Transcript
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THE

MISUNDERSTOOD

MIDDLE AGES

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A BAD PRESS !

“There is something dark and wintry about the atmosphere of the Middle Ages”

“The obscure and fanatical days of the Middle Ages”

“In the absence of evidence – superstition . It’s a Middle Ages thing”

“The philosophers of the Middle Ages demonstrated that the Earth did not exist and it was flat”

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HISTORY HAS CONTEXT AND CONTENT

Historians often define and give give value laden names to historical periods to give emphasis to their own times , convictions and areas of expertise

Thus Renaissance historians in the 16th century talked of “The Middle Ages when human consciousness lay dreaming or half awake” in their attempt to revive Greek and Latin learning and diminish the achievements of the Middle Ages

We shall take a look at some of the major achievements of the Middle Ages and show how they anticipated many modern institutions and thinking

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THE MIDDLE AGES –WHEN WERE THEY ?

Early Middle Ages from 500 to 1000 A.D. Barbarian incursions , shift of power from Rome to Constantinople

High Middle Ages from 1000 to 1200 A.D . Balance of power back to Western Europe . Economic , social , commercial , intellectual growth

Late Middle Ages from 1200 to 1500 A .D . Growth of city states and national monarchies . Inspiration from the Classical era . Development of the Renaissance

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MAJOR NATURAL EVENTS

Mediaeval Cooling 500-900 ,severely affecting agriculture and economic growth

Mediaeval Warming 900-1300 giving rise to agricultural , economic and population growth

The Little Ice Age 1300+ giving rise to famine , depopulation , war and disease

The Black Death 1348-50 , estimated to have killed at least 30% of Europe’s population .

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THE TURBULENT MIDDLE AGES

The 100 years war

Expansion of Islam

The Crusades

Medieval warming

Agricultural growth

Economic growth

Population growth

The Little Ice Age

The Black Death

The fall of Byzantium

The growth of universities

The flourishing of art and architecture

The growth of philosophy

The development of science and technology

The creation of capitalism

The Papal revolution

Geographical exploration

The discovery of the New World

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SOME MEDIAEVAL MYTHS

It was believed that the earth was flat and centered on Jerusalem

Philosophers debated how many angels could stand on the head of a pin

There were massive programmes of witch burning

Mediaeval lords had a right to sexual relations with the newly married wives of their serfs

Medical dissection was forbidden by the church

Interest on money was forbidden

Etc , etc

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THE RENAISSANCE MYTH

A construct of the 17th century alleging -

The sudden dawning of new thinking after 1500 based on that of Greece and Rome after 1000 years of darkness

The spread of new ideas , the advance of science the reform of religion , the development of capitalism , the discovery of the New World

To include typical Renaissance figures the period was sometimes extended backwards from 1500 by 300 years to include much of the Middle Ages !

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NO KINGS OR QUEENS !

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NO KNIGHTS , NO BATTLES !

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MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Architecture

Art

Literature

Philosophy

Science and Technology

Universities

Capitalism

Monasticism

The Papal Revolution

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ARCHITECTURE

In the early middle ages 800-1100 the Romanesque style was a development of Western Roman and Byzantine architecture

Characterised by thick walls , round arches and a general massiveness and symmetry and spreading across Europe

Many monasteries (Vezelay),castles(Tower of London) and cathedrals(Durham) were built in this style

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ARCHITECTURE

Increasing wealth both secular and ecclesiastical , the growth of cities and the refinement of theological thinking found expression in the Gothic style of architecture

This manifested itself primarily in Gothic cathedrals of which there were hundreds spread throughout Europe

They integrated in a monumental framework major architectural and artistic innovations

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GOTHIC CATHEDRALS The pointed arch and rib vaulting channelled weight

onto columns and enabled the vaulting of irregular spaces

The flying buttress took load bearing from the walls and enabled infilling of the walls with glass

Stained glass was used to create light , colour and an artistic medium on a large scale

Height was also a major feature , internally to 50 , externally to 160 metres

All features were combined in defined geometric proportions and with extensive use of symbolism and colour

All this required near professional architectural and complex logistical and financial planning skills

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“Of all the monuments to human

achievement there is none to match

these towers of tracery and glass that

burst into the light of Northern Europe

before the year 1200”

“There were no further basic principles of

architecture until the invention of steel

and concrete and reinforced concrete

buildings”

“The cathedrals were built by the

common consent of the townspeople and

for them by common masons”

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THE BEST IN THEIR CLASS

A ranking 1 to 20 of the most excellent in major fields of the arts and sciences

Based on the combined judgement of a wide variety of the most knowledgeable people in each field

Reflects those achievements which have endured across the centuries

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ART

Covered many locations , movements and

media

Early influences were Byzantine , Germanic and

Islamic art

Romanesque art was very inventive, vigorous

and expressive with a strong religious emphasis

Gothic art gradually changed from the 13th

century into the expression of religious , natural

and personal themes known inappropriately as

Renaissance art

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GIOTTO 1266-1337 8

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DONATELLO 1386-1466 14

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JAN VAN EYCK 1395-1441 15

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MASACCIO 1401-1428 18

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LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452-1519 4

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DURER 1471-1528 6

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RAPHAEL 1483-1520 3

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LITERATURE

Religious and secular , much of it anonymous

Courtly love , epics and political content

Beowulf 8th-11th century

Wolfram von Eschenbach 1170-1220

Dante 1265-1321 3

Boccaccio 1313-1375 15

Geoffrey Chaucer end of 14th century

Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527

Petrarch 1304-1374 12

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PY PP

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PHILOSOPHY

Peter Abelard 1079-1142 was a leading philosopher , theologian and preeminent logician

Helped establish the authority of Aristotle over Plato

Made major contributions to ethics

His affair with Heloise ended his career

He is buried with her in Pere Lachaise cemetery in Paris

A highly aggressive debater he made many enemies

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PHILOSOPHY

Thomas Aquinas 1225-1274 6 was responsible for the systemization of Latin theology

Used the Scholastic Method , built around arguments for and against a proposition

Used the thinking and logic of Aristotle to create an unparalleled synthesis of Christian and Pagan philosophy and theology

Reinforced the use of reason in the interpretation of natural events

Showed that Aristotle could be in error e.g. that the world was not eternal , and so mediaeval philosophers could move beyond the Greeks

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PHILOSOPHY

Duns Scotus 1265-1308 developed further logical arguments to show that it was not necessary to accept Aristotle’s world view

William of Ockham 1288-1348 introduced the idea of looking for simplest explanations “Ockhams Razor” and a strong emphasis on empiricism . He introduced logical innovations which would be taken up by 20th century mathematical logic

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THE PRIMACY OF REASON

“It is possible to achieve an understanding of the rational order inherent in nature , an understanding as complete as the extent that human knowledge progresses” Adelard of Bath 1080-1152

“Authority is inferior to reason because it deals with opinions about truth rather than truth itself . Only reason can settle the question” Peter Abelard 1079-1142

Reason became a moral obligation of the highest order

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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

In the Middle Ages the empirically based philosophical approach of Aristotle took over from that of Plato and his Physics underpinned the approach to science

Mediaeval scholars beginning in Oxford emphasised the need for ideas , however attractive , to be complemented and tested by observation and experiment

Robert Grosseteste 1170-1253 and Roger Bacon 1214-1294 took forward this approach especially in optics

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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

In 1284 spectacles were invented in Florence

Witelo 1250-75 wrote a book on optics which became the standard text for 200 years

At about the same time the mechanical clock was invented in England .

Richard of Wallingford 1292-1336 built a clock which incorporated an astrolabe and tide timer and showed star positions and lunar eclipses

Meanwhile at Oxford……..

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THE MERTON CALCULATORS

Thomas Bradwardine 1209-1349 , Richard Swineshead fl1340-55 , William Heytesbury 1313-73 applied mathematics to Aristotelean problems of motion

In the process they developed the concept of logarithms and formulae for motion under gravity

The development of science then moved across the Channel

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THE APOGEE OF MEDIEVAL SCIENCE

The cathedral school of Chartres in the early twelfth century under Thierry became a focus of scientific thinking

“In a period of fifteen to twenty years in the middle of the twelfth century a handful of men were consciously striving to launch the evolution of Western science and undertook every major step needed to achieve that end”

“Thierry will probably be recognised as one of the true founders of Western science”

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THE APOGEE OF MEDIEVAL SCIENCE

Fibonnaci 1170-1250 19 introduced and developed the application of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system

At the University of Paris Jean Buridan 1300-61 solved the problem of orbital motion

Nicolas Oresme 1325-82 wrote treatises on mechanics and mathematics which found their way across Europe . He was an implacable opponent of astrology

Nicholas of Cusa 1400-64 said that the Earth was not at the centre of the universe

Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519 3 spanned a number of technological areas

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PUTTING IDEAS ON PAPER

Johann Gutenberg 1398-1468 developed

moveable type , the printing press and

smudge free ink to use with paper

This enabled the cheap and rapid

transmission and preservation of ideas

His ideas have been classed as one of the

most influential events in history

Luther 1483-1546 and his opponents made

great use of it

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BUT WAIT THERE’S MORE !

Water mills and their applications

Windmills and their applications

Horse collars , shoes , saddles and stirrups

The heavy plough and harnesses

Cart axles and brakes

The three field system and aquaculture

The round ship , stern rudder and compass

Cannons

Cloth making machinery

Chimneys and fireplaces

Etc , etc

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THE LEVERS OF MEDIAEVAL SCIENCE

The translation of Greco Arabic science and natural philosophy into Latin in the 12th and 13th centuries

The emergence of a class of theologian/natural philosophers who integrated these disciplines in a way that did not happen in Islam or the Christian East

The universities , whose existence and curriculum of science , logic and natural philosophy was the first in history and persisted for 450-500 years

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UNIVERSITIES

An utterly new phenomenon in world history

Had faculties , courses of study ,

examinations and degrees

Distinguished between undergraduate and

graduate study

Eighty one universities had been established

by the reformation

750,000 students graduated between 1350

and 1500 !

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UNIVERSITIES

Formed themselves into corporations guaranteeing autonomy

Often established by but not beholden to popes and kings

Could survive the death or departure of the founding members

The world’s first true university was the law school in Bologna 1158 . The students were in charge and employed the masters to teach them !

Universities excelled in specific subjects such as law , arts , medicine and theology

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UNIVERSITIES

Lecturing changed from transmission of texts

perhaps with commentary to disputations

where masters and students argued until the

topic was determined by a senior master

The logical process used was that of Aristotle

but expanded as the Middle Ages progressed

Gave rise to Scholasticism which featured

the use of reason in the process of dialectic

or resolution of opposing positions

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UNIVERSITIES

The existence , nature and importance of universities was recognised outside Europe

“We further hear now that the philosophical sciences are greatly cultivated in the land of Rome and along the northern shore of the country of the European Christians . They are said to be studied there again and to be taught in numerous classes . Existing systematic expositions of them are said to be comprehensive , the people who know them numerous and the students of them very many” Ibn Khaldun 1332-1406

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CAPITALISM

What is it ?

“An economic system , wherein privately owned , relatively well organised and stable firms pursue complex commercial activities within a relatively free market taking a systematic long term approach to investing and reinvesting wealth in productive activities , involving a hired workforce and guided by anticipated and actual returns”

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CAPITALISM - HOW IT STARTED

St Augustine 354-430 taught that commerce was not wicked and price was a function of the buyer’s desire as well as the producer’s costs

By the 9th century monastic estates , due to agricultural innovations, were producing surpluses which they sold to purchase other needs

Profits were reinvested , incomes mounted and the monasteries became de facto banks lending to the nobility

The capitalist components of trade , cash and specialisation came into being

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CAPITALISM – THE MONASTIC STAGE

Monasteries grew into large complexes of buildings , churches , workshops , store houses , offices , schools , alms houses with a large population of dependents , workers and servants

This required the development of the processes of management of all factors of production at a tactical and strategic level

Commercial relationships required the use of cash

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CAPITALISM – THE MONASTIC STAGE

By 1200 the use of cash by monasteries as a

basis of trade was widespread across Europe

They lent money at interest through loans or

mortgages

They utilised hired labour , which was more

productive than tenants or the monks

themselves

They had become capitalist organisations

They now began to examine capitalism’s

intellectual underpinnings

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CAPITALISM –THE ITALIAN CITY STATES

Venice , Genoa , Florence and Milan in the 13th century took the monastic business model and developed it

The rational firm evolved with constant rules governing the development and operation of information , procedures and people

Double entry bookkeeping was developed and extensively used

A clear distinction was maintained between ownership and management

International trade grew but posed problems with transfers of large amounts of cash

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CAPITALISM – EUROPEAN BANKS

Bills of exchange were developed so there was no need to transfer money

Insurance grew to minimise the “risk of ventures”

By the mid 13th century there was a network of Italian banks across Europe

They moved north to service the woollen industry and catalysed the development of capitalism in The Low Countries and England in the 14th and 15th centuries

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THEOLOGY AND CAPITALISM

In the 12th century St Albertus Magnus said that the just price is what goods are worth in the estimation of the market at the time of sale

Interest was justified on credit to take into account risk or “adventure of the principal”

Profits and property rights were also justified by theologians

“They came up with generally favourable views in contrast to those of the previous six to seven centuries”

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THEOLOGY AND CAPITALISM

Jean Buridan 1300-58 ,Nicholas Oresme

1325-82 Pierre Olivi 1248-98 and Cardinal

Cajetan 1468-1534 developed ;

Theories of money , foreign exchange , just

price , subjective value

Their work affirmed the importance of the

market in the economy , and was confirmed

in the 20th century after the labour theory of

Marx had been discredited

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MONASTICISM

St Benedict in 529 composed his Rule and set up the monastery of Monte Cassino

The spiritual life was structured but non ascetic engaging with the world as indicated by the expression “laborare est orare”

At its height there were 37,000 monasteries

Each house was independent of the others

Foci of major contributions to the Middle Ages

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MONASTICISM

Preserved and disseminated historic and current culture and knowledge

Introduced a wide variety of agricultural practices including irrigation in the rearing of crops and animals and transformed Europe from a wasteland into a profitable agriculture based economy

Developed also industrial processes based on wind and water power as well as mining and metallurgy

Provided a wide variety of charitable works including hospitals

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THE PAPAL REVOLUTION

Before and after but dominated by Pope Gregory VII 1073-1085

A reorganisation of the Church and of the knowledge, values, laws and institutions of Europe

In an environment of microscopic political entities where political leaders corruptly filled church offices which were in turn corruptly administered

Gregory implemented the following measures as part of a change of culture in the church from internally individually focussed contemplation to externally organisationally focussed activism to transform the world for the better

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THE PAPAL REVOLUTION

Abolition of simony , and lay investitures and appointment by the church of celibate bishops , abbots and priests

Reinvigoration and Christianisation of Roman law in civil and penal matters

Extension of law to constitutional matters giving rise to the constitutional state

The creation of universities with faculties of law and arts embracing the best of Greek and Latin traditions

Launching of programmes of religious change at both an emotional and intellectual level by St Francis 1181-1226 and St Dominic 1170-1221

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THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLD

Europe began strong demographic, urban , economic and geopolitical growth

Commenced its long term rise against other world civilisations

Between 1000 and 1500 Europe’s population grew faster than in any other part of the world

There was a doubling of wealth in terms of GDP per capita and Europe had overtaken China by the 14th century

The Eastern Empire ceased to exist -1453

The West was discovered -1492

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STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS

Everyone knows that Isaac Newton in 1676

first used this phrase to show his

dependence on earlier scholars

But it was first used for the same reason by

Bernard of Chartres in the early 12th Century

It is to be hoped that this talk has provided

some understanding of the “giant people ,

institutions and processes” of the Middle

ages on whose shoulders modernity stands

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NEXT WEEK

An in depth look

illustrated with

pictures and video of

the medieval figure

about whom more

has been written than

any other woman in

history

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