Introduction to Anthropology Introduction to Anthropology and Physical Anthropologyand Physical Anthropology

Anthropology 101 OnlineAnthropology 101 Online

What is Anthropology?What is Anthropology?

Derived from the Greek Derived from the Greek Anthropos Anthropos (“man” or (“man” or “human”) and“human”) and

LogosLogos (“logic of” or “science of”) (“logic of” or “science of”) What distinguishes anthropology from other What distinguishes anthropology from other

disciplines involving humankind (medicine, disciplines involving humankind (medicine, sociology, psychology) sociology, psychology)

The definition sums up the difference: the The definition sums up the difference: the comparativecomparative and and holistic holistic study of study of humankindhumankind

Anthropology is ComparativeAnthropology is Comparative It involves comparison: It involves comparison: between today’s cultures in the “ethnographic between today’s cultures in the “ethnographic

present,” whereby cultures are described as if present,” whereby cultures are described as if they still existed—like these !Kung Bushmen in they still existed—like these !Kung Bushmen in the 1950s (the job of ethnographers or cultural the 1950s (the job of ethnographers or cultural anthropologists)anthropologists)

Between cultures that existed through time Between cultures that existed through time unrecorded by history—the job of archaeologistsunrecorded by history—the job of archaeologists

Between related species of the hominid family Between related species of the hominid family and hominin subfamily—Like “Lucy” according to and hominin subfamily—Like “Lucy” according to this artist’s conception (the job of this artist’s conception (the job of paleoanthropologists)paleoanthropologists)

It asks the question: “Can what we learn from It asks the question: “Can what we learn from other cultures or related species be used to other cultures or related species be used to understand our own?”understand our own?”

Anthropology is HolisticAnthropology is Holistic It involves “The Big Picture”It involves “The Big Picture” It integrates all aspects of a cultureIt integrates all aspects of a culture How do hunting, social organization, art, and How do hunting, social organization, art, and

religion all fit together?religion all fit together? It also involves subfields of anthropologyIt also involves subfields of anthropology How does human biology relate to culture?How does human biology relate to culture? Can we understand ourselves from behavior Can we understand ourselves from behavior

of other primates?of other primates? What can we learn from fossil humans? Or What can we learn from fossil humans? Or

fossil relatives of humans?fossil relatives of humans? That involves quite a lot of juggling between That involves quite a lot of juggling between

subfields and specialized disciplines. subfields and specialized disciplines.

Fields of AnthropologyFields of Anthropology Cultural AnthropologyCultural Anthropology, comprising:, comprising: Linguistics,Linguistics, the study of spoken language the study of spoken language Sociocultural AnthropologySociocultural Anthropology, the study of cultures and their , the study of cultures and their

social organizationsocial organization ArchaeologyArchaeology, the study of past cultures by excavating and , the study of past cultures by excavating and

analyzing their remainsanalyzing their remains Physical Anthropology, Physical Anthropology, which compriseswhich comprises PaleoanthropologyPaleoanthropology,, the study of past human lifeforms the study of past human lifeforms PrimatologyPrimatology, the comparative study of nonhuman primate , the comparative study of nonhuman primate

anatomy and behavioranatomy and behavior Population AnalysisPopulation Analysis,, the study of human variation (“races”) the study of human variation (“races”) Forensics,Forensics, the analysis of evidence related to criminal the analysis of evidence related to criminal

activity.activity.

LinguisticsLinguistics

Comparative study of Comparative study of spokenspoken language language Foundation of all cultureFoundation of all culture Reason: We learn all things by Reason: We learn all things by

languagelanguage Language is based on symbolsLanguage is based on symbols Symbols: Symbols: Use of one thing or eventUse of one thing or event To understand another thing and eventTo understand another thing and event That are intrinsically unrelatedThat are intrinsically unrelated Meaning is conveyed by symbols in Meaning is conveyed by symbols in

languagelanguage

Sociocultural AnthropologySociocultural Anthropology

Comparative study of contemporary cultures Comparative study of contemporary cultures Comparison involves human individual and group behavior Comparison involves human individual and group behavior Societies that govern human relations in an village (above) or other Societies that govern human relations in an village (above) or other

geographical spacegeographical space Products of human behavior: tools, artifacts, housingProducts of human behavior: tools, artifacts, housing Several subfields: kinship and family, subsistence, economic, Several subfields: kinship and family, subsistence, economic,

political et al; this group is an extended family.political et al; this group is an extended family.

ArchaeologyArchaeology

Comparative study of cultural Comparative study of cultural remains of human societies as remains of human societies as excavated (left) and analyzedexcavated (left) and analyzed

Also involves human and prehuman Also involves human and prehuman physical remains where they are physical remains where they are related to the artifacts and structures related to the artifacts and structures they left behind. they left behind.

Comparison involves past cultures Comparison involves past cultures similar to each othersimilar to each other

It also involves comparisons of past It also involves comparisons of past cultures that are similar to present cultures that are similar to present onesones

Physical AnthropologyPhysical Anthropology

Comparative study of humankind’s Comparative study of humankind’s physical attributesphysical attributes

Comparison of Comparison of Homo (sapiens) Homo (sapiens) sapienssapiens

Among today’s breeding Among today’s breeding populations (“races”)populations (“races”)

With apes and monkeys With apes and monkeys (primatology)(primatology)

With fossil hominids With fossil hominids (paleoanthropology)(paleoanthropology)

Culture: Focus of All Anthropology Culture: Focus of All Anthropology

What is Culture?What is Culture? TylorTylor: “that complex whole which : “that complex whole which

includesincludes Knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, Knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law,

customcustom And any other capabilities and habitsAnd any other capabilities and habits Acquired by man (both genders)Acquired by man (both genders) As a member of societyAs a member of society Generally accepted definitionGenerally accepted definition Learned human behaviorLearned human behavior Shared by a groupShared by a group As members of societyAs members of society

Culture is LearnedCulture is Learned All we do, say, or believe is learnedAll we do, say, or believe is learned Bee behavior, such as this scout bee Bee behavior, such as this scout bee

using a dance to tell the others where the using a dance to tell the others where the pollen is located, is genetically pollen is located, is genetically transmitted transmitted

Our behavior is not genetically Our behavior is not genetically transmittedtransmitted

Dogs, like this one carrying the remote, Dogs, like this one carrying the remote, learn by conditioning (repeated training learn by conditioning (repeated training with rewards)with rewards)

We learn partly by imitation but mostly We learn partly by imitation but mostly through languagethrough language

Enculturation:Enculturation: transmission of culture transmission of culture from generation to generationfrom generation to generation

Culture is Based on SymbolismCulture is Based on Symbolism

Culture is learned through languageCulture is learned through language Symbols: Symbols: Use of one thing or event to refer to Use of one thing or event to refer to

another thing and event that are intrinsically another thing and event that are intrinsically unrelatedunrelated

Exercise: speech sounds c, a, and t Exercise: speech sounds c, a, and t Or in IPA [k], [Or in IPA [k], [æ], and [t] to make [kæt]æ], and [t] to make [kæt] If we switch them around, we have new If we switch them around, we have new

meaning: “act” [ækt] or “tack” [tæk]meaning: “act” [ækt] or “tack” [tæk] We have an We have an open system open system of communicationof communication

Sign or SignalSign or Signal

A sign or signal is usedA sign or signal is usedTo refer to another thing or eventTo refer to another thing or eventThat is intrinsically related to the firstThat is intrinsically related to the firstExample: goose mating call has one Example: goose mating call has one

sound pattern while a warning call has sound pattern while a warning call has anotheranother

The two patterns cannot be combined to The two patterns cannot be combined to produce a third meaningproduce a third meaning

So their communication system is So their communication system is closedclosed

Culture is SharedCulture is Shared

A group with common language and custom A group with common language and custom shares a cultureshares a culture

Groups may be as small as 50 (!Kung band)Groups may be as small as 50 (!Kung band) They may comprise nation of millions (e.g. They may comprise nation of millions (e.g.

Japan)Japan) There may be subcultures in a culture (e.g. There may be subcultures in a culture (e.g.

Hutterites in Saskatchewan) who use technology Hutterites in Saskatchewan) who use technology but retain traditional clothing and religious but retain traditional clothing and religious beliefsbeliefs

Culture versus subculture is ambiguousCulture versus subculture is ambiguous

Culture is Patterned/IntegratedCulture is Patterned/Integrated One aspect of culture reflects other One aspect of culture reflects other

aspectsaspects They all fit into a pattern as a wholeThey all fit into a pattern as a whole Examples of integration:Examples of integration: Extreme example: Teotihuacan’s Extreme example: Teotihuacan’s

Pyramid of the Sun probably wasn’t built Pyramid of the Sun probably wasn’t built by this !Kung band—construction by this !Kung band—construction required the coordinated efforts of required the coordinated efforts of hundredshundreds

But the !Kung have their own pattern: But the !Kung have their own pattern: meat sharing elicited by arduous hunts, meat sharing elicited by arduous hunts, crude hunting gear, and game scarcitycrude hunting gear, and game scarcity

Conclusion: All Four Fields are Linked Conclusion: All Four Fields are Linked by the Culture Conceptby the Culture Concept

Sociocultural AnthropologySociocultural Anthropology: All aspects of : All aspects of human are learned, symbolic, shared, and human are learned, symbolic, shared, and integrated from language to technology to integrated from language to technology to kinship (in most societies)kinship (in most societies)

LinguisticsLinguistics involves the study of language, the involves the study of language, the medium of culturemedium of culture

ArchaeologyArchaeology constructs the cultures of the past constructs the cultures of the past Biological/Physical AnthropologyBiological/Physical Anthropology asks how asks how

we humans have the capacity for culture in the we humans have the capacity for culture in the first place.first place.

The Science of Culture: The Role The Science of Culture: The Role of Physical Anthropology’of Physical Anthropology’

The most basic science in anthropology The most basic science in anthropology rests in physical anthropologyrests in physical anthropology

We first look at what determines the We first look at what determines the biological capacity for culturebiological capacity for culture

Then we examine the basics of scientific Then we examine the basics of scientific method. method.

What Does Physical Anthropology What Does Physical Anthropology Have to Do With Culture?Have to Do With Culture?

Biologically, we have a capacity for culture Biologically, we have a capacity for culture through language, tool making and use, through language, tool making and use, and bipedalismand bipedalism

We acquired those abilities over millions of We acquired those abilities over millions of year—therefore fossil hominins may give year—therefore fossil hominins may give us a clue as to how and when.us a clue as to how and when.

There is no indication that any one “race” There is no indication that any one “race” has a greater capacity for culture than any has a greater capacity for culture than any other “race.” other “race.”

Physical Anthropology: Physical Anthropology: Biological Capacity for CultureBiological Capacity for Culture

How can we speak a language?How can we speak a language? We have a brain structure for speech We have a brain structure for speech

production and reception (both pictures)production and reception (both pictures) Certain parts of the brain control our oral Certain parts of the brain control our oral

tract: tongue, vocal cords, lungs.tract: tongue, vocal cords, lungs. How about our tool making and use?How about our tool making and use? Upper part of the motor cortex in brain Upper part of the motor cortex in brain

(lower left) controls our ability to make and (lower left) controls our ability to make and use toolsuse tools

Prehensile fingers, hands, and arms also Prehensile fingers, hands, and arms also enable tool making and useenable tool making and use

Even ability to stand on our two feet and Even ability to stand on our two feet and walk frees our hands for such purposeswalk frees our hands for such purposes

Humankind: Present and PastHumankind: Present and Past

TodayToday, , Homo sapiens Homo sapiens only occupies the planetonly occupies the planet Millennia ago, there were many species: Millennia ago, there were many species: Homo neanderthalensis, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo neanderthalensis, Homo heidelbergensis,

Homo erectus, and Homo habilisHomo erectus, and Homo habilis Millions of years ago, there was Millions of years ago, there was

Australopithecus Australopithecus with several specieswith several species Other hominoids evolved with us: Other hominoids evolved with us: Great apes of today (e.g. chimps, gorillas) arose Great apes of today (e.g. chimps, gorillas) arose

from such fossil apes as from such fossil apes as DryopithecusDryopithecus))

Contemporary Human PopulationsContemporary Human Populations

Breeding populationsBreeding populations or or ““Races” or Races” or polytypic groupspolytypic groups with regional with regional

distinctions capable of interbreedingdistinctions capable of interbreeding SerologySerology: Blood Types & Their Distribution: Blood Types & Their Distribution Genetic-Linked DiseasesGenetic-Linked Diseases: (Tay-Sachs, Sickle-: (Tay-Sachs, Sickle-

Cell Anemia)Cell Anemia) Epidemiology: Epidemiology: AIDS (acquired from chimps’ AIDS (acquired from chimps’

SIV)SIV) Forensics:Forensics: Crime scene reconstruction Crime scene reconstruction

Past Human/Fossil Hominid Past Human/Fossil Hominid PopulationsPopulations

Genetics and Natural Selection: studies in Genetics and Natural Selection: studies in biological human evolutionbiological human evolution

Paleoanthropology: comparative study of fossil Paleoanthropology: comparative study of fossil primates, including hominidsprimates, including hominids

Primatology: comparative study of monkeys and Primatology: comparative study of monkeys and apes, their morphology and their behaviorapes, their morphology and their behavior

Biodiversity: how polytypic populations came to Biodiversity: how polytypic populations came to bebe

Human ecology: interaction between Human ecology: interaction between human/prehuman populations and their human/prehuman populations and their environmentsenvironments

Physical Anthropology as SciencePhysical Anthropology as Science

Science Science is a body of knowledge gained is a body of knowledge gained throughthrough

observation and experimentationobservation and experimentationLatin Derivation: Latin Derivation: Scientia Scientia or or knowledgeknowledgeScientific Method Scientific Method is a mode of inquiry is a mode of inquiry

that requires the (a) generation, (b) that requires the (a) generation, (b) testing, and (c) acceptance or rejection of testing, and (c) acceptance or rejection of hypotheses or explanations of a hypotheses or explanations of a phenomenon. phenomenon.

Fundamentals of Scientific InquiryFundamentals of Scientific Inquiry

Hypothesis: An educated guess to explain the existence Hypothesis: An educated guess to explain the existence of a thing, lifeform, or event.of a thing, lifeform, or event.

Theory: A hypothesis confirmed by repeated observation Theory: A hypothesis confirmed by repeated observation of a thing, lifeform, or eventof a thing, lifeform, or event

Theories are always probabilisticTheories are always probabilistic A new theory that better explains facts can replace an A new theory that better explains facts can replace an

existing theory.existing theory. Theories are never “proven” once and for allTheories are never “proven” once and for all Generating and testing hypotheses involve Generating and testing hypotheses involve Induction Induction

and and DeductionDeduction Use the following diagram and explanations to Use the following diagram and explanations to

understand how the process worksunderstand how the process works

A Diagram of Scientific MethodA Diagram of Scientific Method

InductionInduction

Induction involves making observation of things and Induction involves making observation of things and events in the field.events in the field.

One then searches for certain attributes of things and One then searches for certain attributes of things and events observed to find events observed to find

Patterns: Do things or events fit together in some wayPatterns: Do things or events fit together in some way Is there a connection between one thing or event and Is there a connection between one thing or event and

anotheranother Associations: do thing and events appear together under Associations: do thing and events appear together under

some condition. some condition. If we find these attributes, we arrive at a hypothesis, which If we find these attributes, we arrive at a hypothesis, which

entails an explanation of the pattern, connection, or entails an explanation of the pattern, connection, or associationassociation

DeductionDeduction

Deduction works the other wayDeduction works the other way We assume or have found a pattern, connection, or We assume or have found a pattern, connection, or

association between things and/or events.association between things and/or events. Now, how well does the general explanation predict the Now, how well does the general explanation predict the

specific thing or event in a new situation or area of inquiry.specific thing or event in a new situation or area of inquiry. Repetition: Does the phenomenon occur again and again?Repetition: Does the phenomenon occur again and again? Universality: Is the phenomenon found everywhere, under all Universality: Is the phenomenon found everywhere, under all

circumstances?circumstances? Can exceptions be explained?Can exceptions be explained? Does new information confirm or contradict the hypothesis Does new information confirm or contradict the hypothesis

generated by the theory?generated by the theory?

Belief SystemsBelief Systems

Some matters are outside the scope of scienceSome matters are outside the scope of science Meaning of life is a philosophical or theological Meaning of life is a philosophical or theological

questionquestion Behavioral norms in society often defy scientific Behavioral norms in society often defy scientific

questions.questions. What are we here for? Science can’t help us What are we here for? Science can’t help us

here. here. Belief Systems: Ideas that are taken on faith Belief Systems: Ideas that are taken on faith

cannot be scientifically testedcannot be scientifically tested

Scientific Method: Sometimes Scientific Method: Sometimes Research Involves Political FudgingResearch Involves Political Fudging

Conclusion IConclusion I

Anthropology emphasizesAnthropology emphasizes Holism: How does everything fit into a Holism: How does everything fit into a

pattern?pattern? Comparison: In what way are biological Comparison: In what way are biological

organism the same? How are they organism the same? How are they different?different?

The same can be said about groups, The same can be said about groups, whether human or nonhuman (baboons, whether human or nonhuman (baboons, chimps, many others)chimps, many others)

Conclusion IIConclusion II

Biological/Physical Anthropology isBiological/Physical Anthropology is Based on scientific inquiry: controlled tests and Based on scientific inquiry: controlled tests and

observationsobservations Relies on established scientific theory, of which Relies on established scientific theory, of which

evolutionary models are one. evolutionary models are one. Involves study of contemporary populations: Involves study of contemporary populations:

varieties of human groups and their varieties of human groups and their characteristicscharacteristics

Are applied to practical uses (medicine, genetic Are applied to practical uses (medicine, genetic disorders, forensics) disorders, forensics)