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How The Earth Works
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The Solid Earth
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Earth Science• Geology– Solid Earth Much Larger than Other Parts– Many More Kinds of Materials– Preserves a History
• Meteorology – Climatology• Oceanography• Astronomy– Planetary Geology
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Earth Systems
• External Effects (Astronomical)• Atmospheric Circulation• Oceanic Circulation• Hydrologic Cycle • Rock Cycle• Plate Tectonics
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Earth Systems
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Earth Systems
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Earth Systems
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Earth Systems
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Earth Systems
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Earth Systems
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Earth Systems
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Earth Systems
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Convection
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Earth and the Universe• Rotation (Day-Night)• Lunar (Tides)• Annual (Seasons)• Precession and Orbit Variations (Ice Ages?)• Galactic? (250 m.y. period)• Unpredictable Events– Nearby Supernovae– Meteor Impacts
• Long-Term Evolution of Sun
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Atmospheric Circulation
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1905 Weather Map
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Rotation Effects
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Rotation Effects
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Rotation Effects
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Not a Manifestation of
the Coriolis Effect!
• Too small scale for the Coriolis Effect to be significant
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Early Map of Gulf Stream
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Surface Currents
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Thermohaline Circulation
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Hydrologic Cycle
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Water• Principal Agent in Modifying Earth’s Surface• Medium for Storing and Distributing Global
Heat• The Universal Solvent– Essential for Life– Destructive to Rocks
• Lowers Melting Point of Rocks• Reduces Strength of Rocks Under Pressure
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The Rock Cycle
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Plate Tectonics• Outer Crust of Earth Moves a Few cm/yr• Driven by Convection in Earth’s Interior• Accounts For:– Earthquakes– Volcanoes– Mountain-Building (Orogeny)
• Configuration of Continents
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Plate Tectonics
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Some Unique Aspects of Geology
Importance of Relationships• Sequential • Spatial Importance of TimeDistinctive Problems of Evidence• Slow Rates • Rare Events • Destruction of Evidence • Inaccessibility
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Some Geologic RatesCutting of Grand Canyon• 2 km/3 m.y. = 1 cm/15 yrUplift of Alps• 5 km/10 m.y. = 1 cm/20 yr.Opening of Atlantic• 5000 km/180 m.y. = 2.8 cm/yr.Uplift of White Mtns. (N.H.) Granites• 8 km/150 m.y. = 1 cm/190 yr.
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Some Geologic RatesMovement of San Andreas Fault• 5 cm/yr = 7 m/140 yr.Growth of Mt. St. Helens• 3 km/30,000 yr = 10 cm/yr.Deposition of Niagara Dolomite• 100 m/ 1 m.y.? = 1 cm/100 yr.
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Some Unique Aspects of Geology (Continued)
Reliance on Inference and DeductionIntrinsically "Unsolvable" Problems: Mostly
where Physical Evidence is Gone• Ancient Landscapes • Mass Extinctions • Ancient Ocean Basins
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Scientific Principles in Geology
• Parsimony (K.I.S.S.): No ad hoc explanations• Superposition: Young processes overprint
older ones• Uniformitarianism: Continuity of Cause and
Effect
Using these, plus observation, we establish facts about Earth Processes
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Superposition:Mindoro Cut,
Wisconsin
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Geologic Map