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K.-H. Schmidt for the CHARMS collaborationGesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI)
Darmstadt, Germany
Spallation ReactionsSpallation Reactions--
Physics and ApplicationsPhysics and Applications
work supported by EU (EURISOL and EUROTRANS)
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Spallation reactions – physics and Spallation reactions – physics and applications applications
- Definition- Applications- Experiments- Physics and models- Conclusion
Outline
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DefinitionDefinition
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What is a spallation reaction ?What is a spallation reaction ?Violent collision of nucleons (or particles) with heavy nuclei.First studied with cosmic rays. Schopper et al. Naturw. 25 (1937) 557
Collision of a μ+ of 41.2 GeV with an iron nucleus, recorded by the KARMEN detector.
Disintegration (spallation) of the nucleus in many pieces.Production of a variety of different particles and fragments.
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ApplicationsApplications
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Importance of spallation reactions Importance of spallation reactions • EOS of nuclear matter - Spallation is a way to heat nuclear matter → thermal break-up• Astrophysics - Reactions of cosmic rays with interstellar medium → origin of c.r. - Nucleosynthesis in turbulence of Supernova explosions• Spallation neutron sources* - Efficient way for producing neutrons• ADS* (Accelerator-driven system) - Project for incinerating radioactive waste• Secondary-beam facilities* - Production of rare isotopes
• Radioprotection and medicine
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Neutron sourcesNeutron sourcesType Facility Proton
beamNeutron energy
Time structure
Neutron flux
Purpose
Fission reactor
ILL Grenoble ---
cold, thermal, epitherm
al
continuous 1.3 1015 n/(cm2 s)
mostly solid state
Spallation
neutron source
SINQ Villigen
500 MeV,1.8 mA continuous 1.1 1014
n/(cm2 s)mostly
solid stateISIS
Rutherford800 MeV,200 μA
50 Hz, 400 ns
mostly solid state
SNS Oak Ridge
1 GeV,1.4 mA
60 Hz, 695 ns
mostly solid state
n_TOF CERN
200 GeV/c
thermal – several
100 MeV0.42 Hz,
6 nsnuclear physics
Example:Layout of SINQ →(Study of condensedmatter.)
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ISOL-based secondary-beam facilitiesISOL-based secondary-beam facilitiesFacility Proton
beamOutput
ISOLDE CERN ≤ 1.4 GeV Rare isotopesTRIUMF Vancouver 200 MeV Rare isotopes, neutrons, pions,
muonsEURISOL project 1 GeV Rare isotopes
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ADS (Accelerator-driven system)ADS (Accelerator-driven system)
Proton accelerator (≈ 1 GeV)
Subcritical fission reactor
Spallation neutron source
Purpose: Incineration of nuclear wastePrototype: Myrrha (Mol, Belgium)
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ExperimentsExperiments
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Detector systemsDetector systems• Normal kinematics (particle on nucleus)
• Inverse kinematics (nucleus on light target)
• Neutrons (d2Y/(dE dθ)) (kinematical detectors)• Neutrons (total yield) (moderation and capture of neutrons)• Light charged particles (d2Y/(dE dθ)) (ΔE -E, e.g. silicon)• Heavy residues (a few independent yields, cumulative yields)(irradiation, off-line gamma spectroscopy / accelerator mass spectrometry)
• Heavy residues (Y(Z,A), dY/dv) (in-flight identification Bρ – ToF – ΔE)• Neutrons and light charged particles (advanced installations at FAIR@GSI)
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Double-differential neutron spectraDouble-differential neutron spectra
SATURNE experiment,S. Leray et al. (2002)
Neutrons in forward direction reach up to the energy of the projectiles.
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Spectra of light fragmentsSpectra of light fragments
PISA experiment, Jülich, F. Goldenbaum et al. (2003)
Almost thermal energy spectrum of light fragments.
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Excitation functions of heavy residues Excitation functions of heavy residues
Titarenko et al, 2005
Independent and cumulative yields by off-line gamma spectroscopy
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GSI facility GSI facility → inverse kinematics→ inverse kinematics UNILAC : Up to 20 A MeV SIS : 50 – 2000 A MeV, up to 1011 particles/spill Beams of all stable nuclides
up to 238U
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Fragment Separator (FRS) Fragment Separator (FRS)
max = 15 mradp/p = 1.5 %
ZAB
ecm0
Resolution: - ()/ 5·10-4 - Z 0.4 - A / A 2.510-3
ToF
x1, x2 B
E Z
Nuclide identification (238U + p, M. V. Ricciardi)
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Benefit of inverse kinematics Benefit of inverse kinematics
Protons (553 MeV) on lead 208Pb (500 A MeV) on hydrogenExperiments in inverse kinematics:
Complete overview on nuclide production (T1/2>100 ns) ; E > several 100 A MeV
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Spallation of Spallation of 238238U – complete overviewU – complete overview
Data measured at GSI*
* Ricciardi et al, Phys. Rev. C 73 (2006) 014607; Bernas et al., Nucl. Phys. A 765 (2006) 197; Armbruster et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 93 (2004) 212701; Taïeb et al., Nucl. Phys. A 724 (2003) 413; Bernas et al., Nucl. Phys. A 725 (2003) 213 www.gsi.de/charms/data.htm
More than 1000 different nuclides observed.Features of spallation-evaporation / -fission / -IMF emission
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Velocity distributionsVelocity distributions
Typical velocity profiles arecharacteristic for thereaction mechanism (evaporation,fission andmultifragmentation)
P. Napolitani, 2007
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Systematic studiesSystematic studies
www.gsi.de/charms/data.htm
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CollaborationCollaborationGSI P. Armbruster, A. Bacquias, T. Enqvist, L. Giot, K. Helariutta, V.
Henzl, D. Henzlova, B. Jurado, A. Kelić, P. Nadtochy, R. Pleskač, M. V.
Ricciardi, K.-H. Schmidt, C. Schmitt, F. Vives, O. Yordanov
IPN-ParisL. Audouin, M. Bernas, B. Mustapha, P. Napolitani, F. Rejmund, C. Stéphan, J. Taïeb, L. Tassan-GotCEA-SaclayA. Boudard, L. Donadille, J.-E. Ducret, B. Fernandez, R. Legran, S.
Leray, C. Villagrasa, C. Volant, W. Wlazło
University Santiago de CompostelaJ. Benlliure, E. Casarejos, M. Fernandez, J. Pereira
CENBG-BordeauxS. Czajkowski, M. Pravikoff
14 PhD
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R3B@FAIR (New project at GSI)R3B@FAIR (New project at GSI)
Neutrons
Heavy fragmentsExotic beam
from Super-FRS
Protons
Target
-raysNeutronsProtons
Tracking detectors: E, x, y, ToF, B
Neutrons
High-resolution spectrometer
- Full identification of heavy residues with simultaneous measurement of neutrons, light charged particles and gammas with new R3B magnetic spectrometer.
Aiming for a kinematically complete experiment.
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Physics and modelsPhysics and models
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Nucleon-nucleus collision at 1 A GeVNucleon-nucleus collision at 1 A GeV
E p
10 MeV 137 MeV/c 9.03 fm100 MeV 443 MeV/c 2.79 fm
1 GeV 1692 MeV/c 0.73 fm
Decisive parameter:de Broglie wavelength of a nucleon: =h/p
Compared tonuclear radius (r = 1.16 fm A1/3) orrange of nuclear force ( 1 fm)
Spallation reaction ≈ collisions of individual nucleons !
No consistent uniform description of the spallation process available.
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Modeling of spallation reactionsModeling of spallation reactions
1. Intranuclear cascade (INCL, ISABEL, ...)(quasi-free nucleon-nucleon collisions →high-energy n, p ..)
2. Exciton model(sequence of particle-hole excitations →pre-equilibrium emission,included in INCL)----------------------------
4. Evaporation code(ABLA07, ...)(evaporation of particles and fragments, fission)
3. Multifragmentation(expansion and thermal break-up)
Specialized codes for different steps of the reaction
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Thermal expansionThermal expansion
ρ~eS level densityS=2√(aE*)Fermi gasa~Vlevel-density parameter grows withvolumeE* = E0* - c·(V-V0)2 parabolic dependence
of nuclear binding onvolume or density
S~√(V(E0*-c·(V-V0)2)
Statistical model: The nucleus assumes the configuration which offers maximum number of states. This is also true for the volume.
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MultifragmentationMultifragmentation
Expansion may lead to multifragmentation.
(SMM, ABLA07)
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The evaporation corridorThe evaporation corridorDecisive influence of evaporation on the nuclide distribution.
Residues tend to follow the evaporation corridor (Dufour, Charity).
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FissionFissionFission barrier → Interplay of surface and Coulomb energy.
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General features of fissionGeneral features of fissionPotential barrier as a function of mass asymmetry.
Symmetric fission for heavy systems
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Experimental information – low energyExperimental information – low energy
K.-H. Schmidt et al., NPA 665 (2000) 221
Experimental survey at GSI by use of secondary beams
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Modeling multi-modal fissionModeling multi-modal fission
E* = 60 MeV
20 MeV
10 MeV
Many different nuclei with different E* contribute to fission.
black: data, red: simulation with ABLA07
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Dynamics of fissionDynamics of fission Fission is a dynamical process, described by the Langevin equation.
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Langevin trajectoriesLangevin trajectories
Fission is hindered by dynamics with respect to evaporation.
Fission barrier
Groundstate
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Generalized fissionGeneralized fissionPotential barrier as a function of mass asymmetry.
Continuous mass distribution from particle evaporation to symmetric fission (Moretto)
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Emission of intermediate-mass fragmentsEmission of intermediate-mass fragments
Evaporation of IMF (very asymmetric fission) must be considered.
(only n,p,α) (n, p, all fragments)
Data: 209Bi + p Yu. E. Titarenko et al., Nucl. Instrum. Methods A 562 (2006) 801
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Model CalculationModel Calculation
INCL4 +ABLA07
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ConclusionsConclusions
- Many fields of application → high interest for good understanding
- Two experimental approaches- Direct kinematics - light particles: yields and energy distributions
– heavy residues: only long-lived species and cumulative yields - Inverse kinematics – heavy residues: complete overview (≈1000 nuclides / system) - velocity spectra: information on reaction mechanism - new-generation (complete) experiments at R3B@FAIR
- Elaborate codes for the reaction stages (e.g. INCL4 + ABLA07)
- INC → (Exciton) → (Thermal break-up) → Evaporation-fission
Spallation reactions
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Additional slidesAdditional slides
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Experimental challenge Experimental challenge
Short-lived as well as stable nuclei have to be detected.
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Excitation functions Excitation functions
Titarenko et al, 2005
Independent and cumulative yields
- About 100 nuclei/system- Uncertainty 7 – 30 %
Additional information:- Miah et al, Nucl. Sc. Tech. Suppl. 2 (2002) 369- Schiekel et al, Nucl. Instr. Meth. B114 (1996) 91- Adilbish et al, Radiochem. Radioanal. Lett. 45 (1980) 227- Chu et al, Phys. Rev. C 15 (1977) 352
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Velocity distributions Velocity distributions 238U (1 AGeV) + 2H
Pereira, PhD thesis
For each nucleus: production cross section, velocity and production mechanism
FISSION
FRAGMENTATION
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Experimental progress by inverse Experimental progress by inverse kinematicskinematics
Projectile Target Energy [A GeV] 56Fe 1H, 2H 0.2 - 1.5
136,124Xe 1,2H, Be, Ti, Pb 0.2, 0.5, 1 197Au 1H 0.8208Pb 1,2H, Ti 0.5, 1238U 1,2H, Ti, Pb 1
Data accuracy:Statistic: below 3% Systematic: 9 - 15 %
More than 1000 nuclei/system measured
Data available at: www.gsi.de/charms/data.htm