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Lecture6:CognitiveOntogeny
Cogs102A*Dr.ChristineJohnson
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Learning• InPsychology,Learning hastraditionallybeenseenas
theindividual'sacquisitionofknowledge• Incontrast,inDCog…
• Learning =Adaptiveprocessesbywhichlearner’sbehaviorisbroughtintocoordination withatask
• Taskdemandsincludeengagingwithaffordancesofacognitiveartifact,situation,anotherperson,oneself,etc
• “Comingintocoordination” includeschanginghowstably&flexiblythelearnerengagesthetask
• Processislargelyobservable inchangesinallocationofattention,affect,objectmanipulation,vocalization,etc.
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Vygotsky
• Russianpsychologist(1896-1934)
• Embraced(Marxist)Dialectic
• Focusedon social aspectsof
development
• “Socio-historical”(Cultural)development
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VYGOTSKY
• Allhighercognitivefunctions
“appeartwice”
• Firstasinter-personal(social,visible)
• Laterasintra-personal(invisible,mental)
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Vygotsky“ZoneofProximalDevelopment”
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Vygotsky“ZoneofProximalDevelopment”
• Childparticipates,withmoreproficientothers,insomeorganizedpractice
• Childcomestomakerelevantmoves,tocorrectlytime&placethosemoves,eventuallytoplayallroles,etc.
• Zone“spans” distancefromwhatchildcandotochild'scurrent“potential” withhelp
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Vygotsky
• Methodologically,observechangesinthenature,timing,
andproportionofcontributionsoftheparticipants.
“ZoneofProximalDevelopment”
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Scaffolding
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Scaffolding• InanyApprenticeship - involvingchildrenoradults-
sociallearningincludesVygotskianScaffolding
• Moreproficient“Expert”(e.g.parent,teacher,practicedpeer)
scaffolds“Novice”
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Scaffolding• Appliestoanymediatedlearningsituation
• Evenwhen“Expert” isabook(!)
• WhenExpertisanartifact,Noviceplaysamoreactiveroleindirectingattentiontoaffordances
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FunctionsoftheExpert inScaffoldingWood,Bruner&Ross(1976)
• RecruitNovic'sinterest,via…• Drawingintopositiveengagement
• Highlighting relevantobjects,affordances
• Simplifythetask(oftenintosub-tasks)• Challenge,justaheadofNoviceproficiency
• Demonstrateidealizedversion
• Markcriticalfeaturesofdiscrepancies• e.g.Viaimitation&correction
• Maintainpursuitofgoal• Provideinterimpayoffs• Maintaintrust• Controlfrustration,risk
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ActiveRoleofNoviceRogoff(1991)
• Childrenareactive participantsinZone,evenifrolelimited
• Childismostfrequentinitiatorofinteractions• Infantwhines,Adulthelps,Infantrelaxes• Infantreach,touch,Adultasks“Want?”
Adulthandsobject,Infantgrasps• Childelicitstalk,supportfromothers
• Iftasktooeasy,Infantbored..• WillchallengeAdultformore
elaborateinvolvement
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• ExpertandNovicecreate,andadaptto,problem-spacechangesduringlearning
So,theZPDisaDialectic
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DiscoveriesfromDistributedDevelopment
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Macro-LevelAnalysisBakeman&Adamson(1984)
“CoordinatingAttentiontoPeopleandObjectsinMother-InfantandPeer-InfantInteraction”
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Macro-LevelAnalysisBakeman&Adamson(1984)
METHODS• Longitudinalstudy,Infants6to18months• PairedwithMomorwithPeer• Freeplaywithobjects
• Scoredvideointomacro-level“EngagementStates”• Infantunengaged• Infantonlooking(asotherengageswithobject)• Infantengagedwithpersononly• Infantengagedwithobjectonly• PassiveJoint(bothattendobject,butinfantnotalsoattendmom)• Co-OrdJoint(bothattendtoobjectandtoeachother)
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Macro-LevelAnalysisBakeman&Adamson(1984)
RESULTS:• Mother-Infantdyads(comparedtoPeers)show…
• MorePassiveJoint &CoordinatedJoint• Mommorelikely(thanPeer)todoPassiveJointafterkidOnlooking,
orafterkidinsolitaryObjectplay
IMPLICATIONS:• Momscaffolds infantactivityby...
• Watchingforinfant'srelevantstate(e.g.Onlooking orEngagedw/obj)• Makingobjectsalient(bytimingownengagementtocoincidew/inf's)• Makingselfavailableforco-ord (again,bytimingownengagement)
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Macro-LevelAnalysisBakeman&Adamson(1984)
BUT!• Thisdevelopmentalaccountislimitedtogrosstransitions
inengagementstatesacrosstheages
• DoesNOTprovideinfoonHOWsuchchangescomeabout
• e.g.Viacapacitytorepresentintentionsofother?• e.g.Viadynamicsensori-motorcouplings?• NeedtoactuallyLOOKatthosedetails...(Seelastlecture!)
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Piaget'sA-not-BError
TASK:
• Repeatedly,asinfantwatches,hideobjectundercover
PiagetPremieredevelopmentalpsychologistof20th century(1896-1980)
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TASK:
• Repeatedly,asinfantwatches,hideobjectundercover• Thenletinfantreachforhiddenobject
Piaget'sA-not-BErrorPiagetPremieredevelopmentalpsychologistof20th century(1896-1980)
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TASK:
• Repeatedly,asinfantwatches,hideobjectundercover• Thenletinfantreachforhiddenobject
• Thenhideunder and,aftershortdelay,letinfantreach
Piaget'sA-not-BErrorPiagetPremieredevelopmentalpsychologistof20th century(1896-1980)
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TASK:
• Repeatedly,asinfantwatches,hideobjectundercover• Thenletinfantreachforhiddenobject.
• Thenhideunder and,aftershortdelay,letinfantreach
• 8-10montholdinfantsreachtoA(notB!)• By12months,infantlooks&reachestoB.
• Piaget:Only12months“know” thatobjectsexist&persist.
Piaget'sA-not-BErrorPiagetPremieredevelopmentalpsychologistof20th century(1896-1980)
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Smith&Thelen(2003)ContemporaryVygotskians,onPiaget’s(Vanishing)A-not-BError
• BUT 9montholdactslike12montholdif…• Shiftposturetostanding• Putonwristweights• Highlightholecovers• Exaggeratehidingevent• Etc!
• So,justaswesawwiththeissueofasking…• “Doesinfanthavetheabilitytocrawl?”• Problematic,sincethereareMULTIPLE
interactingfactors(movements,gravity,etc)• SameistrueofperformanceonA-not-Btask!
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SO:• ASKnot“Whatdoesinfantknow?”
• But“Underwhatconditionsdoweseestable/unstableperformance?”
• And“Howdofactorsinteract,change?”
• Also,“Whatreal-worldactivityimprovesperformance?”• e.g.Crawling(Cangettooutofsightobjects)• e.g.Finemotorcontrol(Morewaysto
handle,&thereforesee,stuff)
Smith&Thelen(2003)ContemporaryVygotskians,onPiaget’s(Vanishing)A-not-BError
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MicroMatters!
• Moderntechnology• Video• Motiontracking• EyeTracking• Massivedatafile
processing
• Allows…• Multi-modal• Moment-to-moment• Detailed
developmentalrecord
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InfantsusetheirheadsShenetal.(2010)
- toreach!
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Infantsusetheirheads- toreach!Shenetal.(2010)
METHODS:• Subjects1½to5yearsofage• MotionsensorsonHead&Hands• Bird'sEyeviewandFace-oncameras
• Presentedwithpairsofobjects• Freetoreach
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Infantsusetheirheads- toreach!Shenetal.(2010)
RESULTS:• AllshowedHead-stabilizationbeforereach• Alsoco-orientationofHeadandreachingHand• Olderlookedlongerbeforereach,youngerjustatreach
IMPLICATIONS:• Reachingisnotjustaboutthehands!• Instead,aboutcross-modalsensory-motorcoordination
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"Gavagai"Theproblemofidentifyingreferent
• ClassicprobleminLinguistics• Proficientspeakersays"LookattheGavagai!"
• Howdoeslearnerknowtowhichofmyriadaspectsofthevisualworldthespeakerisreferring???
• Rabbit?Grass?Path?Ears?Eye?Prey?Green?etc.etc.etc.
• Traditionalsolutionsproposeconceptualconstraints• e.g.Innatecategories,Perceptualbiases,etc
• Butnew,DCog researchshowshowactualwordlearningisalsoconstrainedbyactivityofparticipants!
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ActiveInformationSelectionYuetal.(2009)
“Feedyourhead!”
Especially once you can sit stably
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ActiveInformationSelectionYuetal.(2009)
METHODS• Subjects19-23months&Moms• Head-CameraonInfantandonMom• PlusBird'sEyecamera
• FreeplaywithMomand3same-sizetoys
• ComputerVisioncanidentifyToys,Hand,Faces
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ActiveInformationSelectionYuetal.(2009)
RESULTS
• ObjectsgraspedbyinfantLOOM inhisvisualfield• Blockhisviewofotherobjects• Therebyincreasesalience ofgraspedobject
IMPLICATIONS:• Insteadofpositinginnateconceptual constraintsrequiredfor
parsingthenoisyinputofaclutteredworld• Infantactivelysegments&thusdisambiguatesitsowninput
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BootstrappingAssociationLearningYu&Smith(2010)
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BootstrappingAssociationLearningYu&Smith(2010)
METHODS• Subjects14months&Moms• EyeTrackerdeterminesInfant’spointoffocus
• Eachtrial,simultaneouslypresented…• Aspokennonsenseword(“gasser”,“manu”,“colat”,etc.)• Two(of6)visualshapes• Wordisnameofoneshapeineachpair
• Afterseveraltrials,determinedthatnamewaslearnedif infantlookedlongeratthenamed(vs.unnamed)shape
"gasser"
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BootstrappingAssociationLearningYu&Smith(2010)
RESULTS:• “BestLearners” learnednameof5or6shapes• “PoorLearners” learnednameofonly1or2shapes• Astrainingproceeded,“Best” displayed
fewerandlongerlooksatstimuli
IMPLICATIONS:• Focusedlookingreducesambiguityofinput• InfantBOOTSTRAPS(Scaffolds)hisownlearning
• “PositiveFeedback” or“Ratchet”• Improvestheirownchancesofdetectingregularityofassoc
“Whatyoulearn iswhatyousee”
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Neural-NetLearningYu,Ballard&Aslin(2005)
Mom’smulti-modalcoordinationenablesNeural-Netstolearnname-actionassociations
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Neural-NetLearningYu,Ballard&Aslin(2005)
METHODS:• Momonly• Eyetracker,Head-mountedcamera,Microphone• Hand&Bodymotiontrackers
• Vocallydescribeownactions(e.g.“reading” “writing” “stapling” etc),“asiftoachild” (slow,enunciated)
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Neural-NetLearningYu,Ballard&Aslin(2005)
RESULTS:• NeuralNetlearnsimage-soundassociations
• i.e.Wordsforactions• Whencomputershownnewvideosofsameactions...
• Couldsegmentvideosceneappropriatelyand• Generatecorrect“word”
• Basedontime-locked,multi-modalstreams
IMPLICATIONS:• Directedeyeandbodymovementsenabledcomputervision
systemtoisolate&trackpertinentaspectsofscene
• Suchmulti-modalcontingenciesalsoavailabletohumanlanguagelearners
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GroundingWordLearningYu,Smith&Pereira(2008,Required)
Vocalizationscontingentwithsustainedhand/eyeengagement
>>Learningnamesofobjects
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GroundingWordLearningYu,Smith&Pereira(2008,Required)
METHODS:• Subjects17-20monthswithMom• Headcamera&HeadMotiontrackeronInfant&Mom• PlusBird'sEyecamera&ComputerVisionanalysisofvideo
• Freeplaywithsetsof3toys,• Momteachnames(nonsensewords)fornoveltoys• TestedlaterbyrequestingInfanttogivenamedtoy
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GroundingWordLearningYu,Smith&Pereira(2008,Required)
RESULTS:• NameslearnedwereNOT
mostfrequentlyspoken• Instead,werenamesfortoysthatwere
grasped &/orloomed,w/head-stabilizedlook attimenamed
• i.e.Multi-modal (relevant)inputmakeslearningeasier!
IMPLICATIONS:• Languageresearchersoftenassumenamelearningrequires
“mind-reading”Mom’s“intentions”….
• Butmaybemoreaboutsaliencesthatemerge frommulti-party,time-locked,co-oriented,multi-modalattention.
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LAB4:ConsidertheScaffolding
(gradualchangeinparticipationprofile)thatoccurseven
betweenexpertandnoviceadults...
LOAD“Scaffolding”VideofromLabPage