Download - Introduction vii Introducing, defining and classifying 1 ... · ask yourself whether it communicates the student’s ideas clearly. Line 1 2 3 4 ... How is The Student Phrase Book

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Contents

Introduction vii

Introducing, defining and classifying 1

1 Introducing your topic 1

2 Giving brief definitions 6

3 Classifying and describing characteristics 11

Talking about aim and proposition 20

4 Stating your aim, proposition and scope 20

5 Talking about proposition, assumption, thesis and theory 28

Structure, time, sequence and frequency 35

6 Ordering and structuring your ideas and argument 35

7 Time, sequence, duration and frequency 41

Methodology and method, findings, size, amount, level and proportion 49

8 Describing your methodology and method 49

9 Presenting initial data and findings, and stating problems and anomalies 55

10 Size, amount, level, capacity, proportion and ratio 60

Movement and change, getting better or worse, allowing or preventing and eliminating 67

11 Movement, change, trend and tendency 67

12 Getting better or worse, bringing back or taking away, encouraging or deterring 75

13 Allowing or preventing, avoiding, excluding, cancelling out and eliminating 80

Copyrighted material - ISBN 9780230289338


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Circumstance, advantage or disadvantage, presence or absence, and importance 84

14 Circumstance, occurrence, normality, norm, deviance, risk and threat 84

15 Advantage or disadvantage, plenty or too much, enough or not enough, presence or absence 90

16 Importance, relevance, influence and impact 96

Communication, expression, understanding, way of thinking and point of view 104

17 Communication, expression, signification and portrayal 104

18 Knowledge, understanding, perception, way of thinking and belief 111

19 Position, point of view, support and opposition, impartiality and bias 116

Cause and effect, dependency, similarity and difference 125

20 Cause and effect, derivation, requirement, compatibility, reciprocity and dependency 125

21 Equivalence, similarity, difference and diversity 134

Analysing and evaluating ideas 144

22 Analysing ideas and suggesting common themes 144

23 Comparing the views of different authors and describing how they cite and evaluate each other 150

24 Evaluating an author’s ideas positively 157

25 Evaluating an author’s ideas negatively 164

Drawing your own conclusions, stating your own position and summarising your ideas 173

26 Suggesting counterarguments, conceding, disagreeing, drawing your own conclusions and generating your own ideas 173

27 Being precise about your conclusions and expressing certainty, caution or doubt 182

28 Summarising, restating your ideas, and suggesting ability, potential and future actions 188

Appendix 196

Latin abbreviations and phrases 196

A brief explanation of word class 202

Index: section headings and subheadings 205

Index: words and phrases 209



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Introduction

To write successfully at university you need to communicate your ideas, arguments and research clearly and effectively; using words and phrases imprecisely or incorrectly will lessen both the clarity and the credibility of your work. Below is an

extract from the first paragraph of a student essay entitled ‘Do prisons work?’ Read the extract and ask yourself whether it communicates the student’s ideas clearly.

Line1234

Prisons are government institutions that keep those awaiting trial or convicted of offences outside society. This principal of removing people who harm society is a generally agreed function of prisons, as is the punishment such denial of freedom comprises. People would also agree that prisons should act as a deterrent for reoffending and that they should also aim to rehabilitate offenders.

In fact this extract contains several mistakes, reducing the clarity and overall standard of

writing and contributing to the low mark that was awarded for the assignment.

Line Mistakes

1 outside – not quite the right word.

2 principal – wrong word; student has confused two similar sounding words.

3 comprises – wrong word; student has confused similar but not identical words. People – too general (an overgeneralisation).

4 for – wrong word to use with deterrent.

Below is the improved version of the essay extract, with the corrected or inserted words and phrases highlighted.



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Prisons are government institutions that keep those awaiting trial or convicted of offences segregated from society. This principle of removing people who harm society is a generally agreed function of prisons, as is the punishment such denial of freedom constitutes. Many people would also agree that this punishment should act as a deterrent to reoffending and that prisons should also aim to rehabilitate offenders.

Do you need The Student Phrase Book?

If you didn’t spot some of the mistakes in version A of the extract, or you did but weren’t sure how to correct them, then you will find The Student Phrase Book helpful. Below are three student sentences (taken from pages 172 and 180). If you find it difficult to find and/or correct the error in each sentence, then again you will find The Student Phrase Book of use.

Smith’s study is limiting because the sample size is extremely small.The data infers that lack of sunlight increases risk of depression.Tanen (2000) established that visual imprinting occurs in infancy, but later studies showed that this idea was incorrect.

Using words in a ‘nearly but not quite right’ way is common in student writing and is usually because of one or more of the following:

• not having a large enough vocabulary to write in a fairly formal style that is also clear and to the point;

• understanding a word when read, but not well enough for precise use in writing;

• getting the main word right but making a mistake with the words that come before or after it;

• not writing exactly what you mean (for example, writing ‘people’ when you really mean ‘some people’);

• failing to spot mistakes when checking written work.

The Student Phrase Book will help you in all of the above areas. It presents approximately 1,200 mid- to advanced-level words common to most academic disciplines, and gives you important information on about half of them, focusing on the most problematic. In each of the 28 sections you will find some words that you know, words that are new to you, and words that lie somewhere in between. Combined with the simpler words you already use (words such as next, finally, explain and suggest), this phrase book covers most of the general, non-technical vocabulary you will need to write successfully at university. The sentences in The Student Phrase Book have been collected over 24 years of teaching writing to university students, and the vocabulary has been well researched, and goes beyond other books and websites on academic vocabulary.



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How is The Student Phrase Book different from a dictionary or thesaurus?

Unlike a dictionary or a thesaurus, The Student Phrase Book:

• presents the words in sentences so that you can immediately see how they are used;

• groups the words into ordered assignment functions so that you can find what you need quickly;

• gives key information for just over half of the words presented, concentrating on the words that most often cause problems;

• gives word definitions that include information on context and connotation (e.g. whether a word is positive or negative);

• explains the differences in meaning and use between commonly confused words;

• tells you which other words are usually or always used with the key words;

• contains brief introductions to some sections, highlighting points on analysing and evaluating evidence and on producing coherent and persuasive arguments;

• gives you real student sentences that contain common mistakes, so that you can practise your own error awareness and avoid making similar mistakes yourself;

• has an index that tells you where you can find a word in both the example sentences and the word information tables.

How should you use The Student Phrase Book?

You can use this phrase book in different ways:

• As a reference guide while you are preparing and writing your assignmentsUse the section headings to find words and phrases relevant for what you want to do at any point in your assignment. By looking through the sentences and word information, you will be able to use words that convey your meaning precisely (perhaps words such as cogent, corroborated, infer, rigorous or succinct). If you have time, you could also take a look at the sentences at the end of a section to practise spotting and correcting mistakes commonly made by students.

• To check a word you want to useIf you want to use a word you are not sure of,

you can look it up in the index, see how it is used in a sentence, check its precise meaning, see other words with which it is commonly used, and find out about common errors to avoid.

• To check the meaning of a word or phrase you come across in your readingAgain, you can look the word up in the index, find it used in an example sentence and probably also find a definition and other useful information about it.

• For browsingBrowse through The Student Phrase Book at any time and in any order to help you improve your word knowledge and your familiarity with writing for university study.



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How is The Student Phrase Book structured?

The words in this phrase book are divided into 28 sections, according to the functions for which words are often used (note that many of the words can be used for more than one function). Each section is divided into three parts:

Part one of each section presents words and phrases within sentences taken from good academic writing. The key words or phrases are underlined, with gaps in the underlining indicating separate word groups. Words with similar meanings are separated by / and words that have different meanings are separated by //.

For example:

The paradox of high intake of saturated fat but low rate of heart disease has been linked to wine consumption.

Key word or phrase

Migration is emerging as a key aspect of globalisation

Word groups that can be used separately, e.g. ‘China is emerging as a major economy’ or ‘The Internet is now a key aspect of education.’

Creationism is predicated on / is based on the belief that only an intelligent force can explain the complexity of life.

(/) Words that have the same meaning and so are interchangeable

Plants have several defining external // internal characteristics, namely …

(//) Words that have different meanings but that can be used for the same function and in the same sentence pattern.

Part two of each section gives you important information about some of the words presented in part one. The word information entries use abbreviations to indicate word class, and symbols to indicate the type of information being given:



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Word class* abbreviations Information symbols

n = Nounadj = Adjectivev = Verbadv = Adverbconj = Conjunctiondet = Determiner

* If a root word has several different word classes, only the main and most useful ones are given.See Appendix, page 202 for an explanation of word class.

= Definition*

= Important grammatical point

= Other words that are always or often used with the key word

= Commonly confused word/s

= Other point/s to note

* If a word has several different meanings, only the main and most useful definitions are given.

Below is an example of a word entry from page 33 to show you how these abbreviations and symbols are used.

underlying adj

underlie n

Something hidden and/or existing below the surface. Often used to refer to hidden causes of a surface action, event or belief.

An underlying assumption // belief // idea // concept // principle // cause // motive // reason.

Underlie and underpinThese words are not usually interchangeable.Something that underlies can be major or minor, positive or negative, valid or invalid.Something that underpins is an essential, supporting element.E.g. Government policy is needed to underpin the growth of Irish exports.For undermine, see section 12, page 78.

The third part of each section gives ten incorrect and corrected student sentences that use words from part one of that section. You can just compare the two versions, or try to correct the

sentences in the left-hand column before looking at the correct versions. Below is a pair of sentences taken from page 103.



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Incorrect Correct

The report emphasised that a desire for results should not preside over accuracy.

The report emphasised that a desire for results should not take precedence over accuracy.

A final point to make about the vocabulary sections is that I have used British spellings throughout (e.g. colour, behaviour, centre and analyse). For organise,

realise and recognise I have used –ise but note that both –ise and –ize forms are acceptable British spellings of these words.

Summary

At university you need to express your own ideas and arguments clearly and precisely, developing you own style and ‘written voice’ as you progress on your course. This is not an easy thing to do – everyone, from new students to professional writers, struggles with expressing themselves

clearly in their writing. The Student Phrase Book is an accessible ‘way in’ to writing at university and will help you to develop your word knowledge and your confidence in producing your own successful written work.



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1 Introducing your topic

The first few lines of your introduction should briefly tell your reader why your topic is important and interesting. Be careful, however, not to start discussing your question or issue in detail – leave that until the main body of your assignment.

If you are doing higher level undergraduate or postgraduate work, you may also want to say that your research question is important partly because of the lack of existing research on the issue.

1.1 Words in action

Introducing your topic and establishing its importance ▸ Multimedia communication is a crucial / a vital / an essential / a fundamental part of many

organisations. ▸ Ethical issues are // have become // are becoming central to documentary filmmaking. ▸ International migration has emerged as // is emerging as an important aspect of globalisation. ▸ A main consideration in government housing policy is neighbourhood dynamics. ▸ Obesity is now one of the leading causes of // the leading cause of preventable deaths in the US. ▸ Anti-viral drugs are now the most widely used therapeutic medicines. ▸ The study of cosmic reionisation has acquired / gained significance over the last few years. ▸ Recent medical advances have heightened (public) interest in human cloning. ▸ The fact that education is a key factor in / plays a key role in economic recovery is often // is sometimes

overlooked. ▸ The concept of / idea of renewable energy is not as recent as is often thought. ▸ Blogs are relatively recent phenomena. / Blogging is a relatively recent phenomenon. ▸ Recent developments in ‘invisible technology’ have made its use in daily life more feasible.

Introducing, defining and classifying



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Emphasising debate and controversy in relation to your topic ▸ One of the most widely publicised debates in UK Higher Education is the level of student fees. ▸ There is widespread debate about / on the potential benefits of ID cards. ▸ Recent medical advances have increased people’s fears about // the amount of // the level of debate on

human cloning. ▸ The question of whether to legalise all drugs is regularly debated in the media. ▸ The main // most important / most significant // most interesting political issue // question is election

reform. ▸ Issues around intellectual property and open source software are becoming increasingly important //

visible. ▸ The growth of academy schools in the UK is // has been (very) contentious / controversial. ▸ The controversy over global warming has received a great deal of attention in the media. ▸ The question of whether to introduce ID cards is becoming increasingly complex // difficult /

problematic. ▸ Banks are finding it increasingly difficult to justify risk-taking practices to their European customers. ▸ Animal experimentation is an (extremely) emotive issue.

Highlighting a lack of research or discussion in relation to your topic ▸ There has so far been little research on // debate about // discussion about // attention given to the

issue of ethnicity. ▸ There are insufficient studies on / There is insufficient research on ethnic identity in adolescent girls. ▸ Previous research has // Previous studies have tended to focus on the ethnicity rather than the age of

offenders.

1.2 Information to help you use these words correctly

aspect n One part of an idea or situation that has several or many different parts. Often used in social contexts, for example political or family life.

Lobbying is an important aspect of British politics.

attention n Notice or consideration taken of someone or something.

Cloning has attracted / received a great deal of // little attention.



3

concept n An abstract idea or plan.

The concept of personalised drugs is new to science.Infinity is a complex concept in mathematics.

controversy n

controversial adj

n – Public disagreement or debate in which different people or groups hold opposing views.

There is a great deal of controversy surrounding / over the use of methadone.

crucial adj

crucially adv

Something that everything else depends on. Similar to essential.

In / to + ing. E.g. Sharing information is crucial in / to solving the problem.

A crucial factor // aspect // component // element // ingredient // issue // question // role.

debate n / v

debatable adj

debatably adv

n – When people who hold different opinions present their case, usually with the aim of persuading the audience that their view is the correct or best one. A debate often involves a large number of people.adj – Open to challenge and/or debate. Similar to arguable.adv – It may be challenged and/or debated. Similar to arguably.(See also section 4, page 22, and section 27, page 185.)

n – There is ongoing debate over / about / on pension schemes.

A subject of heated debate / X is hotly debated. Widespread (public) debate on X.

Debate and discussA discussion / to discuss involves people talking about an issue where the participants hold different or similar positions, and where the aim is usually to reach a level of agreement rather than to win the argument.Debate and argueUse the noun debate to refer to an issue, and the verb argue to propose a specific position or viewpoint.E.g. There is much academic debate over whether creative design is a scientific theory. ✓I will debate that creative design is not a scientific theory. ✘I will argue that creative design is not a scientific theory. ✓



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emotive adj Arousing a strong emotional response. Used in the context of controversial issues or topics.

Emotive and emotionalEmotive is used to describe a topic or issue that causes strong feelings.Emotional relates to personal feelings about life experiences. E.g. Funerals are usually emotional events.

factor n / v n – One of several things that cause or influence something else.v –To include or exclude something as relevant when making a decision.

v – We should factor migration into // out of decisions over resources.

A(n) major / important // deciding / determining // causal // contributing factor.

issue n / v n – Something argued about that affects a lot of people. Usually used in a political or social context.v – To give out or to circulate.

phenomenon n Something that is interesting, unique or difficult to understand in nature, science or society.

Phenomenon is the singular form. E.g. Social networking is a relatively recent phenomenon.Phenomena is the plural form. E.g. Supernatural phenomena are difficult to define.

widespread adj Something specific that exists or happens (e.g. a belief, poverty, disease) over a large area.

Widespread use of // support for // acceptance of // criticism of // condemnation of X.Widespread concern about // assumption that // belief that // acceptance of // rejection of X.

Widespread can be used to describe a debate or problem, but not a question or issue.Wide spread and spread wide are both incorrect.



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1.3 Nearly but not quite right

The sentences on the left contain the types of mistakes people make when using words from this section. The correct versions are given on the right.

Incorrect Correct

1 Genetically modified organisms and drug development are two key factors in biotechnology.

Genetically modified crops and drug development are two key aspects of / areas in biotechnology.

2 The question of whether to legalise drugs is widespread across EU member states.

The question of whether to legalise drugs is a common one across EU member states.

3 Issues have been raised on the reclassification of cannabis.

Questions have been raised over the reclassification of cannabis.

4 Cloning acquired a very small consideration until the birth of Dolly the sheep.

Cloning received very little consideration / attention until the birth of Dolly the sheep.

5 Recreational drug use continues to be a controversy in the UK.

Recreational drug use continues to be a controversial issue / topic in the UK.

6 The last decade has seen a rapid growth of the biotechnology industry.

The last decade has seen a rapid growth in the biotechnology industry.

7 This type of software program is a recent phenomena in information technology.

This type of software program is a recent phenomenon in information technology.

8 This is a questionable issue. This is a controversial / contentious / debatable issue.

9 The use of pesticides forms an issue in the local community

The use of pesticides is an issue in the local community.

10 There is a growing concern in immigration in Europe.

There is a growing concern about immigration in Europe.



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Index: section headings and subheadings

accumulation and growth 68advantage 90aim, stating 20–1 allowing 80 amount 60 analysing concepts, ideas and arguments 144assumption, talking about 28avoiding or the unavoidable 80

cancelling out or eliminating 80categories

difference 12 examples of a group 12grouping into 11naming the members of a group 12overarching 12particular members of a group 12using your own 11

cause to effect 125caution about your conclusion 183certainty about your conclusion 182–3change and transition 68changeability and instability 68characteristics 13circumstance and situation 84claims, making 21 common assumptions, revealing or

discovering 145common themes or characteristics, revealing or

discovering 145 commonness and distribution 84 communicating, different ways of 104–5 comparing 134 comparing the views of different authors

different and divergent views 151one source citing another positively 151 similar and convergent views 150sources challenging and responding to each

other 151–2 compatibility 127conceding up to a point and then disagreeing 174connection 126–7contrasting 134 counterarguments 173

data and initial findings 55 anomalies and surprises 55 problems 55

definitions categorising words and phrases 7describing elements 7lead-in phrases 6referring to other people’s definitions 7stating your choice of definition explicitly 6



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dependency 126–7depiction 105 derivation, creation and explanation 126deterring 75, 85difference 135difference, degrees of 136 differentiation 135disadvantage 90distribution 61divergence 135diversity 136–7 dominance 96 drawing specific conclusions 174–5

effect to cause 126encouraging 75enough or good enough 90equivalence 134evaluating an author’s ideas negatively

adjectives and adverbs 165describing specific flaws in the logic of an

argument 166negative forms of positive verbs 164 negative verbs 164–5 neutral verbs and then giving a negative

comment 164 nouns 165 stating how research or an argument could have

been better 166stating that an argument is not supported by

other research 166evaluating an author’s ideas positively

neutral verbs and then giving a positive comment 157

positive adjectives, adverbs and nouns 158 positive verbs 157

stating that a source has contributed to the field 158

stating that a source is supported by other research 158

excluding and keeping separate 80

getting better, easier, or bringing back 75getting worse, harder, or taking away 75giving general recommendations 190–1giving reasons for your inference or position 175–6giving recommendations for specific future

action 190going further: generating your own ideas,

creating new concepts and establishing new ground 176

ideas contrasting 36moving on to a different 36referring to ideas in a previous sentence or

within a sentence 37 referring to other parts of your writing 36supporting 36

impactnegative 97positive 97

impartiality and bias 117importance and relevance 96, of little or none 96influence, impact and pressure 96–7 information, transmitting 104interpretation, perception and connotation 111introducing your topic

emphasising debate and controversy 2establishing its importance 1lack of research or discussion 2



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knowledge, ignorance and mental process 111

level, capacity and dimension 60linking evidence to theory 175

method 49–50limitations of 50limits 50 parameters 50process 50requirements 50stages 50

methodology 49 movement

amount of 67increase and decrease 67speed or rate of 67

moving from one idea to the next 36

normality, norms, conformity and deviance 85not enough, or not good enough 90–1

objectivity and subjectivity 117occurrence and events 84ordering and structuring your ideas 35–6

plenty of 90 portrayal 105position and points of view 116

alternative 117ambivalent 117–18 indifferent 117–18rigid 117–18that agree, support, argue for or accept 116that disagree or oppose 117

prejudgement 117

premise, talking about 28 presence or absence 91preventing 80projection 68proportion, fraction and ratio 61proposition, talking about 28

qualifying your conclusion by stating its limitations 183

qualifying your conclusion to avoid overgeneralisation 183–4

range 12rationality 117reciprocity 127referring to your findings and giving

recommendations for future research 190 requirement, stipulation or entailment 126 restating and emphasising your conclusions 189reverse relationship 127 risk and threat 85

scope, stating 21 signification 105similarity, degrees of 136 similarity, uniformity and convergence 134–5size 60 stability and lack of movement 68stating ability and potential 189 stating clearly that you disagree 174 stating contradictions 173–4suggesting wider implications and making

predictions 175summarising your conclusions 188summarising, restating and emphasising your main

point 188–9



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summary remarks 188

tendency 68time

duration 42first occurrence 41 frequency 42future 41 looking back 41past 41present 41sequence of events 41–2

theory, talking about 28thesis, talking about 28 too much 90trend 68

underlying assumption, talking about 28understanding and misunderstanding 111uniqueness and specificity 11

way of thinking, ideology and belief 111–12word class 202–3



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Index: words and phrases

(Page numbers for words or phrases show where they are used in a sentence, and page numbers in bold indicate where the definition of a word is given.)

a posteriori 201a priori 201ab initio 201ability 189 absence 91, 165 abstract 13, 13 abundance 90 accelerate 67 accentuate 97, 98, 190,

191 accept 174 acceptable 117, 118accompanied by 42accord with 55, 56according to 11, 151,

152account 104 account for 126 accumulate 68, 69 achieve 190 achievement 97acknowledge 117, 144,

151, 152, 174 ad hoc 201ad infinitum 201

adapt 68, 69 190additional 35, 36additionally 35, 36 address 21, 49, 188adequate 90, 91 adjective 202 adjust 68, 190admit 117 adopt 11, 14, 190advance 97, 98 advantage 90, 91 advantageous 84advent of 41adverb 202–3 adverse 84, 86, 97, 98 advocate 16, 118, 190,

191 affect 125, 127aggravate 75, 76agree 150 agreement 116 aim 188albeit 183, 184 alert 165 alleviate 75, 76

allied 11, 14 allocate 49, 50 allow 80 allude 104, 105alter 68, 69, 188 alternate 42, 43 alternative 118, 173,

190 although 174, 183, 184 ambiguous 6, 7ambivalent 118, 118 ameliorate 75, 76amount of 60, 61ample 90, 91, 158 analogy 135, 137analyse 21, 22 analysis 22, 145, 190 anecdotal 165, 166 anomaly 55, 56 antedate 41anticipate 56 apparent 182, 184appear to 183 apply 6, 8, 183appreciable 61, 61

approach 190 appropriate 21 approximate 60, 62arbitrary 165, 166arguably 21, 22, 182,

184 argue 21, 22, 29, 173,

174, 188arise from 126 arouse 126, 128arrival of 41 as a consequence 125 as a result 125 as for 36 as regards 36 aspect 1, 2assert 28, 152, 152,

157, 159, 164assertion 28, 29assess 188assign 49 associate 6, 8associated 127association 111 assume 28, 30



210

assumption 28, 30attain 190, 191 attention 1, 2attributable 126 attribute 13, 14attribute to 7, 8 atypical 13averse 117, 119 awareness 111

base on 28 basis 11bear in mind 189 because of 125 belief 111benefit 90, 158bias 165, 167biased 117, 119 block 80 blurs the

distinction 144 bona fide 201boon 90, 92 break down 144 breakthrough 97by and large 183 by contrast 36

c. 198 ca. 198call into question 166capable of 189, 191 capacity 60, 62catalyst 97, 98 categorise 11, 14category 11, 14

causal 126 cause 125 cautious 183 cca. 198central 1 centre on 20 cf. 199 challenge 21, 22, 152,

173 change 188 changeable 68 characteristic 13chronology 41, 43 circ. 198circular 166, 167 circumstance 84, 86circumvent 80, 81 cite 151, 153 claim 157, 159, 164clarify 157, 188class 11 classify 11, 14clear 158, 182 cogent 158,159cognitive 111 coherent 158, 159coincided 42 collaborate 50 collaboration 191, 192 collate 50, 50 common 84,

ground 150, theme 145

communicate 104comparative 134, 138comparatively 136,

138compare 134, 138compatible 127 compelling 158 compensate 75, 76compile 51complex 2, 84complicate 164comply 85, 86 components 144 compose of 7, 8 comprehensive 158,

159comprise 7, 8concede 117, 119, 174 conceivable 183, 184 conceive 111, 112concentrated 85 concept 1, 3 concerned with 20, 22 concerning 36 concession 75, 76 conclude 175, 176 conclusion 175, 176 conclusive 158, 159concomitant 127, 128concurrent 42, 43condone 117, 119 confine 21confirm 158, 175, 189conflict with 165 conform 85, 86,

to 55, 56confusion 144 conjecture 28, 30 conjunction 203

connotation 111, 112 consensus 116, 119 consequently 125 consider 157, 164considerable 60 considerably 136consideration 1 considered 116, 158 consist of 7, 9consistent 158, 160,

with 55, 56, 175 conspicuous 165, 167 constituent 7, 9constituent parts 144,

146 constitute 7, 9constraint 50, 51construct 111, 112contemporaneous 43contemporary 42, 43 contend 28, 157, 160,

164 contention 28, 30 contentious 2 contest 21, 23, 152,

153, 174 context 21, 23contingent 127, 128continual 44continue 42, 44 continuous 42, 44contract 68 contradicted by 166 contradiction 166 contradictory 165,

167, 174, 176



211

contrary 152, to 55 contrast 134, 136contribute 189,

to 126 contribution to 158 controversial 2controversy 2, 3 converge 150, 153 convergence 135, 138converse 127, 128convey 105, 105, 126,

128convincing 158, 166,

176 correct 158 correlation 127, 128correspond 134, 138corresponding 127,

129 corroborate 158, 160,

175, 176 counter 152, 153, 173,

177counteract 80, 81 counterargument 173,

177counterpart 134, 138cover 157, 164 created by 126 credible 158, 160credit, fail to 152 criterion 13, 15 critical 21, 23, 96, 99 criticise 23, 152critique 23 crucial 1, 3, 96

cumulative 68 current 41, 44currently 44 curtail 75, 76

damaging 97data 55, 57de facto 201de jure 201dearth 90, 92 debatably 21, 23, 182,

184 debate 1, 3decelerate 67 decline 67 deconstruct 144, 146 decrease 67 deduce 175, 177deduction 177deficiency 91, 92 degree of 60, 62demonstrate 157, 188denote 105, 105 dense 85, 86 deny 80 dependent 127, 129 depict 105, 106 depletion 91, 92 deprived 91, 92 derived from 126, 129 descriptive 20, 23 despite 174, this 183 detect 55, 57deter 75, 76, 80, 81 deteriorate 75, 76 determine 127, 129

demonstratives 204detract 75, 97,

from 164, 167 detrimental 97, 99 deviate 85 dichotomy 13, 135,

138differ 135difference 135different 151 differentiate 12, 135,

138digress 97, 99, 165,

167dimension 61, 62diminish 67, 70 disadvantage 90, 92 disadvantaged 91, 92 disagree 174,

with 152disagreement 117 discern 55, 57, 135 discord 117, 119 discount 165, 167 discredit 164, 167discrepancy 55, 57 discrete 13, 135, 139,

144, 146, 151 discriminate 117, 120 discuss 20, 24 disinterested 117, 120 disparate 137, 139,

145, 146disparity 135, 139 dispel 80, 81 dispersed 85, 86

disprove 164disregard 165 disrupt 75 disseminate 104, 106 dissimilar 135 dissociate 144, 146distinct 13, 135, 139,

144, 146, 151 distinction 13, 135,

139 distinguish 135, 140distinguished 12distort 165, 168distorted 117 distract from 164 distraction 165, 168 diverge 136, 140, 151,

153 diverse 137, 151 divert 97, 99dogma 111, 112 domain 11, 15 dominant 96, 99 downward 68dramatic 67 drawback 90 due to 126, 130 duration 42 dynamic 127, 130

ease 75effect 125, 130 effective 49, 51, 166,

190, 192e.g. 197 elaborate on 20, 24



212

element 144eliminate 80 elucidate 157, 160embody 105, 106 embrace 116, 120 emerge 145, 146emerging 1 eminent 96, 99 emotive 2, 4 emphasise 189 empirical 49emulate 135,140 enable 80encompass 12, 15encounter 55 encourage 75 endorse 116, 120 enforce 190 enhance 75, 77, 190 ensure 190 entail 126, 130enumerate 20, 24equal 134equate 134equip 191eradicate 80, 81 erode 75, 77 especially 12, 15 essence 189, 192 essential 1, 96, 127,

189 establish 20, 157estimate 175 et al. 198 etc. 197 euphemism 104, 106

evaluate 188evaluation 189 even so 183 even though 183, 184 event 84evidence 158, 175 evident 182, 184 evolve 69, 70 ex post facto 201exacerbate 75, 77examine 21, 157, 164exceed 55, 61except for 12exception 12, 16, 56,

57 excerpt 151, 154excess 90 excessive 90 exclude 80exclusion 80 exemplary 97, 99exemplify 12 exhibit 55expand 68, 70, on 20expectation 56 expected 55 explain 126, 157 explanation 175explicate 157, 160explicit 104, 106 exploit 190, 192 exploratory 20, 24 exponent 116, 120 exponentially 67, 70expose 189express 104, 106

extend 42 extensive 12, 158, 161 extent to which 174 extract 50, 51, 151,

154extrapolate 175, 177extrinsic 13, 16

facilitate 75, 77factor 1, 4fail 67, to 164 fallacy 165, 168fallible 55, 57 favourable 84feasible 21, 24, 190,

192feature 13 few 60, 62fewer 136, 140find 157, 189 findings 55, 57, 190finite 12 fixed 68 flaw 165, 168, 174 flawed 165, 168 flexible 68 fluctuation 67 flux 68, 70 focus on 20, 25 followed by 35 following 35, 37 forerunner 41 format 49 former 37, 37, 41, 42formerly 41, 42 formulaic 165, 168

foster 75, 77 frequent 42 fundamental 1, 189 further 36, 37, 190 furthermore 36, 38future 41, 190

generalise 175, 177, 183

generally 183 generate 126generic 12, 16 give an account 188 glut 90, 93 go further 176 goal 20, 191 gradual 67

harness 190having said that 183 hence 126, 130 heterogeneous 137,

140, 147hiatus 42 highlight 188hinder 75, 77 hindsight 41, 45 historic 96, 100 homogeneous 135,

140, 144, 147hostile 84however 36, 151, 174,

183 hypothesis 28, 30

ibid. 199



213

identify 20, 157, 189ideology 111, 113ignorance 111 i.e. 197 ignore 164illogical 166 illuminating 158, 161 illustrate 157, 161 imminent 41, 45impact 97, 100 impartial 117, 121 impede 75, 77 implement 190, 192 implication 175, 178 implicit 104, 106 imply 175, 178 important 158 importantly 189 improve 75in addition 36 in contrast 151, to 36 in essence 189in fact 189in general 183 in other words 189in respect of 36in situ 201in toto 201inadequate 91, 93 incidence 84, 87incident 84incidental 96, 100 inclined to 68, 70 incoherent 165, 168 incompatible 127 incomplete 165

inconclusive 55, 165, 168

inconsistent 55, 165, 168

incorporate 12, 16 increase 67indeed 189indefinite 42 indefinitely 42indicate 183 indifferent 118, 121 indispensable 96 induction 175, 178 inductive

reasoning 175, 178

inevitable 80, 81 inexorable 80, 81 inextricable 127, 130 infer 175, 179 inference 175 infinite 13 inflexible 117 influence 158influential 96 inform 97, 100 infra 199 infrequent 42 inherent 13, 16 inhibit 75, 77inimical 97, 100 initial 55, 57 innate 13, 16 innovative 158 insidious 97, 100 insight 111, 113, 158

insignificant 96inspection 144 instability 68instantaneous 41, 46 insufficient 2, 91, 93 inter alia 201interconnected 127interdependent 127,

130 interesting 158 interfere with 75 interim 42 intermediate 50intermittent 42, 46interpretation 111, 113 interpreted as 6 interrelated 127 intransigence 117, 121 intrinsic 13, 16 invalid 165, 169 investigate 21 involve 126 irrational 117, 166isolated 42, 46issue 2, 4

justification 151 justify 151, 154, 189

key 1knowledge 111, 113

lack 90, of 165 landmark 96, 101 latter 37, 38 leading cause 1

leaving aside 36 less 136, 140 lessen 67, 71level 60, 63, off 68,

out 68 likely 182, 183 limit 50, 51, 75limitation 50, 51, 90,

165, 174, 179 limited 50, 51, 165,

169 literal 104, 107 loc. cit. 200 logical 158long-term 191 looking now at 36 low 67

maintain 28, 152, 154, 157, 161, 164, 190, 192

major 61, 136 majority 61, 184 manifest 105, 107 manipulate 165, 169 many 184 marginal 96, 101, 136,

140marginalise 80, 82 marked 60, 67, 136 maximise 60, 63measure 60 measures 190 mechanism 104, 107 merit 90, 93metaphor 104, 107



214

methodology 52 mimic 135 minimal 60, 63, 67 minimum 60, 63minor 96, 136 minority of 61 misconceive 144, 147,

165, 169 misconception 111,

113 misguided 111, 114misunderstanding 111misuse 144mitigate 75, 78 mode 7, 9 modify 68, 71, 188 monitor 190moreover 36 moving on to 36, 38 mutable 68, 71mutually

dependent 127, 130

namely 12, 17, 188 natural 87N.B. 199 necessitate 126negate 80, 82neglect 164negligible 60, 67 neither nor 150 neutral 157nevertheless 174, 183,

184 non sequitur 166, 169

nonetheless 174, 183, 184

norm 85normal 85 normality 85 normally 183 normative 85 not only but also 176 notable 56, 57, 136,

140 notably 12 note 157, 189 noteworthy 158, 161 noticeable 60, 67, 165 notwithstanding 174,

183, 184 noun 202 nuance 136 nullify 80number of 60, 63numerous 60, 63

objection 117, 121, 165, 169

objective 20, 117, 121, 158

observation 55, 157 observe 55, 157obstruct 80 obtain 55obviate 80, 82 obvious 136occasional 42 occurrence 84, 87omission 165, 169 omit 164

on the grounds that 175

on the other hand 36, 151

on the whole 183 ongoing 41op. cit. 200 opinion 116 opponent 117oppose 117orientate 116 originates from 126 outcome 55,126 outline 20over- 93 overarching 12, 17 overdeveloped 90 overestimate 55, 191 overgeneralise 166,

170overlap 150 overlook 164override 96, 101 oversimplify 164, 170oversupply 90overt 104, 108 overwhelming 158 owing to 125, 130

paradigm 111, 114 paradox 173, 179 parallel 135, 140, 145,

147 parameter 50, 52paramount 96, 101,

189, 193

paraphrase 151, 154parity, lack of 135, 140 partial 61, 63partially 61, 63 particularly 12, 17passim 200 past 41, 46 paucity 90, 93 peak 67 penultimate 50, 52per cent 61, 63per se 13, 17, 201perceive 111, 114 percentage 61 perception 111, 114 periodic 42, 46peripheral 96, 101 permanent 42 permit 80, 82pernicious 97, 101 perpetuate 75, 78 persist 85, 88perspective 116, 121 persuasive 85, 88, 158,

166, 176 pertinent 21, 25 phase 50 phenomena 1, 4phenomenon 84pivotal 96, 101 plateau 67 plausible 158, 161 plethora 90, 94 portray 105, 108 posit 28, 30 position 116



215

possibility 182 possible 183 postulate 28, 31 potent 97 potential 189 practical 190, 193 pragmatic 111, 114,

190, 193 precede 41, 46 precedence 97, 101 precedent 97, 102 preceding 36, 38precursor 41, 46 predate 41, 46 predicate on 28, 31 predict 56, 68, 175,

179 predominantly 61 predominate 96, 102 pre-eminent 96, 102 pre-empt 190, 193preferential 117, 121 prejudicial 97, 102 preliminary 55 premise 28, 31 preponderance 61, 63 preposition 203 prerequisite 126, 130presence 90 pressing 96 pressure 97 presuppose 28, 31 presupposition 28, 31 prevailing 96, 102 prevalence 85, 88 prevent 80

previous 36, 41prima facie 201primary 189 principal 20, 25principle 111, 114 prior 41, 46 priority 96, 190pro rata 201probable 182, 183,

184 problematic 2, 165proceed 46 produced by 126 profound 60, 63 prohibitive 80project 68, 105, 108,

175, 180proliferation 68, 71prolong 42, 47 prominent 96prone 85 pronoun 203pronounced 60, 63,

136 propensity 68, 71proponent 116, 122 proportion 61, 63 proportional 61, 63 proportionate 61, 65propose 28, 32, 152,

157, 164, 190 proposition 28, 32,

152 prospects 189 provide 157provisional 55, 57

provoke 126, 130publicised 2 purpose 20, 188put another way 189

qualitative 49, 52 quantify 60, 65 quantitative 49, 52 question 152, 190 questionable 165, 170quid pro quo 201quotation 151, 154 quote 151, 154

radical 68, 71, 118, 122

radically 136rare 42rarity 42 rate 67, 71 ratio 61 rational 117 readable 158 realise 144 reasonable 158 reassess 190 rebut 152, 154, 174 rebuttal 152, 154, 174 reciprocal 127, 130recognise 144 recommendation 190 reconcile 190, 193 recur 42, 47 recurrent 42, 47 reduce 67, 71, 75re-examine 190

refer to 6, 9, 13refine 190 refute 21, 25, 152,

155, 174 regain 75, 78 regarded as 116, 122 regarding 36, 38 regular 42 reinforce 75, 97 reject 117, 152, 155,

174 relate to 126, 130 related 127relative 136, 140relevant 21 reliable 158relieve 75, 78 remember 189remote 183 reorientate 190, 193 repeated 42 replicate 50 reply 152represent 105, 108,

134repudiate 152, 155requirement 126research 190 resemble 135, 145resolve 190 respective 11, 17respectively 35, 38respond 152restore 75, 78, 191 restrict 21, 75restructure 69



216

results from 126 resurgence 75, 78 retain 68, 71 retrospect 41, 47 reveal 145, 147, 189 rigid 117 rigorous 158 rise 67, 72 risk 85, 88

salient 21, 25 scarcity 91, 94 sceptical 118, 122 school of thought 111,

114 scope 21, 25 scrutiny 144, 147 segregation 80, 82 separate 135, 144sequence 50, 53 shared 145 sharp 67 shift 69, 72, 188 shortage 91shortcoming 90, 94 show 157, 182 sic 200 significance 189 significant 60, 67 signify 105, 108similar 134, 140similarity 145similarly 135, 140 simplify 157simplistic 165, 170 simultaneous 41

simultaneously 42 sine qua non 201situation 84slight 67, 136 sole 11, 18somewhat 136 sound 158 sparse 85, 88 specific 21, 50 specifically 11 specify 50speculate 21 sphere 11, 18 spread 85 stable 68, 72 stage 50, 53 stance 116, 122 standpoint 116 static 68, 72 stationary 68 status quo 201steady 67 stems from 126 step 50, 53stipulate 50, 53, 126,

132straightforward 84strength 158stress 189 striking 136 strong 158 sub-divided 11subgroup 11 subjected to 49 subjective 6, 117, 123,

165, 170

subsequent 36, 38, 42, 47

substantial 60, 67, 136 substantiate 158, 162 substantive 158, 162 subsume 12, 18 subtle 136 subtype 11successive 41, 47 succinct 158, 162 suffer from 164 sufficient 90, 94 suggest 28, 157, 164,

175, 182, 183 summarise 188superficially 144, 147supersede 42, 47support 15, 158, 175,

the view 189 supporter 116 supra 199 surfeit 90, 94 surplus 90 suspend 42sustainable 190, 193 synonymous 134, 140,

145, 148systematic 49, 53, 85,

88

tacit 104, 109 tackle 190, 193 take into account 157,

176take into

consideration 176

tangential 96, 102 tautological 166, 170 tautology 166, 170 temporary 42 tend to 184 tendency 68, 73, 184 tenet 111, 115 tentative 183, 184 term 6 testify to 175, 180theme 145, 148 theory 28, 32 thereby 125, 132 therefore 126, 132,

174, 180thesis 28, 33 thorough 158 though 183, 184 thread 145, 148 threat 85 threshold 50 through 126 throughout 42 thus 126, 132, 174,

180to a large extent 183 to some extent 184tolerate 117 trace 145trait 13, 18transferable 183 transform 69, 73 transient 42 transition 69, 73 transmit 104, 109trend 68, 73



217

trigger 125, 132 truism 166, 171 turning now to 36 typical 13

ultimate 191 ultimately 190 umbrella term 12 unavoidable 80unaware 111 unconvincing 165 uncouple 144under- 94 underestimate 55, 91,

191 undergo 50, 53 underlie 28,33underline 189 undermine 75, 78, 97,

103, 166, 171underpin 28understanding 111 underway 41, 47 uneven 61 unexplained 55 uniform 61, 135unique 11, 18 unpick 144 unprecedented 41, 47 unreliable 165 unsatisfactory 165 unsound 165 up to a point 183 upward 67useful 158 utilise 190, 193

vague 165, 171valid 158, 162 validate 158, 162, 175 variable 137 varied 136, 151 variety 137, 142,

of 12 various 137, 142 vary 142vehicle 104, 109 verb 203 verify 158, 162, 175,

189 versatile 68, 73 via 126 viable 189, 193vice versa 127, 132 vicious circle 97,

cycle 97view 116, 123, 151 viewpoint 116, 123,

123 virtuous circle, cycle 97 vital 1, 96 viz. 198 volatile 68, 73 vulnerable 85, 88

warrant 96, 103 weakness 165 whereas 151 widespread 2, 4, 84,

88 willing to 174 with a few

exceptions 183

with regard to 36 with respect to 36 worsen 75worth noting 189worth

remembering 189 wrongly 165

yield 55, 57



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