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Materials: Data Selection
Tom Van Dam, Ph.D., P.E.Program Director
Applied Pavement Technology
Alissa Kendall, Ph.D.Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil & Environmental EngineeringUC Davis
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Spatial Scales for Materials
Regional/Local
Global /Regional
LocalGlobal
Regional
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Cement and Concrete LCIs
• Production process for cement and concrete is well understood
• Doesn’t require an allocation process like bitumen
• Yet there is variability across datasets characterizing cement production
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GHG emissions per kg cement
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Häkkinen and Mäkelä
(1996)
Marceau et al (2006) (2095b,
low)
Marceau et al (2006) (2095b,
high)
Stripple (2001)
EIO-LCA (2002
database)
ETH-ESU 96
Ecoinvent IDEMAT
g C
O2e/k
g c
em
en
t
Differences due to tech
Possible differences due region, methods
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Sources of Variability
• Production technology
• How cement is defined
• Fuel source
• Raw material source
• These are real and reasonable sources of variability that should be captured in an LCI of cement
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Cement Production Technologies
• “Wet” versus “dry” process plants
• Older versus newer plants
– Preheaters/precalciners
• Data that is a decade old may not reflect modern cement
• How important is this?
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What Constituents Cement?
• ASTM C150 (AASHTO M 85) portland cement– Now allows up to 5% limestone addition plus
processing additions
• ASTM C595 (AASHTO M 240) blended cements– Portland cement blended with pozzolan, slag
cement, or combination of two
– May include limestone in future
• ASTM C1157 performance cements– Typically portland-limestone cements
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Fuel Sources
• Main fossil fuel source is coal
• Waste fuels
– Tires
– Waste solvents and oils (major fuel source)
• Biofuels
• How is this currently modeled, how important is this?
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What is the “Correct” LCI for cement?
• Cement is a global commodity
• Example: US reliance on foreign cementYear 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Net import reliance as a % of apparent consumption
21% 25% 26% 19% 12%
Production (portland and masonry cement - includes imported clinker)
97,434 99,319 98,167 95,464 87,700
Source: van Oss, H. G. (2009) “Cement” in Mineral Commodity Summaries. USGS
*97% of imports to the port of LA are from China and Thailand – but we don’t have good data on what fuels or production technology are being used in these places, nor do we have a good idea of the transportation burdens* So for California, what is the “right dataset”?
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Supplementary CementitiousMaterials
• Hydraulic cement specifications allow for various additions of SCMs
– ASTM C150 (AASHTO M 85), ASTM C595 (AASHTO M 240), ASTM C1157
• In U.S., SCMs are commonly added at concrete plant
– Outside of control of cement company
• In an LCA, the impact of SCMs can be easily assessed
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What About Emerging Cements?
• Alkali-activated fly ash and slag cement– Requires alkali solution (NaOH)
• Geopolymers– Requires alkali solution (NaOH)
– Many are based on fly ash or metakaolin
• Magnesium silicates
• Carbon sequestering– Added as SCM and/or carbon negative cement
• How will this be reflected in an LCA?
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Aggregate Transport
• 0.05 MJ / kg aggregate (for extraction and processing)
• 0.001 MJ/kg-km (truck)
- 100 miles of truck travel is twice as much energy as producing the aggregate
- So is using national average data appropriate for aggregate (e.g. the commodity flow survey)
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Cement versus Concrete
• Concrete is what matters, not cement
• Approach must account for SCM additions at both cement plant and concrete mix plant– Limestone additions of 3% to 12%
– 15% to 40% replacement of portland cement with SCMs
• Concrete mixture design must be considered
• And of course, it is the life-cycle that ultimately must dictate– Design, longevity, and so on
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Concrete Mixtures for the I-35W Bridge (CI, February 2009)
Component Specified Strength (psi)
Cementitious Materials Est.CO2
(lb/yd3)Total (lb/yd3)
Portland Cement (%)
Fly Ash (%)
Slag (%)
Silica Fume (%)
Superstructure 6500 700 71 25 - 4 467
Piers 4000 575 15 18 67 - 85
Footings 5250 < 600 40 18 42 - 235
Drilled Shafts 5000 < 600 40 18 42 - 235
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Observations/Questions
• LCIs are well developed for cement/concrete
• Datasets may not accurately reflect modern cements and U.S./regional practices
• Local cement production variations are not usually considered
• Aggregate transportation dominates their impact thus is average data useful?
• How are the impacts of emerging technologies validated and included in datasets?
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