication as an alternative to conventional
physical and chemical methods.[13]
This has given rise to the concept of greentechnology or green nanobiotechnology. In
general, green nanobiotechnology means synthesizing nanoparticles or nanomaterials using
biological routes such as those involving microorganisms, plants and viruses or their
byproducts, such as proteins and lipids, with the help of various biotechnological tools.
Nanoparticles produced by green technology are far superior to those manufactured with
physical and chemical methods based on several aspects. For example, green techniques
eliminate the use of expensive chemicals, consume less energy, and generate environmentally
benign products and byproducts.
The 12 principles of green chemistry have now become a reference guide for researchers,
scientists, chemical technologists and chemists around the world for developing less
hazardous chemical products and byproducts.[14, 15]
Accordingly, green nanobiotechnology is
a reliable, environmentally benign method and a promising alternate route for synthesis of
biocompatible stable nanoparticles and its characterization.[16]
Biological-based synthesis of
nanoparticles utilizes a bottom-upapproach in which synthesis occurs with the help of
reducing and stabilizing agents (Figure-2).
Three main steps are followed for the synthesis of nanoparticles using a biological system:
the choice of solvent medium used, the choice of an ecofriendly and environmentally benign
reducing agent and the choice of a nontoxicmaterial as a capping agent to stabilize the
synthesized nanoparticles.[17]
Nanotechnology has more advantages over other conventional
approaches owing to the availability of more components by biological system for the
formation of nanoparticles. The rich biodiversity of such biological components has been
explored for the synthesis of bionanomaterials, which are environmentally benign and can be
used in various medical applications.
The present review emphasizes reported plant resources for the synthesis of different
nanoparticles. Plants are known to possess various therapeutic compounds which are being
exploited since ancient time as a traditional medicine. Due its huge diversity plants have been
explored constantly for wide range of applications in the field of pharmaceutical, agricultural,
industrial etc. Recent reports of plants towards production of nanoparticles is said to have
advantages such as easily available, safe to handle and broad range of biomolecules such as
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alkaloids, terpenoids, phenols, flavanoids, tannins, quinines etc. are known to mediate
synthesis of nanoparticles. Plants reported to mediate nanoparticles synthesis are mentioned
in the table-1 which is discussed briefly in this present review.
Figure 1: Different approaches and methods for synthesizing nanoparticles
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Figure 2: Biological synthesis of nanoparticles using green technology
FABRICATION OF DIFFERENT NANOPARTICLES USING PLANTS
Plant-mediated biosynthesis of nanoparticle is considered a widely acceptable technology for
rapid production of metallic nanoparticles for successfully meeting the excessive need and
current market demand and resulting in a reduction in the employment or generation of
hazardous substances to public health. Similar to microbes which have been used as a “bio-
factory” in the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles, plants are also the natural “chemical
factories” which are economical and require minimal maintenance.[18]
Plants have several
cellular structures and physiological processes to combat the toxicity of metals and maintain
homeostasis. They also possess dynamic solutions to detoxify metals and hence scientists
have now turned into phytoremediation.[19]
The modus operandi of detoxification includes
immobilization, exclusion, chelation and compartmentalization of the metals ions and the
expression of more general stress response mechanisms, such as ethylene and stress
proteins.[20]
The ability to tolerate inimical concentrations of toxic metals is found in the plant
kingdom from ages. Their ability to accumulate high concentrations of metals was observed
for both essential nutrients, such as copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and selenium, as well as
non-essential metals, such as cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), aluminum (Al) and
arsenic (As).[21]
In plants or plantderived materials, a wide range of metabolites with redox
potentials is determined, which are playing a principal role as a reducing agent in the
biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles. In comparison to the microbial synthesis of
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nanoparticles, highly stable nanoparticles are synthesized by plant or plant extracts with the
higher rate of production. Consequently, the advantages of plant-mediated preparation of
metal nanoparticles lead researchers to in search of further exploration of the bio-reduction
mechanism of metal ions by plants and the possible mechanism of formation of metal
nanoparticle in and by the plants.[22, 23]
Table-1 Representing plant reported synthesis of nanoparticles
NO. PLANTS BIOMOLECULES
INVOLVED
NANO
PARTICLES SIZE REFERENCES
1 Allium cepa L. Vitamin C Au ~100 nm Parida et al.[23]
2 Allium sativum Sucrose and fructose Ag 4.4±1.5nm White II et al.[24]
3 Achyranthus aspera L. Polyols Ag 20-30nm Daniel et al.[25]
4 Anacardium
occidentale Polyols and proteins
Au, Ag, Au-
Ag alloy and
Au core-Ag
shell
- Sheny et al.[26]
5 Andrographis
paniculata Nees.
Hydroxyflavones
catechins Ag 28nm Sulochana et al.
[27]
6 Astragalus gummifer
Labill. Proteins Ag 13.1±1.0 nm Kora et al.
[28]
7 Azadirachta indica A.
Juss.
Salanin, Nimbin,
Azadirone and
Azadirachtins
Au 2-100nm Thirumurugan et al.[29]
8 Camellia sinensis L. Polyphenolic
compounds Au 25nm Boruah et al.
[30]
9 Carica papaya L. hydroxyflavones and
catechins. Ag 15 nm Jain et al.
[31]
10 Centella asiatica L. Terpenoid, flavonoid Ag - Palaniselvam et al.[32]
11 Chenopodium album L. Oxalic acid Ag, Au 12nm,
10 nm Dwivedi and Gopal.
[33]
12 Coleus aromaticus
Lour. Flavonoids Ag 40-50 nm
Vanaja and
Annadurai.[34]
13 Cinnamomum
zeylanicum Blume. Terpenoids Pd 15-20 nm Sathishkumar et al.
[35]
14 Cinnamomum
camphora L.
Polyols, heterocyclic
components Pd 3.2 to 6.0 nm Xin et al.
[36]
15 Citrullus colocynthis L
Polyphenols with
aromatic ring and
bound amide region
Ag 31 nm Satyavani et al.[37]
16 Datura metel L. Plastohydroquinone or
plastrocohydroquinol Ag 16 to 40 nm Kesharwani et al.
[38]
17 Desmodium triflorum
(L) DC
Water-soluble
antioxidative agents
like ascorbic acids
Ag 5–20 nm Ahmed et al.[39]
18 Diopyros kaki Terpenoids and
reducing sugars Pt 2-12 nm Song et al.
[40]
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19 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Polyphenols or
flavonoids Ag 8-20 nm Ghosh et al.
[41]
20 Dioscorea oppositifolia
L.
Polyphenols with
aromatic ring and
bound amide region
Ag 14 nm Maheswari et al.[42]
21
Elettaria cardamomom
(L) Maton.
Alcohols, carboxylic,
acids, ethers, esters
and aliphatic amines
Ag - Gnana Jobitha et al.[43]
22. Gardenia jasminoides
Ellis.
Geniposide,
chlorogenicacid,
crocins and crocetin
Pd 3-5 nm Jia et al.[44]
23 Glycyrrhiza Glabra L. Flavonoids,
terpenoids, thiamine Ag 20 nm Dinesh et al.
[45]
24 Hibiscus cannabinus L. Ascorbic acid Ag 9 nm Bindhu and Umadevi.[46]
25 Hydrilla verticilata
(L.f.) Royle Proteins Ag 65.55 nm Sable et al.
[47]
26 Jatropha curcas L.
Curcacycline A (an
octapeptide),
Curcacycline B
(a nonapeptide)
Curcain (anenzyme)
ZnS
Pb
10nm
10-12.5 nm
Hudlikar et al.[48]
Joglekar et al.[49]
27 Justicia gendarussa L. Polyphenol and
flavonoid Au 27 nm Fazaludeena et al.
[50]
28 Lantana camara L.
Carbohydrates,
glycosides and
flavonoids
Ag 2.55 Sivakumar et al.[51]
29 Leonuri herba L.
Polyphenols and
hydroxyl
groups
Ag
Ag 9.9 to
13.0 nm A-Rang Im et al.
[52]
31 Mentha piperita L. Menthol Ag, Au 90nm,
150nm Ali et al.
[53]
32 Mirabilis jalapa L. polypols Au 100 nm Vankar and Bajpai.
[54]
33 Morinda pubescens L. Hydroxyflavones,
catechins Ag 25-50nm
Mary and
Inbathamizh.[55]
34 Ocimum sanctum L.
Phenolic and flavanoid
compounds. Proteins
Ascorbic acid, gallic
acid, terpenoids
Ag
Ag
Pt
10 nm
4–30nm
23 nm
Ahmad et al.[56]
Ramteke et al.[57]
Soundarrajan et al.[58]
35 Parthenium
hysterophorus L.
Hydroxyflavones and
catechins Ag 10 nm Ashok Kumar.
[59]
36 Pedilanthus
tithymaloides (L) Poit. Proteins and enzymes Ag 15- 30 nm
Sundarayadivelan et
al.[60]
37 Piper betle L. Proteins Ag 3-37 nm Mallikarjuna et al.[61]
38 Piper nigrum L Proteins Ag 5-50 nm Garg.[62]
39 Plumeria rubra L. Proteins Ag 32-220 nm Patil et al.[63]
40 Sesuvium
portulacastrum L
Proteins, flavones and
terpenoids Ag 5- 20 nm Nabikhan et al.
[64]
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41 Solanum xanthocarpum
L.
Phenolics, alkaloids
and sugars Ag 10 nm Amin et al.
[65]
42 Sorghum Moench. polyphenols Ag, Fe 10 nm Njagi et al.[66]
43 Soybean (Glycine Max)
L.
Proteins and amino
acids Pd 15 nm Petla et al.
[67]
44 44 Swietenia mahogany
(L) Jacq.
Polyhydroxy
limonoids
Ag, Au and
bimetallic
alloy Au-Ag
- Mondala et al.[68]
45 Syzygium aromaticum
(L)Merr & Perr. Flavonoids Au 5-100 nm Deshpande et al.
[69]
46 Terminalia catappa L. Hydrolysable tannins Au 10-25 nm Ankamwar.[70]
47 Trianthema decandra
L. Ag 10-50nm
Hydroxyflavones and
catechins Ag 10-50 nm
Geethalakshmi and
Sarada.[71]
48 Tridax procumbens L. Water-soluble
carbohydrates Cuo2 - Gopalakrishnan et al.
[72]
49 Vitus vinifera L. Flavone and
anthocyanins Pb 661 nm Pavani et al.
[73]
50 Zingiber officinale
Rosc. alkanoids, flavonoids Au 10 nm Singh et al.
[74]
In recent years biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles, such as silver nanoparticles using Allium
plant extracts as nano-factories becomes an important subject of researches in the field of bio-
nanotechnology.[23, 24]
Various other reports also showed the use of plants extract such as
Datura[38]
, Hibiscus cannabinus L[46]
, Ocimum sanctum L.[56-58]
, Piper sps[61,62]
, Solanum
xanthocarpum [65]
for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. The plant extract used for the
fabrication of Gold nano particles[54,69-70]
, Copper nanoparticles[72]
, Lead nanoparticles[48,49,73]
,
Iron nanoparticles[66]
were also been reported.
A large number of plants reported to facilitate metal nanoparticles synthesis and based on all
a forementioned information, a tabulated report for plant-mediated fabrication of metal
nanoparticles and is illustrated in Table 1. The different parts of plant such as stem, root,
fruit, seed, callus, peel, leaves and flower are used to synthesis of metallic nanoparticles in
various shapes and sizes by biological approaches.
Generally, the bio-reduction mechanism of metal nanoparticle in plants and plant extracts
includes three main phases.[75]
The activation phase in which the reduction of metal ions and
nucleation of the reduced metal atoms occur. The growth phase, referring to the spontaneous
coalescence of the small adjacent nanoparticles into particles of a larger size, accompanied by
an increase in the thermodynamic stability of nanoparticles, or a process referred to as
Ostwald ripening and the termination phase in which the final shape of the nanoparticles
formed.
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ADVANTAGES OF PLANT -MEDIATED SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES
Due to their easy availability, green preparation of nanoparticles using plant extracts turns out
to be an important research subject in the field of bio-nanotechnology in this era. Principally,
the biogenic synthesis employs plant extracts in aqueous form in the fabrication of noble
nanoparticles for the reason that the availability of reducing agent is higher in the extract than
the whole plant.[76]
Besides, plant-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles is simpler and easier to
be conducted without requiring any specific operating conditions as compared to typical
physical and chemical methods. The synthesized products of the process including waste
products are resulted from natural plant extracts and hence this technique is also more
environmental green. Nevertheless, both strong and weak chemical reducing agents and
capping agents such as sodium citrate, sodium borohydride and alcohols, which are mostly
toxic, flammable, and cannot be degraded easily, are required in the physical and chemical
methods.[77]
Through this bio-based protocol of nanoparticles synthesis, higher
reproducibility of the process and higher stability of the synthesized nanoparticles can be
attained. Therefore, this green-based fabrication of nanoparticles is suitable for large scale
production with more effective cost investment, eco-friendly and safe for human therapeutic
use. Apart from the aspects of reproducibility and stability, the rate of bio-reduction of metal
ions using biological agents is showed to be much faster and also at ambient temperature and
pressure conditions.[78]
On the contrary, previous studies reported that the bio-reduction
potential of the plant extracts is comparatively higher than the microbial culture.[79]
Moreover, the waste products resulted from the microbial-based method is likely to be more
harmful to the environment depending on the type of microbes involved in the synthesis.[80]
Hence, plant-mediated synthesis brings less or almost zero contamination and so reducing the
impact on the environment. With all the aforementioned advantages and outstanding features
over other methods, the biosynthetic method employing plant extracts has now turned as a
simple, effective and viable technique as well as a good alternative to conventional chemical
and physical nanoparticle preparation methods, and even microbial methods.[76]
CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOPARTICLE
The nanoparticles present a range of characterization challenges that affect the detailed and
appropriate characterization of nanoparticles. Thus understanding the problems faced during
characterization of nanoparticles and selecting a suitable characterization technique are of
utmost importance. Specifically, nanoparticle characterization is performed to assess the
surface area and porosity, pore size, solubility, particle size distribution, aggregation,
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hydrated surface analysis, zeta potential, wettability, adsorption potential and shape, size of
the interactive surface, crystallinity, fractal dimensions, orientation and the intercalation and
dispersion of nanoparticles and nanotubes in nanocomposite materials.[81]
Several techniques
can be used to determine nanoparticle parameters, including ultraviolet-(UV-) visible
spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM),
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD),
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy(FT-IR), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization
time-of-flight mass spectrometry(MALDI-TOF), dual polarization interferometry, nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR), nanoparticle tracking analysis(NTA)for evaluation of Brownian
motion, and particles is analysis.[82,83,84]
1. Nanoparticle Formation Analysis. UV-visible spectroscopy is used to confirm the
formation of various types of nanoparticles by measuring Plasmonresonance and evaluating
the collective oscillations of conduction band electrons in response to electromagnetic
waves.[81]
This provides information about the size, structure, stability and aggregation of the
nanoparticles.[85]
Metal nanoparticles are associated with specific absorbance bands in
characteristics spectra when the incident light enters in to resonance with the conduction band
electrons on the surface of the nanoparticle. For example, silver nanoparticles produce a
specific absorbance peak between 400 and 450nm, while gold nanoparticles have an
absorbance peak between 500 and 550nm, due to the excitation mode of the surface
plasmons, which vary depending on the size of the nanoparticle.[86, 87, 88]
2. Nanoparticle Extraction Analysis
The extraction of nanoparticles is undertaken by a critical analytical process of Cloud point
extraction. Apart from the matrix effects in the environmental samples, the low
concentrations of nanoparticles require enrichment procedure prior to its analytical
determination that can be obtained by adding a surfactant to the sample at a concentration
that exceeds the critical concentration. At higher temperature than the specific cloud point,
the surfactants form micelles in which the nonpolar substances are encapsulated since their
densities are higher than water; thus they settled down at the bottom of the solution and then
a noparticles are extracted by further centrifugation procedure.[89,90]
3. Morphology and Particle Size Determination
Morphology and particle size distribution are the most important parameters for
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characterizing nanoparticles. These factors can be measured by microscopic techniques such
as TEM, SEM and AFM.[91]
Most nanoparticle applications or associated factors such as drug
targeting and release, tissue targeting, toxicity and biological fate, or in vivo distribution are
linked to the size and size distribution of nanoparticles. Various studies have shown that
microparticles are less effective for drug delivery than nanoparticles owing to their larger
size.[91,92,93]
Nanoparticles are more effective since they provide large surface areas for drug
interaction due to their small size.[92]
However, in some cases, aggregationcan occur with
small particle size. Therefore, nanoparticles with are relatively large size are thought to
promote rapid drug release and more effective polymer degradation.[91, 93]
3.1 TEM
TEM is one of the most commonly used methods for determination of the shape, size and
morphology of nanoparticles.[94, 95]
However, sample preparation for TEM is very complex
and time-consuming because the samples must be ultrathin for electron transmittance. Thus,
thin films containing the samples are prepared on carbon-coated copper grids by dropping a
very small amount of the sample in solution onto the grid and then removing the extra
solution with blotting paper. To withstand the vacuum pressure of the microscope and
facilitate proper handling, the nanoparticles are fixed using a negative staining solution
(phosphotungstic acid) or derivatives (e.g., uranyl acetate), after which they are embedded in
plastic or exposed to liquid nitrogen after embedding in vitreous ice.[91]
The particles are
subsequently allowed to dry under a mercury lamp and then are exposed to a monochromatic
beam of electrons that penetrates the sample and is projected on to a viewing screen to
generate an image.[96-99]
Using TEM, small particles (10−10 m in size, which is near the
atomic level) can be viewed and the crystallographic structure of a sample can be image data
on atomic scale.[91]
Arrangement of the atoms and their local microstructures such as lattice
fringe, glide plane, lattice vacancies and defects, screw axes and the surface atomic
arrangement of crystalline nanoparticles can be analyzed using high-resolution transmission
electron microscopy (HRTEM).[100]
3.2. SEM
SEM is another technique used to characterize the morphology of nanoparticles through
direct visualization. This method is based on electron microscopy and offers several
advantages for morphological and size analysis; however, it is also associated with several
disadvantages, such as the ability to provide only limited information about the size
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distribution and true population average.[91]
The instrument has features that include an
electron gun, condenser lenses, and a vacuum system. SEM produces three types of principal
images: external X-ray maps, backscattered electron images and secondary electron
images.[84]
For SEM analysis, the nanoparticle solution is dried into a powder, mounted on a
sample holder and coated with a conductive metal such as gold, gold/palladium alloy,
platinum, osmium, iridium, tungsten, chromium, or graphite using a sputter coated.[101]
Next,
a beam of high-energy electrons is directed to the sample to generate a variety of signals on
the surface of the specimens.[102]
The signals received from the sample exposed to electron
beams are recorded by a detector that reveals information about the samples, including their
texture (external morphology), crystalline structure, and chemical composition and
orientation of the materials in the sample.[87,88]
For a successful analysis, the nanoparticles
should be able to withstand vacuum pressure and the adverse effects of the electron beam,
which can damage nanopolymers.[91]
In most cases, data for a selected area of the surface of
the nanomaterialarecollectedandatwo-dimensionalimagewith spatial variations is displayed
(Figure5).[103, 104]
Despite these advantages, this technique is time consuming and costly and
often requires complementary information about the size distribution.
3.3. AFM
AFM is used to study the morphology of nanoparticles and biomolecules. Unlike SEM and
TEM, AFM produces three-dimensional images so that particle volume and height can be
evaluated.[105,106]
This method is capable of ultra-high resolution for particle size
measurement and is based on physical scanning of the samples at the submicron level using a
probe tip.[107]
Using AFM, quantitative information regarding individual nanoparticles and
groups of particles such as size (length, width and height), morphology and surface texture
can be evaluated with the help of software based image processing.[94]
AFM can be performed
in either liquid or gas medium. For this method, a small volume of the nanoparticles is spread
on a glass coverslip mounted on the AFM standard dried with nitrogen gas at room
temperature. About six to ten images are then taken for a single sample to enable better
interpretation of the data. The instrument generates a topographical map of the sample based
on the forces between the tip and the surface of the sample, which is scanned in contact
mode. The probe hovers over the conducting surface when in noncontact mode, depending on
the sample-specific properties.[94]
The main advantage of AFM is its ability to image non
conducting samples without any specific treatment and the ability to image delicate biological
or polymeric micro-and nanostructures.[108]
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3.4. DLS
DLS, otherwise known as photon-correlation spectroscopy, is one of the fastest and most
popular methods for determining particle size distribution. DLS is widely used to measure the
size of Brownian nanoparticles in colloidal suspensions.[94, 109]
When a monochromatic beam
of light (laser) is directed onto a solution of spherical particles in Brownian motion, a
Doppler shift occurs when the light hits the moving particles, there by changing the
wavelength of the incoming beam of light by a value related to particle size. Accordingly,
DLS enables computation of size distribution and nanoparticle motion in the medium can be
computed by measuring the diffusion coefficient of the particle.[97]
3.5. Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis
The nanoparticle tracking analysis is an improved system that is used to categorize different
types of nanoparticles on the basis of their size ranging between 30 and 1000nm with the
lower detection limit depending on its refractive index. With the help of this technique, the
liquid nanoparticle suspension can be visualized directly and it has application in
drugdelivery encapsulated nanoparticles for controlled release or precise delivery of the drug
to the specific targeted areas.[110]
4. Surface Charge Analysis
Another important parameter for characterizing nanoparticles is surface charge. The nature
and intensity of the surface charge are very important since these factors determine the
interaction of the nanoparticle with the biological environment and the electrostatic
interactions with the bioactive compounds from plants, algae, fungi and bacteria.
5. XPS
XPS is used to study the mechanism of reaction that occurs on the surface of magnetic
nanoparticles, assess the bonding characteristics of the different elements involved and
confirm the structure and different elements present in the magnetic nanoparticles.[111]
6. FT-IR Spectroscopy
FT-IR spectroscopy is conducted to identify the functional groups present on nanoparticles.
Using FT-IR analysis, the infrared emission spectrum, absorption, photoconductivity, or
Raman scattering of a solid, liquid, or gas can be evaluated. The spectrum represents a
fingerprint of the nanoparticles consisting of absorption peaks that correspond to the
frequencies of vibrations between the bonds of atoms in the nanoparticle. Since each type of
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nanoparticle contains a unique combination of atoms; we can identify functional groups
present inside the nanoparticles based on the FT-IR spectra.[111]
This can help facilitate
nanoparticle synthesis using green technology. The number of functional groups present in
the nanomaterial can be determined by the size of the peaks of the spectrum.[111]
The
transmission spectra for the nanoparticles are obtained by the formation of thin, transparent
potassium bromide (KBr) pellets containing the compound of interest. The KBr mixtures are
placed in a vacuum line overnight prior to pellet formation, and the pellets are again placed in
the vacuum line before use. The transmission spectra are obtained after purging in dry air and
background corrected relative to a reference blank sample (KBr).[84]
With the application of
modern software tools, quantitative analysis of the nanoparticles can be completed within a
few seconds.[96,104]
7. Zetasizer Nanomachine
The stability and surface charge of colloidal nanoparticles are evaluated indirectly by
performing zeta potential analysis using a Zetasizer nanomachine. Zeta potential analysis
corresponds to the potential difference between the outer Helmholtz plane and the surface of
shear. Measurement of the zeta potential predicts the storage stability of the colloidal
dispersion. Either high positive or negative zeta potential values should be achieved to ensure
stability and avoid particle aggregation. Additionally, the extent of surface hydrophobicity
can be predicted. The nature of the materials encapsulated inside the nanoparticle or coated
on the particle surface is also analyzed based on zeta potential.[112]
8. TGA
TGA is used to confirm the composition of coatings such as surfactants or polymers to
estimate the binding efficiency on the surface of magnetic nanoparticles.[111]
9. Crystallinity Analysis
XRD is used to assess the crystallinity of synthesized nanoparticles.[6]
This technique is
employed to identify and quantitatively examine various crystalline forms or the elemental
composition of natural and manufactured materials or nanoparticles.[113]
To accomplish this,
the structure and lattice parameters of the diffracted powder specimen are analyzed by
measuring the angle of diffraction, when X-ray beam are made to incident on them. Particle
size is also determined based on the width of the X-ray peaks using the Scherrer formula.[84]
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10. Surface Hydrophobicity Assessment
Surface hydrophobicity of the nanoparticles can be measured using several analytical
techniques, including biphasic partitioning, probe adsorption, hydrophobic interaction
chromatography and contact angle measurements. X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy has
recently been used to identify specific chemical groups on the surface of nanoparticles.[114]
11. Analysis of Nanoparticle Magnetic Properties
Many techniques are available to investigate the properties of magnetic nanoparticles
including vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) and superconducting quantum interference
device (SQUID) magnetometry.[111]
However, neither of these techniques is element-specific,
and they can only measure general magnetization. SQUID magnetometry is routinely used to
assess the properties of magnetic nanoparticles. To accomplish this, nanoparticles are cooled
with or without an applied magnetic field and then warmed in the presence of a magnetic
field.[111]
Magnetization is monitored as af unction of temperature. VSM is conducted to
evaluate the magnetization of magnetic nanoparticles as a function of an applied external
magnetic field (𝐻), generally between −3 and 3Tesla. Based on the VSM curve obtained at
low and room temperature, the magnetic behavior of the nanoparticles can be observed. VSM
is a good technique for estimating the effects of a shell on saturation magnetization.[111]
APPLICATION OF NANO PARTICLES
An enormous amount of researches are still going on various universities, colleges and
laboratories around the world due to its numerous applications. Some of the applications are
detailed below (Figure 3).
WASTE WATER EFFLUENT TREATMENT
An application of Nano technology in the field of effluent treatment is still under exploited.
Nano catalyst such as TiO2, ZnO, MgO, CuO, etc involved in the photo catalytic reaction,
carried out in the presence of light. The researchers[115]
prefer Nano particles in Effluent
treatment, because the surface area to volume ratio is higher in Nano particles which absorbs
more energy from light thus produces more hydroxyl radical which oxidize the organic
pollutants[116]
done a research on dye removal using clay supported iron Nano particles. Iron
Nano particles were synthesis from green tea by green synthesis method using ferric chloride
as a precursor. They considered the following operating variables such as initial dye
concentration, pH and dosage level. The results were concluded that increasing the dosage
level of clay supported nano particles and decreasing the pH leads to increase the rate of dye
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removal. Experimental results were illustrated that increasing the pH increases the rate of
removal at pH 9 maximum efficiency achieved afterwards increasing pH leads to decreasing
the removal efficiency and the optimum irradiation time dosage level was 340 minute and
2g/l respectively. Liuand etal[117]
detailed about the role of Nano catalyst applications in
photo catalysis, activity of nanocatalyst and enhancement of activity of Nano catalyst by
coupling, doping, capping and sensitizing. Silver nanoparticles composite by bio reduction
process using ocimum tenuiflorum (Black Tulsi) as a capping and reducing agents. Nano
composite was made with the help of sand for treating the textile dye turquoise blue.[118]
Characterization was made by TEM, SEM and FTIR, the efficiency depends on increasing
the temperature increases the rate of dye adsorption due to high mobility accompanied by
reduction of retarding force acting on the dye. Similar work was done by[119]
to treat acid
green and blue FFS acid dye via chemically synthesized silver Nano particles, reaction was
carried out in the presence of visible light.
FOOD PACKAGING
Nano technology in food packaging sectors was accepted now days due to its tangible
benefits. Currently, widely used food packaging material made of plastic likes poly ethylene,
poly propylene, poly vinyl alcohol, etc which are harmful and non bio degradable. Several
studies going on to develop the bio polymer because it possesses eco friendly properties but
barrier properties are low compare than plastic. It could be done by adding filler matrix, made
of Nano particles provides better interactions.[120]
Other development in Nano technology in
food packaging is carbon Nano tubes which are cylinder structure with Nano scale diameter.
It improves the mechanical properties.[121]
Nano sensors are sensor being added to the
packaging material to detect the gases rise off from the food when its spoiled as well as it
prevent the permeation and transpiration of gases. For example the packaging materials with
silica Nano particles prevent oxygen penetration inside the package at the same time stop the
moisture loss from the product.[122]
Another important application is tracking of food by Nano
technology is unexploited. In tracking system, Nano sensors are embedded in food as a tiny
size chips which produces electrical signal based on this fresh food is tracked from paddock
to factory to retail stores. Food wrapped with smart safety packaging also detects the
microbial spoilage.
FOOD PROCESSING
Potential impact of Nano technology in food processing is an emerging topic in the area of
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smart delivering of nutrients, bio separation of proteins and Nano encapsulation of
nutraceuticals. As the fundamental components of food materials are vitamins, antimicrobial
agents, antioxidant and food additives such as colorants, flavorants, preservatives, etc. These
components are compatible with food attributes like color, taste, texture and shelf life.
Protection of these could be done by Nano encapsulation, Nano emulsion, etc.[123]
done a
research on encapsulation of fish oil by spray drying technique using maltodextrin combined
with modified starch Hi-Cap and whey protein concentrate (WPC) as a encapsulation agents.
Emulsion was prepared by three methods silver sons, micro fluidizer and ultrasound; they
analyzed various parameters such as emulsion size, powder size, and powder moisture and
encapsulation efficiency for each emulsion method. Results demonstrated that micro
fludization method produced very small size than other emulsification methods as well as
another result was found that Hi-cap sample have higher the emulsion size compared with
WPC due to WPC possessed the both hydrophobic and hydrophilic sites which lead to strong
emulsion capabilities. Another study demonstrated that Nano encapsulated designer
probiotics bacterial cells in yoghurt improve the sustained release and immune enhancing
effects in the gastro-intestinal system. Some food processing operation utilizes the enzyme to
alter the characteristics of any components, Immobilization of these enzymes on the Nano
catalyst is an aid to disperse throughout the food medium and enhance its activity.
Triacylglycerol lipase enzyme was covalently bonded on the Nano silicon dioxide particles
which interesterified the olive oil with good stability, adaptability, consistency and
reusability.[124]
MEDICINE
Nano science and technology are currently have been developed in the field of medicine for
detecting the disease such as cancer, atherosclerosis at early stages and targeted drug delivery
for a cell or tissue of choice. Two important aspects of Nano technology in drug delivery
system are time of drug release and specific targeting of diseased cell which improve the drug
availability. Atherosclerosis associated with two targeted components fibrin and tissue factor,
can be detected by MRI using paramagnetic Nano particles targeted to the components,
alternate lipid bi layers with an aqueous fluid and produce an ultrasound signal based on the
signal, stage of the disease was found.[125]
Nano robotics employed in the field of Nano
dentistry for treating Dentin hyper sensitivity.[126]
Dentin hyper sensitivity is a common
condition of transient tooth pain due to tooth bleaching, tooth pathology and loss of
cementum on root surfaces. It could be prevented by Nano robots which could precisely
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occlude the specific sites on the teeth quickly and permanent within minutes. An occurrence
of musculoskeletal disorders owing to aging population and other injuries, current treatment
involves use of orthopedic implants for fixing the internal fractured bones. Nano sized
organic and mineral phases can be an effective and new bone material for implantation
because it has greater bone adhesion, durability and flexibility. Large surface to volume ratio
which increases the bone cell interactions thus improves the orthopedic implant efficacy and
minimize the patient compliance.[127]
GENE DELIVERY
Gene delivery it is a technique that plays a vital role that can efficiently introduce a gene of
interest in order to express its encoded protein in a suitable host or host cell. Now a day, there
are different types of primary gene delivery systems that mainly employ viral vectors like
retroviruses and adenoviruses, nucleic acid electroporation, and nucleic acid transfection.[128]
CANCER TREATMENT
There are a variety of nanoparticle systems currently under investigation to be applied in
biomedical with the emphasis on cancer therapeutics. There are a variety of nanoparticle
systems currently investigated and explored for biomedical applications with some particular
emphasis for cancer therapeutics; hence some precious metals (mainly gold and silver
systems, Au and Ag) and some magnetic oxides (in particular magnetite Fe3O4) received
much interest including quantum dots and some of what is called natural nanoparticles. The
unique up conversion process of UCNPs may be utilized to activate photosensitive
therapeutic agents for applications in cancer treatment.[129]
ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY
Metal Nano particles had anti microbial activity, The bactericidal effect of metal Nano
particles attributed owing to their small size as well as high surface to volume ratio, which
allows them to interact closely with microbial membranes thus facilitates quick penetration of
metal Nano particles in to the cell and exclude the internal components of cell thus inactivate
the micro organism.[130]
made comparative study on antimicrobial effects of silver and copper
oxide Nano particles for the various strains E.coli, B. subtilis and S. aureus species. Disk
diffusion test was carried out to find the minimum inhibitory effect. Test results demonstrated
that for E.coli, S. aureus inhibition silver Nano particle was superior where as copper oxide
nano particle had better action against B. subtilis. Silver Nano particles synthesized from the
fungus Pestalotia had an anti bactericidal effect against human pathogen S. aureus and S.
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typhi which shown that silver Nano particles were a powerful potent antibacterial agents
against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is a backbone of some of the countries like India and China, the majority of
national income from agricultural sector. But now a days this sector faced lots of challenges
due to climatic change, environmental issue like pesticide and fertilizer accumulation and
urbanization. Nano technology revolutionizes the agriculture field in the part of absorbing
nutrient, disease detection, disease control and smart delivery system.[131]
In future nano
catalyst will available in the pesticide and fertilizer to increase its efficiency at lower dosage
level which protects the environment from high dose pesticides. There are applications of
silver nano particle (Ag NP), zinc oxide nano particle (ZnO NP) and titanium oxide nano
particle (TiO NP) for the control of grasserie disease in silk worm caused by the virus B.mori
nuclear poly hedrosis virus and rice weevil in rice.
TEXTILE
The use of nano technology in textile industry is attracting due to its distinctive and
significance properties.[132]
Some of the properties are water repellence, wrinkle resistance,
anti bacterial, anti static and UV protection. Water repellence is imparted to the cotton
material simply by coating of a nano plasma over on it.[133]
Conventionally wrinkle resistance
done by resins but it leads to decrease in dye ability, tensile strength of fibre and abrasion
resistance, could be prevented by titanium nano catalyst and silica nano catalyst for cotton
and silk respectively.[134]
Fig. 3 Application of metallic nanoparticles in various fields
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CONCLUSION
Biological synthesis of nanoparticles has upsurge in the field of nano-biotechnology to create
novel materials that are ecofriendly, cost effective, stable nanoparticles with a great
importance for wider applications in the areas of electronics, medicine and agriculture.
During the current scenario nanotechnology motivates progress in all sphere of life, hence
biosynthetic route of nanoparticles synthesis will emerge as safer and best alternative to
conventional methods. Though various biological entities have been exploited for the
production of nanoparticles, the use of plants for the facile robust synthesis of nanoparticles
is a tremendous. Thus the present review envisions the importance of plant mediated
nanoparticles productions by conferring the various literatures reported by far. With the huge
plant diversity much more plant species are in way to be exploited and reported in future era
towards rapid and single step protocol with green principle.
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