Transcript
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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America

Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages-New iron mines andsmelting sites are established-The first literature on mining and metallurgyappears.-The furnace gains a small chimney of clay andsandstone; gas exit and two openings, one forintroduction of the ore and one aperture near thebottom to allow extraction of the “bloom” ofiron.-The introduction of a draft supplied by a pair ofbellows.-The hinged flail, although invented in thefourth century, slowly begins to displace thesimple stick for threshing grain.-Iron use increases (plowshares, harrows,sickles, billhooks, church bells, long swords,battle axes, chain mail).-The lathe is diffused more widely (2 types, polelathe and bow lathe)-Swords, axes, agricultural and householdimplements are sharpened with a rotarygrindstone, as opposed to the earlier whetstone.The rotary grindstone employs a crank.-The Roman Vitruvian mill and windmill, notgenerally used in Mediterranean world, arewidely disseminated throughout the medievalworld and technologically developed, advancingfrom a mere 3 horsepower yield to 40-60horsepower.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America

10th century10th century-The shortage of charcoal begins asa result of deforestation; laws limiting itsproduction appear. Efforts to adapt coal formetallurgical purposes are intensified.-Invention of the drawplate aids blacksmiths infabricating wire for chain mail, until thenpainstakingly hammered out at the forge.

11th century11th century-Water-driven bellows and hammersappear in the eastern Alps and Silesia.

12th centuryEarly 12th century-Guilds of craftsmen,including metalworkers, join guilds ofmerchants.-The blacksmith’s work is in higher demand asbuilding and commerce increase. Carpentersrequired nails, saws and hammers; masons,mallets, picks, wedges and chisels; carters andwagoners, iron axles and parts; millers, ironcomponents of mill machinery; shipbuilders,nails and fittings.-Surface deposits or iron ore no longer suffice;pits, trenches and tunnels are driven into theearth.-The long-handled scythe, developed in theRoman Empire, gains a short bar-handleprojecting from its long haft.

1122-23-Theophilus Presbyter writes Dediversis artibus.Mid 12th century-The blacksmith moves fromthe castle as armorer to the village, as thedemand for his services to agriculture grow.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America1185-The earliest surviving written record of apost-mill is a rental note in Weedly, Yorkshire.1195-Post-mills become popular enough to havethe Pope levy a tithe on them.

13th centuryEarly 13th century-The windmill becomes theprime-mover on the plains of eastern England,the Low Countries and northern Germany.Mid 13th century-Coal is used for the primarystages of iron smelting, although charcoal stillpredominates.-Water mill construction rapidly increases, asmill function becomes more specialized.-The combination of mills and weirs appears, tomeasure the flow of water to the millrace.-The technique of raising the carbon-content ofiron to produce cast iron is discovered-Threshing begins to be done under cover, farinto the winter in great barns, usually onmonastic estates.Late 13th century-The use of wheelbarrowreduces the number of necessary laborers byhalf, particularly for mining ore.

14th century1309-1377-The Papacy is at Avignon.1314-At the Battle of Bannockburn, Scotland regainsindependence under Robert the Bruce.1321-Death of Dante.1325-The Renaissance begins in Italy.-Muslim culture in Spain reaches its peak.-The small cannon is in use.

Early 14th century-Water-powered stampingmills appear in the Saar.c1325-Forged iron firearms appear in Germany.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America1331-Nicaea falls to the Ottomans.1337-1453-During the Hundred Years' War, English andFrench kings fight for control of France.1340-Edward III, King of England assumes the French crown.1347-1351-At least 25 million people die in Europe's “BlackDeath” (bubonic plague). The Plague reaches Genoa fromCrimea.-Calais is sieged and captured by Edward III.1353-Boccaccio’s Decameron is written.1354-Turks invade Gallipoli.1358-Peasants rise up in France.1360-Edward III renounces the French crown.1361-The second wave of the Plague.c1370-1444-Life of Leonardo Bruni.1374-Petrarch dies.1376-1382-John Wycliffe, pre-Reformation religiousreformer, and followers translate the Bible from Latin intoEnglish.1377-1446-Life of Filippo Brunelleschi.1378-1455-Life of Lorenzo Ghiberti.1378-1417-The Great Schism has rival popes in Rome andAvignon fighting for control of the Roman Catholic Church.The papacy returns to Rome later that year from Avignon.1386-1466-Life of Donatello.c1387-Chaucer's Canterbury Tales is written.1395-1441-Life of Jan van Eyck.1397-Norway, Denmark and Sweden are united by the Unionof Kalmar.-Medici bank is founded.

1397-1475-Life of Paolo Uccello.

c1350-The first cast iron cannons appear.-The earliest known blast furnace is built inEurope, at Lapphytten, Sweden.1351-The application of water-power to wire-drawing in Augsburg.Late 14th century-The shortage of labor leads toa severe decline in the production of metals.-The price of iron and charcoal rises.1370-Iron needles (with no eye but a closedhook) are produced at Nuremberg.

15th century1400-Chaucer dies.1404-The University of Turin is founded.1406-Florence conquers Pisa.1407-Casa di San Giorgio, one of the first public banks, isfounded in Genoa.1409-The University of Leipzig is founded.

Early 15th century-Casting directly from thefurnace into the mould is achieved.1430-The Dutch invent the “wipmolen” orhollow post-mill.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America1412-31-Life of Joan of Arc.1415-Henry V defeats the French at the Battle of Agincourt.Jan Hus, Bohemian preacher and follower of Wycliffe, isburned at the stake in Constance as a heretic.1418-1460-Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator sponsorsexploration of Africa's coast.1420-Brunelleschi begins work on the Duomo in Florence.1428-Joan of Arc leads the French against the English, iscaptured by the Burgundians (1430) and turned over to theEnglish, and burned at the stake as a witch after anecclesiastical trial (1431).1434-Cosimo de Medici begins his 30-year domination ofFlorence.1435-1488-Life of Andrea del Verrocchio.1442-Naples and Sicily come under the rule of the SpanishHouse of Aragon.c1444-1510-Life of Sandro Botticelli.1444-1514-Life of Donato Bramante.1447-The Vatican Library is founded.c1450-Gutenberg invents the moveable type printing press.1450-Florence becomes the center of Renaissance arts andlearning under the Medicis.-Francesco Sforza conquers Milan.1452-1519-Life of Leonardo da Vinci.1453-Constantinople falls to the Turks, under Mehmed II,ending the Byzantine Empire and beginning the OttomanEmpire.1455-The Wars of the Roses, civil wars between rival noblefactions, begin in England (to 1485).-Johann Gutenberg completes first printed Bible.1456-Ottoman Turks capture Athens.1462-The Platonic Academy is founded. Ivan the Great rulesRussia until 1505 as the first czar and ends payment of tributeto the Mongols.

1463-Venice begins a 16-year war with the Turks.

Mid 15th century-Eyed iron needles areproduced in Low Countries.- More attention is paid to the legal aspects ofmining, smelting and raw material consumptionbecause the manufacture of bronze and ironcontributed powerfully to a state’s warlikepotential. Wars subsequently increase thedemand for and price of iron.-The scythe replaces the sickle as the primarytool for harvesting grain.-Attempts are made to make milling simpler andmore efficient.-Post-mills begin to be built to drive two pairs ofstones placed fore-and-aft in the mill, rather thanonly one pair of stones, as before.c1450-Saigerhuetten are first erected.1460-1530-The iron industry booms.

1469-1522-Life of Nicolo Machiavelli.1471-The University of Genoa is founded.1473-1543-Life of Nicolaus Copernicus.1475-1564-Life of Michelangelo Buonarroti.1478-Pope Sixtus IV authorizes the Spanish Inquisition.

Late 15th century-Kriegsbuecher andRuestungsbuecher, describing metalworking interms of warfare and armament, andBergwerkbuechlein and Probierbuechlein,essays on mining and assaying, becomewidespread with the use of the printing press

1485-1509-Reign of Henry VII in England.1492-Christopher Columbus seeks a western sea route toAsia, funded by Spain.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America1479-Venice is defeated by the Turks.1483-1520-Life of Raphael.c1488-1576-Life of Titian.1492-The troops of Ferdinand and Isabella conquer the Moorsin Spain.-Columbus becomes the first European to encounter theCaribbean islands, and returns to Spain (1493). His secondvoyage is to Dominica, Jamaica, Puerto Rico (1493-1496).His third voyage is to Orinoco (1498). His fourth voyage is toHonduras and Panama (1502-1504).1494-Charles VIII invades Italy; Medici is driven fromFlorence.1494-1534-Life of Corregio.1497-Vasco da Gama sails around Africa and discovers a searoute to India (1498). He establishes a Portuguese colony inIndia (1502). John Cabot, employed by England, reaches andexplores the Canadian coast.-Michelangelo sculpts the Bacchus.

widespread with the use of the printing press-The most agriculturally advanced region inEurope, Flanders, develops a scythe with a smallhalf-circle of bent withy attached near the baseof the handle, to gather together the cut grainstems.1489-94-Duerer’s paints his watercolor of a wiremill.

1499-Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian navigator, sights the coastof South America on an exploratory voyage for Spain.

16th century1503-1566-Life of Nostradamus.c1503-Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa.1504-Spain conquers the Kingdom of Naples. Michelangelosculpts the David.1506-1626-St. Peter's Church in Rome is constructed,designed and decorated by such artists and architects asBramante, Michelangelo, da Vinci, Raphael, and Bernini.1509-Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.-Erasmus’ Praise of Folly is written.1512-Medici power is restored in Florence.1513-Balboa becomes the first European to encounter thePacific Ocean.-Machiavelli writes The Prince.1515-Sir Thomas More writes Utopia.

1502-Boller proposes using mill-power to shakesieves, thus beginning the mechanization ofbolting in milling.1530-J.A. Pantheus writes Voarchadumia contraalchimiam, a book of alchemical nature,concerned with the metallurgy of the moreprecious metals and materials.

1507-The New World is first termed "America" by a Germanmapmaker who falsely credits Amerigo Vespucci with itsdiscovery.1509-1547-Reign of Henry VIII.1513-Juan Ponce de Leon, sailing for Spain, exploresFlorida. 1524-Giovanni da Verrazano, funded by France, lands in theCarolinas, then sails north and discovers the Hudson River,and continues into Narragansett Bay and Nova Scotia.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America1517-Martin Luther posts his 95 theses denouncing churchabuses in Wittenberg, starting the Reformation in Germany.1519-Ulrich Zwingli begins the Reformation in Switzerland.-Hernando Cortes conquers Mexico for Spain.-Charles I of Spain is chosen as Holy Roman Emperor.-Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sets out tocircumnavigate the globe.1520-Luther is excommunicated by Pope Leo X. Suleiman I(“the Magnificent”) becomes Sultan of Turkey, invadesHungary (1521), Rhodes (1522), attacks Austria (1529),annexes Hungary (1541), Tripoli (1551), makes peace withPersia (1553), destroys Spanish fleet (1560), dies (1566).Magellan reaches the Pacific and is killed by Philippinenatives (1521). One of his ships under Juan Sebastián delCano continues around the world and reaches Spain (1522).

1522-Magellan’s ship returns from circumnavigation of theglobe.1527-Troops of the Holy Roman Empire attack Rome,imprison Pope Clement VII, ending the Italian Renaissance.-Castiglione writes The Courtier.-The Medici family is expelled from Florence.1530-Medici is restored.1532-Machiavelli's The Prince is published posthumously.1535-Reformation begins as Henry VIII makes himself headof English Church after being excommunicated by the pope.Sir Thomas More is executed as a traitor for his refusal toacknowledge the king's religious authority.

1540-Italian metallurgical engineer, VanoccioBiringuccio, writes about water-powered wire-drawing mills in his Pirotechnia.

1535-Jacques Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River, thebasis of French claims to Canada.1539-Hernando de Soto of Spain explores what is today thesoutheast United States. 1540-Francisco Vasquez de Coronado of Spain explores whatis today the southwest United States.1541-Hernando de Soto of Spain discovers the MississippiRiver.

1547-1553-Reign of Edward VI.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America1536-Henry VIII executes his second wife, Anne Boleyn.-John Calvin establishes the Reformed and Presbyterian formsof Protestantism in Switzerland and writes his Institutes of theChristian Religion.-Danish and Norwegian Reformations take place.-Michelangelo completes his Last Judgment.-Guicciardini writes The History of Italy.1541-John Knox leads the Reformation in Scotland andestablishes the Presbyterian church there (1560).1543- On the Revolution of Heavenly Bodies by Polish scholarNicolaus Copernicus is published, giving his theory that theearth revolves around the sun.-Vesalius writes The Fabric of the Human Body.1545-The Council of Trent meets intermittently until 1563 todefine Catholic dogma and doctrine and reiterate papalauthority.1547-Ivan IV (“the Terrible”) is crowned as czar of Russia,begins the conquest of Astrakhan and Kazan (1552), battlesnobles (boyars) for power (1564), kills his son (1580), dies,and is succeeded by his son, Fyodor I.1553-Roman Catholicism is restored in England by QueenMary I.1548-The University of Messina is founded.1556-Akbar the Great becomes Mogul emperor of India,conquers Afghanistan (1581), and continues wars of conquest(until 1605).1558-Queen Elizabeth I restores Protestantism and establishesthe state Church of England (Anglicanism).-The Renaissance will reach its height inEngland—Shakespeare, Marlowe, Spenser.1561-The Edict of Orleans attempts to end persecution of theHuguenots in France. French religious wars begin again withthe massacre of Huguenots at Vassy. At the St. Bartholomew'sDay Massacre, thousands of Huguenots are murdered (1572).Amnesty is granted (1573). Persecution continues periodicallyuntil the Edict of Nantes (1598) gives Huguenots religiousfreedom (until 1685).

1550-Wooden box-bellows are invented byHans Lobsinger of Nuremberg, displacing theolder leather ones.c1550-Blast furnaces reach sizes of aroundtwelve to sixteen feet high and four-and-a-halffeet wide.1556-Georgius Agricola (Georg Bauer) writesthe De re metallica, the great textbook on everyaspect of mining.Late 16th century-The production of iron by theindirect process, using moulds, or pigs, comesinto widespread use, particularly in northernEurope, in the Low Countries, in Sweden and inBritain.

1553-1558-Reign of Mary I.1558-1603-Reign of Elizabeth I.

1565-The first permanent European colony in North Americais founded at St. Augustine (Florida) by the Spanish.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial AmericaHuguenots in France. French religious wars begin again withthe massacre of Huguenots at Vassy. At the St. Bartholomew'sDay Massacre, thousands of Huguenots are murdered (1572).Amnesty is granted (1573). Persecution continues periodicallyuntil the Edict of Nantes (1598) gives Huguenots religiousfreedom (until 1685).1568-Protestant Netherlands revolts against Catholic Spain;independence will be acknowledged by Spain in 1648.1570-Queen Elizabeth I is excommunicated by the pope.-Turks attack Cyprus and war on Venice. The Turkish fleet isdefeated at the Battle of Lepanto by Spanish and Italian fleets(1571). Peace of Constantinople (1572) ends Turkish attackson Europe.

into widespread use, particularly in northernEurope, in the Low Countries, in Sweden and inBritain.1574-Lazarus Ecker writes his Treatisedescribing the foremost kinds of Metallic Oresand Minerals, adding to the previous printedknowledge on assaying.

1580-Francis Drake returns to England after circumnavigatingthe globe and is knighted by Queen Elizabeth I (1581).-Montaigne's Essays are published.1582-Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian calendar.1583-William of Orange rules the Netherlands; he isassassinated on orders of Philip II of Spain (1584).1587-Mary, Queen of Scots, is executed for treason by orderof Queen Elizabeth I.-Monteverdi composes the First Book of Madrigals.1588-The Spanish Armada is defeated by the English.-Henry, King of Navarre and Protestant leader, is recognizedas Henry IV, first Bourbon king of France. He converts toRoman Catholicism in 1593 in attempt to end religious wars.1590-Henry IV enters Paris, wars on Spain (1595), marriesMarie de Medici (1600), and is assassinated (1610).-Spenser writes The Faerie Queen.-El Greco paints St. Jerome.-Galileo experiments with falling objects.1598-Boris Godunov becomes the Russian czar.-Tycho Brahe describes his astronomical experiments.

1588-Giambattista della Porta is the first tomention the use of the trompe bellows, inventedin Italy.-Agostino Ramelli writes his book on machines,including milling devices, Le diverse etartificiose machine, in Paris.c1595-Verantius writes Machinae novae inVenice.

1585-Sir Walter Raleigh organizes the colonization ofRoanoke Island, Virginia (today, North Carolina). Thecolony lasts for only one year. The second attempt to settlethere in 1587 also fails with the colony disappearingsometime before 1590. 1587-The first English child to be born in the colonies,Virginia Dare, is born in Roanoke.1588- Spanish influence in the New World declines andEnglish imperial interests widens.1590-Richard Hakluyt publishes an anthology of notablevoyages to the New World. A second edition is published1598, creating English interest in the exploration andcolonization of the New World.

17th century1600-Giordano Bruno is burned as a heretic.-The English East India Company established.1603-Shakespeare writes Hamlet.1605-Cervantes writes Don Quixote de la Mancha, the firstmodern novel.

Early 17th century-Massive deforestationprovides a pressing incentive to find a means ofsmelting iron with coal.1603-Sir Hugh Platt supplies a recipe to thebrewing industry for making briquettes of rawcoal, known as ‘coke;’ it would later be appliedto metallurgical practices.

1603-1625-Reign of James I.1604-At the Hampton Court Conference, James I refuses totolerate Puritans.1606-The London Company sponsors a colonizing expeditionto Virginia.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America1609-The Relation, the first newspaper, debuts in Germany.1610-Galileo sees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope.1611-Gustavus Adolphus is elected King of Sweden.-The King James Version of the Bible published in England.-Rubens paints his Descent from the Cross.1614-John Napier discovers logarithms.1618-The Thirty Years' War begins as Protestants revoltagainst Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and Francewill invade Germany in later phases of the war.-Kepler proposes the last of the three laws of planetarymotion.

coal, known as ‘coke;’ it would later be appliedto metallurgical practices.1612-1613-Simon Sturtevant and JohnRovenzon publish treatises, advocating theadoption of coal-burning blast furnaces.1617-Georg Engelhard Löhneiss writes on theorganization of mining and its employees in theBericht von Bergwercken.

1607-Jamestown is founded by the Virginia Company.-Captain John Smith is captured by Chief Powhatan and savedfrom death by the chief's daughter, Pocahontas.1609-Henry Hudson explores North America, sponsored bythe Dutch East India Company.1612-Tobacco is introduced in the Virginia colony by JohnRolfe. 1613-Dutch colonists form settlements in New Amsterdamand by the 1620s, elsewhere in New Netherlands. 1616-Tobacco becomes an export staple for Virginia.-A smallpox epidemic decimates the Native Americanpopulation in New England.1619-The first session of the first colonial legislativeassembly, the Virginia House of Burgesses, convenes inJamestown.

-Slavery begins in the colonies, as twenty Africans arebrought by a Dutch ship to Jamestown for sale as indenturedservants.

1633-The inquisition forces Galileo to recant his belief inCopernican theory.

1627-Mathurin Jousse describes the sequence ofcolors on tempering of steel. He also discussesthe recognition of good iron or steel, on thebasis of fracture.1636-Mersenne writes the first serious tests oftensile properties of gold, silver, copper andiron.

1620-The Mayflower ship lands at Cape Cod, Massachusetts,with 101 colonists.On November 11, the Mayflower Compact is signed,establishing a form of local government at Plymouth.-The first public library in the colonies is organized inVirginia with books donated by English landowners.1621- One of the first peace treaties between colonists andNative Americans, specifically the Plymouth pilgrims and theWampanoag Tribe, is signed with the aid of Squanto, anEnglish-speaking Native American.1624-Dutch colonists, sponsored by the Dutch West IndiaCompany arrive in New York. The Virginia Companycharter is revoked in London and Virginia is declared a Royalcolony.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial Americacolony.1625-1649-Reign of Charles I.1626-Peter Minuit, a Dutch colonist, purchases Manhattanisland from Native Americans and names the island NewAmsterdam.1628-The Puritans are the first to settle the Massachusetts BayColony.1630s-20,000 immigrate to New England area: mostlyyeoman families.1633-The first town government in the colonies is organizedin Dorchester, Massachusetts.1634-Maryland, land granted to Lord Baltimore by Charles I,is first settled.1635-Boston Latin School, the first public school in thecolonies, is established.1636-Puritan clergyman Thomas Hooker and others leaveMassachusetts and found Hartford.-Harvard College is founded.-Roger Williams founds Providence and Rhode Island.Providence then becomes a haven for colonists, like Williams,fleeing religious intolerance.1638-Anne Hutchinson is ex-communicated and banishedfrom Massachusetts for nonconformist religious views. Shetravels to Rhode Island, where she founds the town ofPortsmouth.-The first colonial printing press is established in Cambridge,Massachusetts.-Eaton and Davenport establish New Haven.-Sweden establishes the colony, New Sweden (Delaware).1639-Puritan settlers, led by John Wheelwright, found NewHampshire.

1642-The English Civil War begins, pitting the Cavaliers,supporters of Charles I, against the Roundheads,parliamentary forces. Oliver Cromwell defeats the Royalists(1646). Parliament demands reforms. Charles I offersconcessions, is brought to trial (1648) and beheaded (1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector (1653).-Rembrandt paints his Night Watch.1644-Descartes writes his Principles of Philosophy.1648-The Thirty Years' War ends with the German populationabout half of what it was in 1618 because of war andpestilence.

1640-In the Arte de los Metales, Alvaro AlonzoBarba discusses smelting operations as practicedin the gold and silver mines of the New World,but also contains information on Europeanmetallurgy.1648-Use of the chimney stack to enhance thedraught spreads throughout Europe.1651-Biringuccio mentions a solar furnace, aGerman mirror capable of melting a gold ducat.1665-Robert Hooke develops a theory of thehardening of steel based on the colors it turnsduring tempering and relates it to the hardeningof other materials by cold working.

1646-In Massachusetts, the general court approves a law thatmakes religious heresy punishable by death.1647-Massachusetts passes a law, requiring all sizable townsto institute some form of public education.1649-1653-First period of the Commonwealth of England.1651-The First Navigation Act is passed by Cromwell’sParliament, prohibiting the shipment of colonial goods toEngland in non-English ships.1652-Rhode Island enacts the first colonial law makingslavery illegal.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial Americapestilence. hardening of steel based on the colors it turns

during tempering and relates it to the hardeningof other materials by cold working.

1653-1659-Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell.1659-1660-Protectorate under Richard Cromwell.

1659-Second period of the Commonwealth of England.1660-English Parliament calls for the restoration of themonarchy and invites Charles II to return from France.1661-Charles II is crowned King of England. Louis XIVbegins his personal rule as absolute monarch and starts tobuild Versailles.1664-The English limit “Nonconformity” with thereestablished Anglican Church.-Isaac Newton experiments with gravity.1665-The Great Plague in London kills 75,000.1666-The Great Fire of London. Molière writes Misanthrope.1667-Milton writes Paradise Lost, widely considered thegreatest epic poem in English.

Late 17th century-Blast furnaces double in size.-The invention of reverberatory furnace makes itpossible to substitute raw coal for charcoal inthe process of smelting.

1660-The Navigation Act of 1660 allows the colonies to tradewith only English-built ships and crews that are at least three-quarters English. Certain enumerated goods, includingindigo, sugar, cotton and tobacco, are allowed to be shippedonly to England or other English colonies.1660-1685-Reign of Charles II.1663- Charles II establishes the colony of Carolina. AnthonyAshley Cooper establishes a feudal society there. 1664-Sir George Carteret and John, Lord Berkeley, foundNew Jersey. -Dutch Governor Peter Stuyvesant surrenders NewNetherlands to English forces who rename the colony NewYork.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial AmericaYork.-Maryland makes lifelong servitude for black slaves legallymandatory. Similar laws are later passed in New York, NewJersey, the Carolinas and Virginia.1667-The Virginia House of Burgesses passes a law thatbinds blacks to servitude, even if they convert to Christianity.1672-The Royal Africa Company monopolizes the Englishslave trade.1673-Dutch military forces retake New York from the British.-The British Navigation Act of 1673 requires a customscommissioner to collect duties on goods that pass betweenplantations.-French explorers, Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet,explore the interior of North America, including the GreatLakes and the Mississippi River.1674-The Treaty of Westminster returns Dutch colonies to theEnglish.1675-1676-King Philip's War (the colonists’ nickname forMetacomet, chief of the Wampanoags) erupts in NewEngland between colonists and Native Americans, resulting inthe end of Native American power there.1676-Nathaniel Bacon leads a rebellion against VirginiaGovernor William Berkeley, which results in Bacon’s burningof Jamestown. Bacon and his western Virginia rebels alsocrush the Susquehannock Indians who have been attackingthe settlers of western Virginia. The rebellion disintegrateswhen Bacon dies suddenly that year.

1683-The war of European powers against the Turks (to 1699)begins. Vienna withstands a three-month Turkish siege at thehigh point of Turkish advance in Europe.1684-Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus is published.1687-James II calls for freedom of conscience. Protestantsfear the restoration of Catholicism and demand a “GloriousRevolution.” William of Orange is invited to England andJames II escapes to France (1688). William III and his wife,Mary, are crowned.-In France, the Edict of Nantes of 1598, granting freedom ofworship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV, forcingthousands of Protestants to flee.1689-Peter the Great becomes Czar of Russia and attempts towesternize the nation and build Russia as a military power. Hedefeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava (1709).

1680-New Hampshire becomes an independent colony,seperate from Massachusetts.1681-Quaker William Penn, is granted a charter from CharlesII, making him proprietor of Pennsylvania.1682-French explorer LaSalle reaches the mouth of theMississippi and claims the surrounding territory, which henames Louisiana.1685-1688-Reign of James II.1686-James II consolidates the colonies of New England intoa Dominion, removing the colonists’ local political rights andindependence. Sir Edmund Andros is named governor.1687-Andros orders Boston's Old South Meeting House to beconverted into an Anglican Church. The towns of Ipswich andTopsfield, Massachusetts, shunning taxation withoutrepresentation, protest against Andros’ assessments.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial Americadefeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava (1709).1690-William III of England defeats the former king James IIand Irish rebels at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland.-John Locke writes Human Understanding.

representation, protest against Andros’ assessments.1688-Andros limits New England town meetings to one peryear. He then places all militias under his control.-Quakers in Pennsylvania formally protest against slavery inAmerica.1689-Edmund Andros is jailed and the Dominion of NewEngland dissolves in the colonial response to the GloriousRevolution.1689-1694-Reign of William III and Mary II.1689-1691-Governor Nicholson of New York is overthrownduring Leisler’s Rebellion.1690-King William's War begins, as French and Englishhostilities in Europe extend to the colonies. Schenectady,New York is burned by the French and their Native Americanallies.1691-The newly appointed Governor of New England, HenrySloughter, arrives in New York from England and institutes aroyally-sanctioned representative government. Massachusettsreceives a new royal charter that includes government by aroyal governor and a governor's council.1692-150 people are accused of witchcraft in the village ofSalem, Massachusetts. A special court is set up by thegovernor of Massachusetts, with twenty people beingexecuted.1693-The College of William and Mary is founded inWilliamsburg, Virginia.1694-1702-Solo reign of William III.1696-The Royal African Trade Company loses its monopolyon the slave trade, spurring colonists in New England to begintrading slaves.-The Navigation Act of 1696 is passed, requiring all colonialtrade to be done exclusively in English-built ships.1697-King William’s War ends with the Treaty of Ryswick.

1699-The Wool Act is passed, designed to protect England’swool industry by limiting wool production in Ireland andforbidding the export of wool from the colonies.

18th century1701-The War of the Spanish Succession begins, the last ofLouis XIV's wars for domination of the continent. The Peaceof Utrecht (1714) will end the conflict and mark the rise of theBritish Empire. Called Queen Anne's War in the colonies, itends with the British taking New Foundland, Acadia, and theHudson's Bay Territory from France, and Gibraltar andMinorca from Spain.

Early 18th century-New methods of producingiron and steel are introduced.

1700-Massachusetts orders all Roman Catholic priests toleave the colony within three months, or suffer penalty of lifeimprisonment or execution. New York then passes a similarlaw.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial AmericaLouis XIV's wars for domination of the continent. The Peaceof Utrecht (1714) will end the conflict and mark the rise of theBritish Empire. Called Queen Anne's War in the colonies, itends with the British taking New Foundland, Acadia, and theHudson's Bay Territory from France, and Gibraltar andMinorca from Spain.1704-Bach writes his first cantata.1707-The United Kingdom of Great Britain is formed, asEngland, Wales, and Scotland are joined by the parliamentaryAct of Union.

iron and steel are introduced.-Swedish scientists, Emanuel Swedenborg andChristopher Polhem, improve Swedishmetallurgical and mining methods, almostdoubling their country’s iron production.1700-The volume of the Stückofen triples insize from that of 1500.1702-Mathurin Jousse writes the firstpublication, actually one on carpentry, thatincluded viable instructions for the constructionof a windmill.1709-The first recorded successful experimentin using coke for smelting iron ore, at Bosley, inShropshire.

leave the colony within three months, or suffer penalty of lifeimprisonment or execution. New York then passes a similarlaw.1701-The French establish a settlement at Detroit.-Yale College is founded in Connecticut.1702-1714-Reign of Anne.1702-Charles II, king of Spain, dies. The War of the SpanishSuccession begins, as England declares war on France to stopthe union of France and Spain. In the colonies, the war iscalled Queen Anne's War; English colonists will battle theFrench, their Native American allies, and the Spanish for thenext eleven years.-The Anglican Church is established as the official church ofMaryland.1703-Delaware, originally called New Sweden by theSwedish settlers, breaks away from Pennsylvania to form aseparate government.1704-The first enduring newspaper in America, The BostonNews-Letter, is published.1705-The Virginia Black Code of 1705 assigns slaves thestatus of real estate in Virginia. -A law against runawayslaves in New York punishes with the death penalty any slavecaught over forty miles north of Albany.-Massachusetts declares marriage between blacks and whitesillegal.1706-The Anglican Church is established as the officialchurch of South Carolina.

1706-1790-Life of Benjamin Franklin.1710-The Post Office Act establishes a postal system in thecolonies, controlled by the postmaster general of London andhis deputy in New York City.1711-1713-The Tuscarora Indian War begins with a massacreof settlers in North Carolina by Native Americans.1712-The Carolina colony is officially divided into NorthCarolina and South Carolina.-The Pennsylvania assembly bans the import of slaves.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America1713-Queen Anne's War ends with the Treaty of Utrecht.1714-1727-Reign of George I.1714-Tea is introduced for the first time into the colonies.1716-The first black slaves are brought to the Louisianaterritory.1717-Scots-Irish immigration increases, with most settling inwestern Pennsylvania. Many Germans, known asPennsylvania Dutch, also begin to settle in Pennsylvania.

1718-New Orleans is founded by the French.

1729-Bach writes the St. Matthew Passion.-Isaac Newton's Principia is translated from Latin intoEnglish.

1722-The first reliable treatise on ironmetallurgy, Réaumur’s essay on the art ofconverting iron into steel, is written.

1722-1803-Life of Samuel Adams.1725-The population of black slaves in the American coloniesreaches 75,000.1726-The poor riot in Philadelphia, tearing down the pilloriesand stocks and burning them.1727-1760-Reign of George II.1728-The first colonial synagogue is built by Jewish colonistsin New York City.

1729-Benjamin Franklin begins publishing The PennsylvaniaGazette.

1732-By this time, there are six blast-furnacesand nineteen hammer-forges, besides numerousbloomeries, in the British colonies of NorthAmerica.Mid 18th century-The first known round-housepost-mills are constructed.-By employing a continuous process of feedingore and fuel into the furnace as the pig iron istapped, furnaces are producing twice the amountof pig iron per day as the first blast furnaces of1500, while consuming less fuel.-Cast iron is applied to uses where stone, woodand other metals had formerly served.

1730-Baltimore is founded in the Maryland colony.1731-Benjamin Franklin founds the first colonial public inPhiladelphia.1732-The first colonial mass is celebrated in the only Catholicchurch, in Philadelphia.-Georgia, the 13th English colony, is founded by JamesOglethorpe as a haven for those in debtors' prisons.1732-1799-Life of George Washington.1732-1757-Benjamin Franklin publishes Poor Richard'sAlmanac.1733-The Molasses Act imposes heavy duties on molasses,rum and sugar imported from non-British islands in theCaribbean.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial Americaand other metals had formerly served.-Cast iron gears are used in the mill, allowingfor improvements in turning.1738-Schlüter’s metallurgical handbook iswritten.

Caribbean.1734-John Peter Zenger, a New York newspaper publisher, isaccused of seditious libel by the Governor. He is acquittedafter his lawyer successfully convinces the jury that truth is adefense against libel.-The Great Awakening religious revival movement beginswith Jonathan Edwards, a Congregationalist clergyman,preaching a series of sermons in Northampton, Massachusetts.Over the next ten years the revival, led by Edwards andGeorge Whitefield, will sweep all of the American colonies.1734-1820-Life of Daniel Boone.1735-1818-Life of Paul Revere.1735-1826-Life of John Adams.1737-The first colonial copper coins are minted inConnecticut.

1739-England declares war on Spain. As a result, hostilitiesbreak out between Spaniards in Florida and colonists inGeorgia and South Carolina. Three separate violent uprisingsby black slaves occur in South Carolina.

1740-Captain Vitus Bering, a Dane employed by Russia,discovers Alaska.-Frederick II “the Great” is crowned king of Prussia.1746-The British defeat the Scots under the Stuart Pretender,Prince Charles, at Culloden Moor, the last battle fought onBritish soil.

1745-Edmund Lee patents the automatic fantail,keeping a windmill facing directly into the eyeof the wind.

1740-Fifty black slaves are hanged in Charleston, SouthCarolina, after their plans for revolt are revealed.1740-1748-In Europe, the War of the Austrian Succession,known as King George’s War in the colonies, begins after thedeath of Emperor Charles VI and results in France and Spainallying against England.1741-Russian Tsar, Peter the Great, sponsors Danishnavigator, Vitus Bering, to explore the coast of Alaska.1743-Benjamin Franklin and his associates found theAmerican Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.1743-1826-Life of Thomas Jefferson.1745-Colonial forces capture the French fort of Louisbourg.1747-The New York Bar Association is founded in New YorkCity.1748-The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends King George's War.Louisbourg is returned to the French.

1751-Publication of the Encyclopédie, the “bible” of theEnlightenment, begins in France.1755-Samuel Johnson's Dictionary is first published.-A great earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal kills over 60,000.1757-The British Empire in India begins, as Robert Clive,British commander, defeats Nawab of Bengal at Plassey.

c1750-Good sheet iron is produced by rolling-and slitting-mills.1759-John Smeaton presents to the RoyalSociety the first scientific study of windmillsails.

1750-The Iron Act bans the construction of iron mills andsteel furnaces in the colonies.1751-The Currency Act bans the issuing of paper money bythe New England colonies.1752-The first general hospital is founded in Philadelphia.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial AmericaBritish commander, defeats Nawab of Bengal at Plassey.1759-Voltaire writes Candide.-Haydn composes Symphony No. 1.

1752-1836-Life of Betsy Ross.1753-Benjamin Franklin and William Hunter are appointed aspostmasters general for the colonies.1754-The French and Indian War, known in Europe as theSeven Years’ War, begins as a result of disputes over land inthe Ohio River Valley.1755-English General Edward Braddock and GeorgeWashington battle the French in the Ohio territory, only to bedefeated by a force of French and Indians. Braddock ismortally wounded and is replaced by Massachusetts GovernorWilliam Shirley as the new commander in chief.-The U.S. postal service is established.1755-1804-Life of Alexander Hamilton.1757-William Pitt, England's Secretary of State, establishes apolicy of unlimited warfare.1758-English forces are defeated in Lake George, New Yorkby French forces at Fort Ticonderoga.-The first Indian reservation in America is founded, in NewJersey.1759-French Fort Niagara is captured by the English.

-War erupts between Cherokee Indians and southerncolonists.

1762-Catherine II (“the Great”) becomes the czarina ofRussia.-Jean Jacques Rousseau writes his Social Contract.-Mozart tours Europe as a six-year-old prodigy.1765-James Watt invents the steam engine.1769-Sir William Arkwright patents a spinning machine, anearly step in the Industrial Revolution.

Late 18th century-The role of carbon is finallyrecognized as the essential difference betweenwrought and cast iron and steel.

1760-1801-Reign of George III.1760-Much of Boston is destroyed by a raging fire.-Quebec surrenders to the English.1763-The Treaty of Paris ends the French and Indian War.-The Ottawa Native Americans under Chief Pontiac beginwarfare against the British west of Niagara. His forces areeventually defeated near Pittsburgh.-The Proclamation of 1763 forbids settlement west of theAppalachian Mountains.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial AmericaAppalachian Mountains.1764-The Sugar Act is passed as a means of raising revenuefrom the colonists.-A committee of correspondence is formed by MassachusettsHouse of Representatives to foster discussion of commongrievances with other colonies. 1765-The Stamp Act imposes a direct tax on all printedmaterial in the colonies. Colonists protest through mobaction, boycotts of British goods, and the Stamp ActCongress. -The Quartering Act requires the colonists to house Britishtroops.1766-The Stamp Act is repealed on the same day theDeclaratory Act is passed.-The Declaratory Act declares total Parliamentary supremacyover the colonies.1767-The Townshend Acts place duties on colonialimportation of glass, lead, paints, paper and tea, leading towidespread boycotts of British goods.

1772-Joseph Priestley and Daniel Rutherford independentlydiscover nitrogen.-The Austria, Prussia and Russia divide the land and people ofPoland in 1772, 1793, and 1795, ending its independence.1775-Priestley discovers hydrochloric and sulfuric acids.1776-Adam Smith writes Wealth of Nations.-Edward Gibbon writes The Decline and Fall of the RomanEmpire.

1772-In England, Andrew Meikle invents thespring-sail for windmills, solving the problem ofsetting and shortening the sail-cloths in poorweather.

1770- The Boston Massacre occurs when British troops fireon a Boston mob, killing three colonists and injuring eight.-The Townshend Acts are repealed except for the tax on tea.1773-The Tea Act repeals the export tax on English teaheading for the colonies, but maintains a three-penny importtax on the colonists. The East India Company is grantedmonopoly of the tea trade. The Boston Tea Party results withBoston colonists dumping East India Company tea into theBoston Harbor.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial AmericaEmpire.-Fragonard paints Washerwoman.-Mozart composes the Haffner Serenade.1778-Franz Mesmer uses hypnotism.

Boston colonists dumping East India Company tea into theBoston Harbor.1774-The Coercive (Intolerable) Acts are passed to quell therebelliousness of the Massachusetts Colony. The Boston PortAct prevents any trade ships from entering or leaving theBoston harbor until the East India Company is reimbursed forits stolen tea. The Administration of Justice Act allowsBritish officials accused of crimes in Massachusetts to betried in British, rather than colonial courts. The GovernmentAct dissolves the Massachusetts Assembly, making allMassachusetts officials appointed by the King or the royalgovernor. The First Continental Congress meets inPhiladelphia with representatives from all of thecolonies except Georgia. The Congress issues a Declarationand Resolves, which oppose the Coercive Acts and assert therights of colonists and colonial assemblies.1775-The Battles of Lexington and Concord are the result ofBritish troops marching to Concord to destroy an arms depotthere. The Massachusetts militia retaliates, beginning theRevolutionary War. The second Continental Congress meetsin Philadelphia, appointing George Washingtonas commander of the Continental Army but still rejecting adeclaration of independence.1776-Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" is published and iswidely read.-A declaration of independence is adopted by the SecondContinental Congress.-The British defeat Washington’s Continental Army at severalbattles in the New York area.1777-Revolutionaries win the Battle of Saratoga, forcingBritish General Burgoyne to surrender. France officiallyrecognizes the independence of the United States.1778-The U.S. and French sign a treaty of alliance and atreaty of amity and commerce which stated that in the case ofa war between the British and French, the French would notmake peace until U.S. independence was assured. Francedeclares war on Britain. Spain and the Netherlands later joinFrance in the war.

1781-Immanuel Kant writes Critique of Pure Reason.Herschel discovers Uranus.1783-William Blake writes his poetry.

c1784-Henry Cort invents the puddling process,in which the evolved heat of coal fuel wastransmitted by reverberation to make pig ironinto bar iron, ensuring the triumph of coal iniron metallurgy.

1780-Pennsylvania mandates the gradual abolition ofslavery. Massachusetts adopts a bill of rights that applies toblacks and whites equally.

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Medieval Europe Iron & Mills Colonial America-Beethoven's works are first printed.1784-Crimea is annexed by Russia.-John Wesley writes Deed of Declaration, the basic work ofMethodism.1785-Russians settle the Aleutian Islands.1787-Lavoisier completes his work on chemicalnomenclature.-Mozart composes Don Giovanni.1788-The French Parlement presents grievances to LouisXVI, who agrees to the convening of the Estates-General in1789, not called since 1613.-Goethe writes Egmont.-Laplace writes Laws of the Planetary System.1789-1799-The French Revolution begins with the stormingof the Bastille.

into bar iron, ensuring the triumph of coal iniron metallurgy.1789-Stephen Hooper invents the roller-reefingsail, allowing all blinds in the windmill sails tobe opened and closed simultaneously withoutstopping the mill.

-The British defeat the revolutionaries at the Battle of CharlesTown.1781-British General Cornwallis surrenders to revolutionaryand French troops. 1782-Many British loyalists leave the United States forCanada and elsewhere.1783-The Treaty of Paris ends the Revolutionary War.1789-1797-Presidency of George Washington.

1790-The H.M.S. Bounty mutineers settle on Pitcairn Island.-Aloisio Galvani experiments on electrical stimulation of themuscles.-Lavoisier formulates Table of 31 chemical elements.1791-Boswell writes Life of Johnson.1792-Mary Wollstonecraft writes Vindication of the Rights ofWoman.1793-Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are executed. TheReign of Terror begins in France.1794-Kosciusko's uprising in Poland is quelled by theRussians.-The Reign of Terror ends with the execution of Robespierre.1796-Napoléon Bonaparte, a French general, defeats theAustrians.-Edward Jenner introduces the smallpox vaccination.1798- Napoléon extends French conquests to Rome andEgypt.1799-The Rosetta Stone is discovered in Egypt.-Napoléon leads a coup that overthrows the Directory,establishes the Consulate, and becomes the First Consul, oneof three who rule France together.

1795-American, Oliver Evans, designs the firstautomatic mill for the mass-production of flour,using power-driven roller-mills and cylindricalbolters.

1797-1801-Presidency of John Adams.1798-The U.S. Navy Department is established.


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