MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Estudo de Peças Metálicas
• Lata de refrigerantes em liga de Alumínio
• Pás de turbina Monocristalinas em Superliga de Níquel
• Condensadores de Tântalo/MnO2
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
The modern aluminum beverage can traces its origins to 1959, when Coors introduced the first all-aluminum, seamless two-piece beverage container.In addition to providing a superior taste to the steel and tin cans then in vogue, the new package was recyclable: Coors would pay one cent for each can returned to the brewery.
According to the Can Manufacturers Institute, this first generation of aluminum cans weighed approximately 85.6 grams per unit. In the half century since, aluminum beverage can manufacturers have lightened the package ever further - reducing the gauge required to fabricate both the cans and the ends. Today’s (2013) cans weigh less than 12,98 gramshttp://www.aluminum.org
Estudo de Peças MetálicasLata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
História do Al: corpo da lata (33cc):
1959 – 1ª lata toda de duas peças sem costura, toda em alumínio (Coors) (85.6 gramas)
1962 – tampa de Al em lata de aço (500mm espessura)
1970 – lata de duas peças em Al em lata de aço
corpo da lata 440mm espessura
1993 – corpo da lata 300mm espessura (28 gramas)
Século XXI 200mm (10 gramas)
2010 – 10 g (Hydro website)
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
http://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/KPI%20Report%202014_1.pdf
12 Oz.
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
¾ do alumínio produzido é usado em embalagens
(genéricas)
1993 – 140 x 109 unidades2000 – 230 x 109 unidades
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSLata de refrigerantes em Alumínio(2010) Beverage Cans: 220 x 109 + Can
Market
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
http://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/KPI%20Report%202014_1.pdf
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
http://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/KPI%20Report%202014_1.pdf
2 No equivalent data available for glass or plastic bottles.3 Data for glass and plastic via the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Municipal Solid Waste Report 2012:http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/2012_msw_fs.pdfand “NAPCOR Postconsumer PET Container Recycling Activity in 2013” report: http://www.napcor.com/pdf/NAPCOR_2013RateReport-FINAL.pdf4 Data for glass and plastic via the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Individual Waste Reduction Model (WARM): http://epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/warm/pdfs/Glass.pdfhttp://epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/warm/pdfs/Plastics.pdf5 Data based on a two-year rolling average of commodity prices from February 2012 –February 2014 for various material types via http://recyclingmarkets.net/. 6 Weights based on 12 - oz aluminum can; 12-ozglass bottle; 20-oz plastic (PET) bottle. Aluminum data from the Can Manufacturers Institute. Glass and plastic data from EPA EPA Individual Waste Reduction (iWARM) model: http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/iwarm/index.htm
http://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/KPI%20Report%202014_1.pdf
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Peso = 16,0 g (1990)
= 13,0 g (2013)
Capacidade = 0,33 l
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
RequesitosEnformabilidade Resistência MecânicaResistência à corrosãoToxicidadeCondutividade térmicaPesoPermeabilidade:
luz, O2, H2O, micro-organismos
Pintura
Reciclagem
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Etapas do processo de enformação>500 unidades/min
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Etapas do processo de enformação
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSLata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
Ironing of DWI (Drawn and wall ironed cans) Cans
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Stretching and Ironing of TULC
(Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio)
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Controlo da textura – ausência de orelhas
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Ano 2000:
Corpo da lata :folha da liga 3104 (Al-1.2 Mn)300mm espessuratêmpera H 19
Tampa da lata:folha da liga 5182 (Al 4.5Mg 0.3Mn)maior resistência.têmpera H 49
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
2010 Hydro website
Aluminium cans weigh 10 grams; can walls are 97 mm thick
Thickness (mm) Width (mm) Surface / Lacquer
Body: 3104 alloy0.24–0.35 300–2,000 Mill finish, electrostatically post- lubricated
End: 5182; 5052; 5027 alloys0.20–0.35 101–2,000 Coil coated with approved lacquers,
solvent based as well as water soluble (post-lubrication optional)
Tab: 5182 alloy0.22–0.34 30 – 100 Coated or plain / re-oiled
5042 alloy0.25–0.50 30 – 100 Coated or plain / re-oiled
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Corpo da lata: a ciência e tecnologia por detrás dos resultados
1. Lingotes DC liga 3104
2. Homogeneização em dois estágios570ºC arrefecimento lento 510ºC
3. Laminagem a quente: 450ºC60mm 25mm
4. Laminagem morna 275ºC25mm 2,5mm (desenvolvimento de textura)
(continua)
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Corpo da lata: a ciência e tecnologia por trás dos resultados
5. Recozimento 2H:
aquecimento lento até 350ºC, recristalizaçãocom desenvolvimento de textura, arrefecimento até TA
6. Laminagem a frio em vários passos:
desenvolvimento de textura (ausência de orelhas)têmpera H19
(se0,2%=290 MPa; sUTS =310 MPa; e = 10%)
espessura: 300 mm
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Corpo da lata : liga 3104, 300mm espessuraA ciência e tecnologia por detrás dos resultados
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8rg8bSOUpY&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hcsDxCagWrY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7dK1VVtja5c
Lata de refrigerantes em Alumínio
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Metallic component case studiesSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Commercial Aircraft engine
General Electric GE90-115B high bypass turbofan
Developed for the Boeing 777 airliner
Militar Aircraft engine
Eurojet EJ200 Low Bypass Augmented Turbofan
Low bypass ratio augmented turbofan engine, designed for the Eurofighter EF2000 Typhoon
www.turbokart.com
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Single Crystal Turbine Blades
Rolls-Royce Trent 800
Jet engine different stages:
low pressure compressor (LPC)high pressure compressor (HPC)high pressure turbine (HPT)intermediate pressure turbine (IPT)low pressure turbine (LPT)
Pressure and temperature profiles along the engineDiagrams after Michael Cervenka, Rolls-Royce.
~ 4 MPa
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
The different materials used in a Rolls-Royce jet engine:BLUE: titanium ideal for its strength and density but
not at high temperatures
RED: nickel superalloys ideal for strength at high temperatures
ORANGE: steel used for the static parts of the compressor.
Image courtesy Michael Cervenka, Rolls-Royce
The most severe conditions are met in the first row of the high pressure turbine. The entry temperature is around 1400 ºC.
Temperatures are kept lower at the surface of the blade because of the cooling system (ceramic surface approaching 1100 ºC).
The thermal coat takes another 100-200 ºC leading to a metal temperature in the vicinity of 930 ºC.
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Nickel Superalloy
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Schematic illustration of the cooling configurations used for turbine blade aerofoils:
(a) Single-pass cooling
(b) Multipass ‘serpentine’ cooling.
In both cases, holes for film cooling are present
(Source of Rolls-Royce)
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Evolution in engine efficiency, after Pratt & Withney.
SFC Thrust specific fuel consumption
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Trends in turbine inlet temperature (Koff, 1991)
650 870 1095 1315 1540 1760 1980 2200 2425
Turbine Rotor Inlet Temperature (ºC)
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Trends in engine bypass ratio (Epstein, 1998)
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
900
Schulz et al, Aero. Sci. Techn.7, 73-80 (2003)
2003
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Polycrystalline matrix
The creep life of the blades is limited by the grain boundaries which are easy diffusion paths.
Polycrystalline aligned matrix
It has been directionally solidified, resulting in a columnar grain structure which mitigates grain-boundary induced creep.
nickel-base superalloy containing a large volume of ’ precipitates
Single-crystal matrix
The blade is directionally-solidified via a spiral selector, which permits only one crystal to grow into the blade.
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base superalloy - the Trent 800 high-pressure turbine blade
Different stages of production by investment casting:
(a) wax model containing ceramic core, ready to receive the investment shell.
(b) finished casting with pig-tail selector removed.
(c) finished blade, after machining.
(a) (b) (c)
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base superalloy
Ceramic investment casting mould with single-crystal starter at the bottom of the plate and single-crystal plate following directional solidification and removal of ceramic mould
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base single crystal superalloys - alloying elements
The Al-Ni phase diagram
’
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base single crystal superalloys - alloying elements
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base superalloy generations
Table 1 Compositions of commercial Ni-based superalloys (wt. %, bal. Ni)
Alloy Cr Co Mo W Ta Re Nb Al Ti Hf C B Y Ru
First-Generation Single-Crystal Alloys
PWA 1480 10.0 5.0 — 4.0 12.0 — — 5.0 1.5 — — — —
Rene N4 9.8 7.5 1.5 6.0 4.8 — 0.5 4.2 3.5 0.15 0.05 0.00 —
CMSX-3 8.0 5.0 0.6 8.0 6.0 — — 5.6 1.0 0.10 — — —
Second-Generation Single-Crystal Alloys
PWA 1484 5.0 10.0 2.0 6.0 9.0 3.0 — 5.6 — 0.10 — — —
Rene N5 7.0 7.5 1.5 5.0 6.5 3.0 — 6.2 — 0.15 0.05 0.00 0.01
CMSX-4 6.5 9.0 0.6 6.0 6.5 3.0 — 5.6 1.0 0.10 — — —
Third-Generation Single-Crystal Alloys
Rene N6 4.2 12.5 1.4 6.0 7.2 5.4 — 5.8 — 0.15 0.05 0.00 0.01
CMSX-10 2.0 3.0 0.4 5.0 8.0 6.0 0.1 5.7 0.2 0.03 — — —
Fouth-Generation Single-Crystal Alloys (2009)
MC-NG 4 <0.2 1 5 5 4 6.0 0.5 0.10 4
MX4/PW1497 2 16.5 2.0 6.0 8.25 5.95 — 5.55 — 0.15 0.03 0.004 3
TMS-138 2.8 5.8 2.9 6.1 5.6 5.1 — 5.8 — 0.05 — — 1.9
TMS-162 2.9 5.8 3.9 5.8 5.6 4.9 — 5.8 — 0.09 — — 6
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base superalloy generations
Comparative Larson–Miller stress-rupture curves forsecond and third generation SC superalloys.Pierre Caron and Tasadduq Khan Aerosp. Sci. Technol (1999)
3th
2nd
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base superalloy generations
Partition coefficients for second- and third-generation alloys and corresponding densities of pure elements at 20ºC
Source: Pollock and Tin (2006)
Al Cr Co Ta W Re Mo
Partition coefficient, k 0.81–0.95 1.05–1.17 1.03–1.13 0.67–0.80 1.28–1.58 1.23–1.60 1.13–1.46
Density (20ºC) 2.7 7.2 8.8 16.7 19.3 21.0 10.2
Variation in dendrite morphology and primary dendrite arm spacing (PDAS) with cooling rate (G*R) during solidification.
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base superalloy containing about 65% of ’ precipitates
(a) Electron diffraction pattern from the (cubic-F) phase.
(b) Electron diffraction pattern from the ' (cubic-P) phase. The two electron diffraction patterns are presented in their correct relative orientation.
(c) Dark field transmission electron micrograph of the phase.
(d) Dark field transmission electron micrograph of the ' phase
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base superalloy generations
/’ microstructure of the CMSX-4 single-crystal superalloy - 2nd generation alloy- (SEM) (Nirundorn Matan.)
Rafting: directional coarsening at elevated temperatures results in the formation of rafts aligned perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress.
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base superalloy - coatings
The result of 2500 h low altitude sea flight service on an uncoated and NiAl coated blade turbine bladeEskner (2004)
Oxidation and creep failure
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Single Crystal Turbine Bladesnickel-base superalloy - coatings
Typical coatings for high-temperature applications involve an oxidation resistant coating (thermally grown oxide (TGO), α-alumina ) and a thermal barrier coating (TBC).
The bond coat provides a layer on which the ceramic TBC can adhere.
Tem
per
atu
re /
ºC
x
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Single Crystal Turbine Bladesnickel-base single crystal superalloys - coatings
Heat Transfer TGO: Thermally grown oxide (Al2O3)
Turbine blade with TBC (ZrO2-YO1.5)
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Single Crystal Turbine Bladesnickel-base single crystal superalloys - coatings
http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/coatings/
Schematic illustration of NiCrAlY microstructure.
Al diffusion to the oxide layer and the substrate result in depletion of from both sides.
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
nickel-base single crystal superalloys - coatings
Ashutosh S. Gandhi 4th Indo-American Frontiers of Engineering Symposium 2012
• Diffusion barrier to minimize bond coat – superalloy interaction
• YSZ interlayer to prevent reaction with TGO
• Luminescent layers for monitoring remaining life
• Top layer with erosion and CMAS resistance
• Combination of materials
Future TBC System Erosion/CMAS resistant Layer
Luminescent Layer
Low-k TBC
Luminescent Layer
YSZ Interlayer
TGO (Al2O3)
Bond Coat
Diffusion Barrier
Superalloy
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Pt-aluminide coated jet engine HPT blade(Pt electroplating 5-10 μm)
Photo courtesy S. Tin, Rolls-Royce UTC.
Jet engines high pressure turbine blades (HPT blades) are expected to last for ~30,000 h. For land-based power generation, this time can vary between 50,000 and 75,000 h (about 9 years).
HPT blades in jet engine typically undergo one refurbishment (strip coating and re-coat) throughout their life; in power generation applications, one or two refurbishments depending on the target life.
At 2004, rough estimates of costs provided by RWE Innogy are (power generation): set of blades for HPT: 1.7 million € (≈ 10.000 $ each (RR turbofan engine 2009)) cost of refurbishment: variable: 0.34 to 1.1 million €.
The HPT blades in jet engines mainly suffer from oxidation; Pt-aluminide coatings are preferred in these conditions and are commonly used to coat the main surface.
nickel-base superalloy
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
Nickel Monthly Price USD/MTNickel, melting grade, LME spot price, CIF European ports (source: World Bank)
Ni highest≈50$/kg
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSSingle Crystal Turbine Blades
7/1/2
011
9/1/2
011
11/1/2
011
1/1/2
012
3/1/2
012
5/1/2
012
7/1/2
012
9/1/2
012
11/1/2
012
1/1/2
0133,400.0
3,800.0
4,200.0
4,600.0
5,000.0
99.9% Re - USD/Kg
US
D/K
g
Rhenium 99.99%China Domestic Market USD/KGSource - Shanghai Metals Market
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Estudo de Peças MetálicasCondensadores de Tântalo
1-Ju
n-11
1-Aug
-11
1-Oct
-11
1-Dec
-11
1-Feb
-12
1-Apr
-12
1-Ju
n-12
1-Aug
-12
1-Oct
-12
1-Dec
-12
350.0
360.0
370.0
380.0
390.0
400.0
410.0
420.0
Tantalum Scrap 99.9 Vacuum Processor USD/Kg
US
D/K
g
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Condensadores de Tântalo
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
CAPACITOR GRADE TANTALUM POWDERS
PowderAngularor EB
Nodular Flake
ManufacturingProcess
ElectronBeam Melted
Chemicallyreduced
Chemically Reduced,Physically Formed
Primary Particle Size(m) 1 to 10 0.2 to 2
Aspect Ratio20 to 50
Aggregate Size(m) 50 to 300 20 to 250 25 to 200
Surface Area(m2/g)
< 0.3 0.3 to 0.9 -
TypicalApplications
High Voltage,High Reliability
Low Voltage,High Capacitance
Medium Voltage,Medium Capacitance
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Condensadores de Tântalo
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
CAPACITOR GRADE TANTALUM POWDERS
Powder STA-20 KF STA-50 KF STA-100 KF
ManufacturingProcess Sodium reduced Sodium reduced Magnesium
reduced
Primary Particle SizeFisher Number (m)
2 - 3.0 2.5
2.2 - 3.5 < 2.3
1.3 - 2.3 < 1.9
Surface Area(m2/g)
max. 1.20.9
Max. 2.22.0
Specific Capacitance (CV/g)
22500 (1500°C) 30000 (1400°C)
42500 (1510°C) 50000 (1450°C)
90000 (1310°C) 80000 (1360°C)
Sintering conditions(vacuum) Press Density < 10-4 mbar < 10-4 mbar
5.75 g/ccm < 10-4 mbar 5.00 g/ccm
Sintering conditionsTemperature ºC
1450 (15 min.) 1510 (15 min.)
1450 (10 min.) 1510 (10 min.)
1310°C (10 min.)1360°C (10 min.)
TypicalApplications
lower voltage applications (max. 20 VW capacitors)
High capacitance High capacitance
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
CAPACITOR GRADE TANTALUM POWDERS
20 nm
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
CAPACITOR GRADE TANTALUM POWDERS
STA-50 KF STA-100 KF STA-30 KF
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
CAPACITOR GRADE TANTALUM POWDERS
Pore diameters are in the range of 10 - 100 nm.The surface area is up to four times that of low CV powders.
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
CAPACITOR GRADE TANTALUM POWDERS
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Condensadores de Tântalo
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Condensadores de Tântalo
MATERIAIS METÁLICOSCondensadores de Tântalo
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
Condensadores de Tântalo
MATERIAIS METÁLICOS
FIM