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Manufacturing Processes
Attributes of Manufactured Products
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Type of Industries
Industry – produces or supply goods and services
Types Primary – cultivate and exploit natural resources
Examples – mining, agriculture, etc. Secondary – takes outputs of primary industries
and convert them into consumer and capital goods.
Tertiary – service sector
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Types of Industries
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Secondary Industries
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Type of Products
Consumer Goods – purchased directly by consumers. Examples: cars, personal
computers, TVs, etc.
Capital Goods – purchased by other industries to produce goods and supply services. Examples: aircrafts, railroad
equipment, construction equipment, etc.
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Product Variety and Production Quantity Quantity
Low 1 to 100 units/year
Medium 101 to 10,000 units/year
High 10,001 to millions of units/year
Variety Soft - small difference between products Hard – products differ substantially
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Quantity vs Variety
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Manufacturing Capability
Planta de manufactura Interdependencia entre materiales, procesos y
sistemas. Capability
Technical and physical limitations of a manufacturing industry. Manufacturing processes Product size and weight Production capacity
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Materials
Metals (usually used as alloys) Ferrous – steel, cast iron, etc. Non-ferrous – aluminum, copper, gold, etc.
Ceramics Compound that includes metallic and non-metallic
(O, N,etc.) elements. Clay - hydrous aluminum silicates Silica - basis of all glass products Alumina and Silicon Carbide – abrasive
Crystalline and glasses
1/2
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Materials
Polymers – compound formed of repeating structural units called mers. Carbon + one or more of H, N, O, Cl, etc.
Plastic Types Thermoplastic Thermosetting Elastomers
2/2
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In addition to the three basic categories, there are: 4. Composites ‑ nonhomogeneous mixtures of the
other three basic types rather than a unique category
Figure 1.3 – Venn diagramof three basicMaterial types plus composites
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Geometric Attributes
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Shape Classification
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Machine Tool Movement and Control
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Limitations
Axial symmetry Two dimensional axes
Nonrotational symmetry Min of two dim axes
Surface Min 1 axes
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Surface Limitations
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Dimension
ANSI (American National Standards Institute) Numerical value expressed in appropriate units of
measure and indicated on a drawing and in other documents along with lines, symbols and notes to define the size or geometric characteristic, or both, of a part feature.
Length, width, height, diameter, angles, etc.
12’’3’’
4’’
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Dimensioning Systems
U.S. Customary System (USCS) Inch (in)
International System (SI) Meter (m)
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Tolerance
ANSI The total amount by which a specific dimension is
permitted to vary. Tolerance = Max Limit – Min Limit Types
Bilateral Unilateral Limit dimension
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Bilateral Tolerance
Variation is permitted in both positive and negative directions from the nominal dimension
It is possible for a bilateral tolerance to be unbalanced; for example, 2.500 +0.010, -0.005
Figure 5.1 ‑ Ways to specify tolerance limits for
a nominal dimension of 2.500: (a) bilateral
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Unilateral Tolerance
Variation from the specified dimension is permitted in only one direction, either positive or negative, but not both
Figure 5.1 ‑ Ways to specify tolerance limits for a nominal
dimension of 2.500:
(b) unilateral
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Limit Dimensions
Permissible variation in a part feature size, consisting of the maximum and minimum dimensions allowed
Figure 5.1 ‑ Ways to specify tolerance limits for a nominal dimension of 2.500:
(c) limit dimensions
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Tolerance must be…
close enough to allow functioning of the assembled parts.
as wide as functionally possible.
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Tolerance
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Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes Some manufacturing processes are
inherently more accurate than others Examples:
Most machining processes are quite accurate, capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm ( 0.002 in.) or better
Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for machined parts must be specified
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Other Attributes
Angularity – a part feature is at specified angle relative to a reference surface.
See table 5.1
http://www.delvest.com/angularity.htm
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Other Attributes
Circularity/Roundness – the degree to which all points on the intersection of the surface and a plane perpendicular to the axis of revolution are equidistant from the axis.
See table 5.1
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Other Attributes
Concentricity – the degree to which any two (or more) part features have a common axis.
See table 5.1
http://www.delvest.com/concentricity.htm
5" OD x 2" ID x 2" long. 5' OD and 2' ID will be concentric within .020' TIR (5" OD - 2" = 3" separation).
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Other Attributes
Cylindricity – the degree to which all points on a surface of revolution are equidistant from the axis of revolution.
See table 5.1
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Other Attributes
Flatness – The extent to which all points on a surface lie in a single plane.
See table 5.1
http://www.delvest.com/flatness.htm
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Other Attributes
Parallelism – the degree to which all points on a part feature are equidistant from a reference plane, line or axis.
See table 5.1
http://www.delvest.com/parallelism.htm
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Other Attributes
Perpendicularity/ Squareness – the degree to which all points on a part feature are 90° from the reference plane, line or axis.
See table 5.1
http://www.delvest.com/perpendicularity.htm
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Other Attributes
Straightness – the degree to which a part feature is a straight line.
See table 5.1
http://www.delvest.com/straightness.htm
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Surfaces
What we touch when holding a manufactured part. Nominal surfaces – intended surface contour. Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the
manufacturing processes used to make it Importance
Aesthetic Affect safety Friction and wear Affect mechanical properties Affect assembly Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts
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Surface Components
Figure 5.2 ‑ A magnified cross‑section of a typical metallic part surface
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Surface Attributes
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Four Elements of Surface Texture 1. Roughness - small, finely‑spaced deviations
from nominal surface determined by material characteristics and process that formed the surface
2. Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing; they occur due to work deflection, vibration, heat treatment, and similar factors
Roughness is superimposed on waviness
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3. Lay: predominant direction
or pattern of the surface texture
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4.Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally on the surface Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and
similar defects in the surface Although some flaws relate to surface texture,
they also affect surface integrity
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Surface Attributes
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Surface Roughness and Surface Finish Surface roughness - a measurable
characteristic based on roughness deviations Surface finish - a more subjective term
denoting smoothness and general quality of a surface
In popular usage, surface finish is often used as a synonym for surface roughness
Both terms are within the scope of surface texture
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Surface RoughnessAverage of vertical deviations from nominal
surface over a specified surface length
Figure 5.5 ‑ Deviations from nominal surface used in the two definitions of surface roughness
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Surface Roughness Equation
Arithmetic average (AA) is generally used, based on absolute values of deviations, and is referred to as average roughness
where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical deviation from nominal surface (absolute value); and Lm = specified distance over which the surface deviations are measured
dxL
yR
m
a
L
m0
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An Alternative Surface Roughness Equation Approximation of previous equation is
perhaps easier to comprehend:
where Ra has the same meaning as above; yi = vertical deviations (absolute value) identified by subscript i; and n = number of deviations included in Lm
n
i
ia n
yR
1
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Cutoff Length
A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness may get included
To deal with this problem, a parameter called the cutoff length is used as a filter to separate waviness from roughness deviations
Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the surface. A sampling distance shorter than the waviness width eliminates waviness deviations and only includes roughness deviations
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Figure 5.6 ‑ Surface texture symbols in engineering drawings:
the symbol, and (b) symbol with identification labels
Values of Ra are given in microinches; units for other measures are given in inches
Designers do not always specify all of the parameters on engineering drawings
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Material Properties
Mechanical – strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, elasticity, fatigue, creep, ratios
Physical – density, specific heat, thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, melting point, magnetic and electrical qualities
Chemical – oxidation, corrosion, degradation, toxicity, flammability
Manufacturing – manufacturability, effects on product properties, service life, cost