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DECONSTRUCTING THE CONSTRUCTS: SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND MUSIC
MARA E. CULP, MMEVisiting Assistant Professor of General Music Education, Ithaca College, Ithaca, New York, United StatesPh.D. Candidate, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States
Handout
ELAINE BERNSTORF, PHD, CCC-SLPProfessor, Music Education and Special Music EducationWichita State University, Wichita, Kansas, United StatesHonors Faculty Fellow, Administrator for Kodaly Programs
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BACKGROUND
• Human activities
• Pitch, rhythm, duration, timbre, dynamics, tempo, and form
• Express ideas, convey emotions, and/or arouse feelings
• Disorders
• Speech impairment: Articulation errors (inaccurate speech sounds)
• Language impairment: Aphasia (loss of language ability)
• Musical impairment: Amusia (loss of musical ability)
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RELEVANCE
• Speech, language, and music exist as different constructs • Features and functions in modern society characterize each
• Yet, overlap could lead to simultaneous and natural improvement in another• e.g., singing activities in general music enhancing phonological awareness (Degé &
Schwarzer, 2011)• Disabilities could negatively impact a student’s development in multiple areas (Baker
& McLeod, 2011; Call, 1980) and participation in music classrooms• Music teachers should seek to help students improve in all three areas (music,
speech, language) when possible• Understanding can promote natural and concurrent growth across domains
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AIMS
The purposes of this presentation are to:
• discuss the distinct features of and similarities between the constructs of speech,
language, and music; and
• provide suggestions to allow music teaching praxis to naturally support simultaneous
growth and development in each domain
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MUSIC IS A UNIVERSAL LANGUAGEYES? NO? UNSURE?WHY OR WHY NOT?
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“UNIVERSAL”BI-LINGUALBI-MUSICAL
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MUSIC AS LANGUAGE: FOOD FOR THOUGHT
Firstly it would be foolish to claim that music is simply another natural language. There are many fundamental differences which cannot be overlooked, the most obvious being that we use language to make assertions or ask questions about the real world and the objects and relationships in it. If music has any subject matter at all, then it is certainly not the same as that of normal language.
Sloboda, 1985, p. 12
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MUSIC IS A UNIVERSAL
ALTHOUGH EVERY PERSON DOES NOT SPEAK THE SAME LANGUAGE OR DERIVETHE SAME MEANING FROM THE SAME MUSICS, MUSIC IN SOME FORM EXISTS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD AS A HUMAN EXPERIENCE
HUMAN EXPERIENCE
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MUSIC IS A HUMAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM“A KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM IS A MODE OF SHARING, EXPRESSING, UNDERSTANDING, AND KNOWING INFORMATION ABOUT OUR INNER AND OUTER WORLDS AND FOR UNDERSTANDING RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN AND BETWEEN THE TWO” (HODGES & SEBALD, 2011, P. 25)
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DECONSTRUCTING THE CONSTRUCTS© Culp & Bernstorf, 2016
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SPEECHDefinition: “The communication or expression of thoughts in spoken words,
that is, in oral, verbal communication” (Bauman-Wängler, 2012, p. 419)Features: Time, frequency, timbre, intensity Function: To create sounds orallyRelationship to Language: Speech helps express language, but can be
produced without an understanding of the language (e.g., autism) Relationship to Music: Speech and music share features (e.g., time/rhythm,
frequency/pitch, timbre, intensity/dynamics); and both can be produced (re-produced) without understanding
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LANGUAGEDefinition:“A complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that is used in
various modes for thought and communication” (Bauman-Wängler, 2012, p. 414, emphasis added)
Features: Phonemic Awareness, Phonological Awareness, Semantics (meaning), Syntax (grammar), Fluency, Orthographic awareness (speech coding into symbols)
Function:Thought and communicationRelationship to Speech: Languagecan be used without oral or aural elements
(i.e., sign or written language), but oral/aural elements can be used to express or receive language
Relationship to Music: Language is not dependent on aural features, whereas music seldom exists without a basis in and experience of aural elements, which are akin to those found in language (Phonological (contour/phrase) phonemic (individual sounds or articulation); semantics (patterns); syntactic (form-repetition/contrast); fluency (delivery) orthographic (notational understanding, i. e. scale) elements
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MUSICDefinition: Sound organized over time. Sounds arranged “in time so as to produce a continuous,
unified, and evocative composition” (Farlex, Inc., 2016). Our brains organize the aural attributes (Levitin, 2006, p. 14), by which sounds (vibrations) are interpreted as music.
Features: Global Elements (timbre, time, pitch, dynamics); Form (repetition, contrast); Sections; Contours; Phrases; Patterns (motifs/words); Discrete utterances (Individual sounds, rhythm values/pitches); Articulation
Function: To express, experience, and/or understand thoughts or meaning from organized soundsRelationship to Speech: Music and speech share features (e.g., time/rhythm, frequency/pitch,
timbre, intensity/dynamics); and both can be produced (re-produced) without understanding.Relationship to Language: Music seldom exists without a basis in and experience of aural
elements, which are akin to those found in language (Phonological (contour/phrase) phonemic (individual sounds or articulation); semantics (patterns); syntactic (form-repetition/contrast); fluency (delivery) orthographic (notational understanding, i.e., scale) elements, whereas language is not dependent on aural features
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COMPARING AND
CONTRASTING
Speech:Organization of linguistic code
Music:Sounds
organized over time
Language: Thought and purposeful
communication
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Speech
Music
Language
Oral creation of linguistic code
Thought and purposeful communication
Phonologic, semantic, orthographic syntactic, fluency, elements
Time, frequency, timbre, intensity
Agreed upon coded meaning
Sounds organized over time
Express (share) &
receive (know)inner & outer
world
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NEUROLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: DEVELOPMENT
• Auditory Cortex• Develops in utero and fetuses can respond to musical and speech sounds (Bauman- Wängler, 2012;
Hodges & Sebald, 2011)
• Recalling Sounds• Fetuses can register musical and speech sounds that will affect behavior after birth (Bauman- Wängler,
2012; Hodges & Sebald, 2011)
• Neural Pruning – Discriminating Sounds• The infant brain has more synaptic connections in the auditory cortex than it will as an adult• Synaptic connections for music processing may disappear altogether if the sounds associated with those
neural pathways are never heard again (Hodges & Sebald, 2011)
• Infants up to 8 months discriminate between two similar nonnative phonemes • By 10-12 months, the ability disappears (Bauman-Wängler, 2012)
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NEUROLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: NEURAL NETWORKS
• Shared and distinctive neural networks (Brown, Martinez, & Parsons, 2006)
• Some of the same areas in the auditory and motor cortices;
• Distinct, domain-specific areas to process syntactic elements
• Children with deficits processing linguistic syntax also had deficits processing
musical syntax (Jentschke, Koelsch, Sallat, & Friederici, 2008)
• Music casts a wide neural net, recruiting areas of the brain for different
musical tasks (Alluri et al., 2012)
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NEUROLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: COLLATERAL BENEFITS
• Neural plasticity (Hodges & Sebald, 2011)• Neural recruitment (Alluri et al., 2012)
• aphasia (Gfellar, 2012; Polovoy, 2014) • autism (Lim, 2012)
• Musical training and participation• lexical stress (Kolinsky, Cuvelier, Goetry, Peretz, & Morais, 2009) • speech perception (Moreno et al., 2009)
• speech-in-noise perception (Slater, Skoe, Strait, O’Connell, Thompson, & Kraus, 2015)• word learning (Cooper & Wang, 2012) • second language acquisition (Yang, Ma, Gong, Hu, & Yao, 2014)• phonological awareness (Degé & Schwarzer, 2011; Moritz, Yampolsky, Papadelis, Thomson, & Wolf, 2013)• muscle tension dysphonia (Goffi-Fynn & Carroll, 2013) • speech sounds (El Mogharbel et al., 2006)
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CONSIDER OUR PROFESSIONAL CONSTRUCTS AND APPROACHES:
1) Focused toward Speech (specifics of performance such as articulation/diction);
2) Focused toward Language (patterns of meaning such as the style/genre/emotion);
3) Focused on Music (basic elements of music).If MUSIC is our goal, we must always look for the “universal”
elements and then extend from those first –Global music elements: Timbre, Time, Pitch, Dynamics
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WAYS TO USE MUSIC TO IMPROVE SPEECH AND LANGUAGE-RELATED PROCESSES
SPEECH
• Animal, environmental, or nonsense sounds
• Student name• Rhythm
LANGUAGE
• Continuation (fill in the blank)
• Songs/Singing• Pictures (and
picturable) words with students
(Culp & Roberts, 2015)
BOTH
• As a reward• Movement (gesture)• Student interest• Games• Instruments
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CONCLUSIONS
• Similarities among the constructs can create blurred lines that can serve for arguments that posit the three constructs are one and the same (e.g., music islanguage).
• However, differences in the function, organization, expression, and reception of each help define three unique human constructs.
• Growth in each domain can be realized concurrently through well-planned activities that capitalize on similarities and differences among the constructs.
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THANK YOU FOR COMINGQUESTIONS
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REFERENCES• Alluri, V., Toiviainen, P., Jääskeläinen, I. P., Glerean, E., Sams, M., & Brattico, E. (2012). Large-scale brain networks emerge from dynamic processing of musical timbre, key and rhythm. Neuroimage, 59(4), 3677-3689.
doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.019• Baker, E., & McLeod, S. (2011). Evidence-based practice for children with speech sound disorders: Part 1: Narrative review. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 42(2), 102-139.• Bauman-Wängler, J. (2012). Articulatory and phonological impairments: A clinical focus (4th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.• Brown, S., Martinez, M. J., & Parsons, L. M. (2006). Music and language side by side in the brain: A PET study of the generation of melodies and sentences. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 23(10), 2791-2803.
doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04785.x• Call, J. D. (1980). Some prelinguistic aspects of language development. Journal of American Psychoanalysis Association, 28, 259-289. doi:10.1177/000306518002800201• Cooper, A., & Wang, Y. (2012). The influence of linguistic and musical experience on Cantonese word learning. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 131(6), 4756-4769.• Culp, M. E., & Roberts, B. (2015, October 13). Collaborating with speech-language pathologists: 11 ways to use music to improve speech sounds. [Web log comment]. Retrieved from https://www.nafme.org/collaborating-
with-speech-language-pathologists/• Degé, F., & Schwarzer, G. (2011). The effect of a music program on phonological awareness in preschoolers. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 1-7. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00124• El Mogharbel, C., Sommer, G., Deutsch, W., Wenglorz, M., & Laufs, I. (2006). The vocal development of a girl who sings but does not speak. Musicae Scientiae, 10(1 Suppl), 235-258.
doi:10.1177/102986490601000111• Farlex, Inc. (2016). Music. Retrieved from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/music• Gfellar, K. (2012). In harmony. The ASHA Leader, 17:online only-online only. doi:10.1044/leader.FTR6.17072012.np• Goffi-Fynn, J. C., & Carroll, L. M. (2013). Collaboration and conquest: MTD as viewed by voice teacher (singing voice specialist) and speech-language pathologist. Journal of Voice: Official Journal of the
Voice Foundation, 27(3), 391.e9-391. doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2012.12.009• Hodges, D., & Sebald, D. (2011). Music in the human experience: An introduction to music psychology. New York: Routledge.• Jentschke, S., Koelsch, S., Sallat, S., & Friederici, A. D. (2008). Children with specific language impairment also show impairment of music-syntactic processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(11), 1940-1951.
doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20135• Kolinsky, R., Cuvelier, H., Goetry, V., Peretz, I., & Morais, J. (2009). Music training facilitates lexical stress processing. Music Perception, 26(3), 235-246. doi:10.1525/MP.2009.26.3.235• Levitin, D. J. (2006). This is your brain on music: The science of a human obsession. New York: Dutton.• Lim, H. A. (2012). Developmental speech-language training through music for children with autism spectrum disorders: Theory and clinical application. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley.• Moreno, S., Marques, C., Santos, A., Santos, M., Castro, S. L., & Besson, M. (2009). Musical training influences linguistic abilities in 8-year-old children: More evidence for brain plasticity. Cerebral Cortex, 19(3), 712-723.
doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn120• Polovoy, C. (2014). From silence to a ‘din of interaction’: An SLP harnesses her musical passion to found a choir for people with aphasia. The ASHA Leader, 19(10), 20-21. doi:10.1044/leader.LML.19102014.20• Slater, J., Skoe, E., Strait, D. L., O’Connell, S., Thompson, E., & Kraus, N. (2015). Music training improves speech-in-noise perception: Longitudinal evidence from a community-based music program. Behavioural Brain Research,
291, 244-252. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.05.026• Sloboda, J. A. (1985). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music. Oxford: Clarendon Press.• Yang, H., Ma, W., Gong, D., Hu, J., & Yao, D. (2014). A longitudinal study on children's music training experience and academic development. Scientific Reports, 4(5854), 1-6. doi:10.1038/srep05854
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WORKS CONSULTED
• Dictionary.com, LLC. (2016). Universal. Retrieved from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/universal• Hood, M. (1960) The challenge of bi-musicality. Ethnomusicology, 4( 2), 55-59. Retrieved from
http://www.ethnomusic.ucla.edu/the-challenge-of-bi-musicality• Wong, P. C. M., Perrachione,T. K., & Margulis, E. H. (2009) Effects of asymmetric cultural experiences on the
auditory pathway evidence from music. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1169, 157–163. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04548.x.
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