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Memory
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Studying and Building Memories
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Studying Memory
• Memorythe persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of information.
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Components of MemoryEncoding the processing of info into the memory systems
Storageprocess of retaining encoded info over time.
Retrievalthe process of getting info out of memory storage
Parallel processingthe brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions at the same time
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Working Memory• Atkinson and Shiffrin Theory
– Sensory memorythe immediate, very brief recording of sensory info
– Short-term memoryactivated memory that holds a few items briefly
– Long-term memoryrelatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
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Memory Models
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Working Memory
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Building Memories:Effortful Versus Automatic Processing
• Explicit memory (declarative memory)facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.”
• Effortful processingencoding that requires attention and conscious effort
• Automatic processingunconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time
• Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)retention independent of conscious recollection
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Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory
• Magic number Seven items (like a phone #)--Plus or minus 2
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Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units
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Effortful Processing Strategies
• Mnemonicsmemory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
– Visual imagery– ROY G BIV– Acronym - HOMES
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Effortful Processing Strategies
• Hierarchies
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Distributed Practice--Study Strategies
• Spacing effecttendency for distributed study to yield better long-term retention than cramming
– Massed practice– Distributed practice
• Testing effectenhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information
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Making Material Personally Meaningful--Study Strategies
• Making material meaningful
• Self-reference effect
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Memory Storage and Retrieval
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Retaining Information in the Brain:
• Hippocampusa neural center in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
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Emotions, and Memory
• Flashbulb Memories a clear memoryof an emotionally significant moment or event
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Memory Storage
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Retrieval: Getting Information Out
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Retrieval Cues:
• Primingthe activation, oftenunconsciously, of particular associations in memory
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Retrieval Cues: Context-Dependent Memory
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Retrieval Cues: • State dependent memory• Mood congruent memory
recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood.
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Retrieval Cues: Serial Position Effect
• Serial position effectour tendency to recall best certain items in a list
– Recency effectrecall best the last items in a list
– Primacy effect recall best the first items in a list
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Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Memory
Improvement
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Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind
• Anterograde amnesiainability to form new memories
• Retrograde amnesia inability to retrieve information from one’s past
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Storage Decay
• Storage decay– Ebbinghaus curve
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Retrieval Failure: Interference• Proactive interference (forward acting)
disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info
• Retroactive interference (backward-acting)disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info
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Memory Construction Errors
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Misinformation and Imagination Effects
Misinformation effectincorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
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Memory Construction Errors
• Source amnesia (source misattribution)attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
• Déjà vuthat eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
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Improving Memory
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Improving Memory
• Rehearse repeatedly• Make the material meaningful• Activate retrieval cues• Use mnemonic devices• Minimize interference• Sleep more• Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse
it and to help determine what you do not yet know