Physical self-perception and motor performance in normal-weight,overweight and obese children

M. Morano1,2, D. Colella1, C. Robazza3, L. Bortoli3, L. Capranica2

1Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy, 2Department of Human Movement and Sport Science,University Foro Italico, Rome, Italy, 3Department of Human Movement Science, University G. DAnnunzio, Chieti, ItalyCorresponding author: Milena Morano, Universita` di Foggia, Scienze delle Attivita` Motorie e Sportive, Laboratorio diDidattica delle Attivita` Motorie, Viale Virgilio, Quartiere CEP, 71100 Foggia, Italy. Tel: 139 0881 309337, Fax: 139 0881309346, E-mail: milenamorano@gmail.com

Accepted for publication 2 November 2009

The aim of this study was to examine the relationshipsamong physical self-perception, body image and motorperformance in Italian middle school students. Two hundredand sixty children were categorized into normal-weight(n5 103), overweight (n5 86) or obese (n5 71) groups.Perceived coordination, body fat and sports competencewere assessed using the Physical Self-Description Ques-tionnaire, while body image was measured using CollinsChild Figure Drawings. Individuals perceptions of strength,speed and agility were assessed using the Perceived PhysicalAbility Scale. Tests involving the standing long jump, 2 kgmedicine-ball throw, 10 5m shuttle-run and 20 and 30m

sprints were also administered. Girls, when compared withboys, and overweight and obese participants, when com-pared with normal-weight peers, reported lower perceivedand actual physical competence, higher perceived body fatand greater body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfactionmediated all the associations between body mass index(BMI) and the dierent aspects of physical self-perceptionin boys, but not in girls. The same pattern of results wasfound for physical self-perception as a mediator of therelationship between BMI and body dissatisfaction. Inconclusion, obesity proved to have adverse eects on bothmotor performance and physical self-perception.

Pediatric obesity has increased dramatically in theEuropean Union over the past three decades (Lob-stein et al., 2004). In Italy, 30.9% of male and 19.8%of female children aged 1013 years are overweightor obese, with a higher incidence in the southernregions (Gargiulo et al., 2004). Considering thatobese children are more likely to become obese adultswith negative medical and psychosocial conse-quences, the increased incidence of pediatric obesityis a social concern (Reilly et al., 2003). Although thedetrimental eects on physical health of childhoodobesity are well established, the impact on psycho-logical well-being is much less clear (Wardle &Cooke, 2005).Research showed that obese children exhibit

poorer performance on weight-bearing tasks (De-forche et al., 2003) and tend to be less active (Trostet al., 2001) than their non-obese peers. Overweightand obesity impact the physical self-perception ofchildren entering adolescence, especially girls (Frank-lin et al., 2006). Physical self-perception has beenidentied as an important correlate of physicalactivity, motor competence and performance inchildhood (Crocker et al., 2000; Raudsepp et al.,

2002; Southall et al., 2004). Several authors haveidentied dierent components of physical self-perception within a multidimensional perspective ofself-concept (e.g., Fox, 1998; Marsh, 2002). It hasbeen suggested that physical self-perception plays acrucial role during childhood and adolescence in thedevelopment of personality (Harter, 1999). Marshand Craven (2006) have suggested the causal rela-tionships between specic components of self-con-cept (such as perceived sport competence andcoordination) and performance in related areas tobe dynamic and reciprocal.Perceived competence (i.e., the individuals percep-

tion of physical condition, sport and strength com-petence) is a main component of physical self-perception. It is thought to mediate the relationshipbetween childrens motor competence and subse-quent adolescent physical activity (Southall et al.,2004; Barnett et al., 2008). The mediating role ofperceived competence on physical activity is animportant, yet underestimated, causal mechanismpartially responsible for the physical inactivity and,subsequently, for obesity (Stodden et al., 2008). Thelink of perceived competence to physical activity

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seems to be related to gender, with boys being morephysically active and perceiving themselves to havegreater strength and sport competence than theirfemale counterparts (Crocker et al., 2000; Raudseppet al., 2002).In addition to perceiving themselves as fatter, less

coordinated and competent in sport and exercise(Sung et al., 2005), obese children tend to showgreater dissatisfaction with their body image thanleaner children (Newman et al., 2006). Body imagehas been conceptualized as an individuals psycholo-gical experience of the appearance and function ofhis or her own body and is one aspect of anindividuals mental representation of the self (Cash& Prunzinsky, 1990). A growing body of literaturehas attempted to validate the notion that physicalexercise and activity are positively related to bodyimage through physical tness changes (Martin &Lichtenberger, 2004). However, Martin and Lichten-berger suggested that the eects of exercise on bodyimage should be mediated by individuals percep-tions of their physical tness and competence. Thus,subjective perceptions of ones competence may notnecessarily be related to actual physical performance,because of varying levels of comfort with ones ownbody or unrealistic and idealistic notions of onesperformance.Much of the research on exercisebody image

relationship has been conducted in college-age andolder men and woman, and there are no similarstudies specically targeting children (Tanaka,2006). Therefore, there is a need to better understandthe links among morphological characteristics, phy-sical self-perception, body image and motor perfor-mance, because these factors have been thought toinuence physical activity in children and adolescents(Southall et al., 2004). The present investigationaimed at determining the relationships among somedimensions of physical self-perception, body imageand dierent aspects of motor performance in nor-mal-weight, overweight and obese children, and alsoconsidered gender dierences. Some of these relation-ships have been examined separately in previousresearch. In our study, we adopted a multidimen-sional approach to examine several factors in anattempt to attain a better understanding of the linksamong morphological aspects, physical self-percep-tion, body image and motor performance. It washypothesized that overweight and obese participantswould perceive themselves to have poorer coordina-tion, sports competence and physical ability, andwould display greater body dissatisfaction and lowerperformance levels on weight-bearing tasks than theirnormal-weight peers. Furthermore, girls were ex-pected to report lower sports competence and per-ceived physical ability (PPA) scores, and to be moredissatised with body self-perception than boys.

An additional objective was to examine the eectsof overweight and obesity on body dissatisfaction(considered as a discrepancy between perceived ac-tual body shape and ideal body shape) and onspecic components of physical self-perception (i.e.,coordination, sport competence, body fat and phy-sical ability). Drawing on the reciprocal eect modelsuggested by Marsh and Craven (2006), reciprocalmediation eects were hypothesized to occur be-tween body dissatisfaction and physical self-percep-tion factors with respect to overweight and obesity. Itwas expected that body dissatisfaction would med-iate the association between obesity and other as-pects of physical self-perception and, vice versa, thatphysical self-perception components would mediatethe link between obesity and body dissatisfaction.

Materials and methodsParticipants

The Life Sciences Research Committee of the University ofFoggia approved the research protocol. The criterion forinclusion in the study was the childrens involvement inmandatory Physical Education school programs consistingof two 1-h lessons per week. Two hundred and sixty students(140 boys and 120 girls) from sixth to eighth grade (age:12.2 0.9 years; range: 1114 years) of three public schools ina south-east region of Italy participated in this study. Aninformed written consent was obtained from the students andtheir parents.

Anthropometric evaluation

Standing height to the nearest 0.1 cm and body weight to thenearest 0.1 kg were measured using a portable stadiometer(Seca 220, GmbH & Co., Hamburg, Germany) and a balancescale (Seca 761, GmbH & Co.), respectively. Measurementswere carried out in the morning at the school with theparticipants wearing light indoor clothing and no shoes.Height and weight measures were used to calculate thestudents body mass index (BMI, kg/m2). According to theInternational Obesity Task Force cut-o points (Cole et al.,2000), children were categorized into normal-weight (n5 103;54 boys and 49 girls), overweight (n5 86; 46 boys and 40 girls)and obese (n5 71; 40 boys and 31 girls) groups.

Evaluation of physical self-perception

Perceived physical self was assessed using two questionnaires.The rst was the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire(PSDQ; Marsh et al., 1994). The Italian version (Meledduet al., 2002) was validated in children ranging from 13 to 18 yearsof age. To measure the specic components of the physical self(i.e., coordination, body fat and sports competence), 18 itemsrated on a six-point Likert scale (ranging from 15 false to65 true) were used. These three components have beenassessed to determine the extent to which dierences amongnon-overweight, overweight and obese children in self-percep-tion of physical competence might be associated with thoseemerging from physical performance tests. Higher scores oncoordination, body fat and sports competence are related tohigher self-perception of these characteristics. In this study,the internal consistency coecients of the three subscales

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showed Cronbachs a values ranging from 0.86 to 0.93 on thewhole sample and from 0.80 to 0.92 for the three groups,separately.

The second measure of physical self-perception was anadapted version of the PPA subscale of the physical self-ecacy scale developed by Ryckman et al. (1982). The scaleconsists of 10 items aimed at assessing individuals perceptionsof strength, speed and agility. For each item, participants arerequired to indicate their responses on a ve-point scaleanchored by 15 yes, very much and 55 no, not at all.Items 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 assess positive perception of physicalability (i.e., quick reaction and action, strength, motor con-trol). The other ve items highlight the perception of thediculty of movement (i.e., lack of control, clumsiness andmuscle weakness) and their scores are reversed. Higher totalscores correspond to a better PPA. In an Italian version of thescale administered to a large sample of 10- to 20-year-oldparticipants, the Cronbachs a value of the scores was 0.81(Bortoli & Robazza, 1997). In the present study, reliabilityvalues of the positive scale were 0.79 (they ranged from 0.69 to0.82 on the three groups). In contrast, a low reliability (avalue5 0.65) emerged for the negative scale, with coecientsnot increasing after removing items. Because of its unsatisfac-tory reliability level, scores of the negative scale were notconsidered in the analysis.

Evaluation of body image

Body image was measured by Collins Child Figure Drawings(Collins, 1991), seven silhouette gures of boys and girlsprogressing from very thin to obese. The participants wereasked to select two pictures representing their actual and idealbody shapes. Body dissatisfaction was then calculated as theselfideal discrepancy: a score of zero indicated body satisfac-tion, while negative and positive scores reected a desire to befatter and thinner, respectively. Collins (1991) reported 3-daytestretest reliability coecients of 0.71 and 0.59 for currentimage and ideal image, respectively. Criterion-related validitycoecients were also established through correlation of pic-torial self-selection with weight (0.36, Po0.05) and BMI (0.37,Po0.05).

Assessment of physical self-perception and body imagetook place individually under the supervision of an investiga-tor. After ensuring the condentiality of the responses, stu-dents were assured that there were no right or wrong answers.

Evaluation of physical performance

Dierent aspects of motor performance were assessed, includ-ing the power of lower limbs, upper limb strength and sprintability, which were reported to be reliable and valid measuresin childhood and adolescence (Eurot, 1993; Morrow et al.,2005). The power of lower limbs was assessed by means of astanding long jump, requiring participants to jump as far aspossible from a standing position and recording the perfor-mance in centimeters. Upper limb strength was evaluated bymeans of an overhead throw of a 2 kg medicine ball, from astanding position with both feet together. The childrens sprintability was evaluated by means of 20 and 30m sprints and a10 5m shuttle-run, with performances recorded to thenearest 0.01 s. Participants were allowed two trials for eachtest with a 5-min recovery period. The tests were administeredin the same order to all participants during their physicaleducation lesson, and verbal encouragement was provided.The best performance (i.e., highest values in standing longjump and medicine ball throw, and lowest sprint values) wasused for statistical analyses.

Statistics

To assess the internal consistency of the PSDQ and PPAscales, Chronbachs a coecients were computed for thewhole sample and for each group, with values40.70 consid-ered acceptable. A 2 (gender) 3 (group: normal-weight vsoverweight vs obese) analysis of variance was applied to eachdependent variable. When a signicant eect was obtained,post hoc comparisons were performed by means of Scheetests. Eect sizes (ES) were calculated for all signicantndings, with values (negative or positive) of 0.2, 0.6, 1.2and 41.2 indicating trivial, small, moderate and large ES,respectively (Hopkins, 2002). Pearsons productmoment cor-relations (r) were calculated to determine the extent anddirection of linear relationships of BMI and dierent aspectsof physical self-perception with motor performance tests.

The model of Baron and Kenny (1986) was used to test formediation. They provided a denition of mediator as a thirdvariable which represents the generative mechanism throughwhich the focal independent variable is able to inuence thedependent variable of interest (p. 1173). In other words, amediator is a variable that transmits the eect of an indepen-dent variable on a dependent variable. BMI was the indepen-dent variable, while body dissatisfaction and self-perceptionsof coordination, body fat, sport competence and physicalability were tested both as mediators and as dependentvariables, consistent with the reciprocal eects model underanalysis. Consequently, linear regression analyses were con-ducted to assess the eect of body dissatisfaction on therelationships between BMI and physical self-perception as-pects, and the eect of physical self-perception on the linkbetween BMI and body dissatisfaction. According to Baronand Kennys (1986) recommendations, four analyses wereconducted to examine whether a variable functioned as amediator. The rst and the second analysis tested whether theBMI was correlated with a specic dependent variable and thehypothesized mediator, respectively. The third analysis testedthe association of the mediator variable with the dependentvariable. The last analysis included both the BMI and themediator variable as predictors of each dependent variable.Furthermore, indirect eects of the BMI through the mediatoron the dependent variables were tested using the Sobel test (z),with z value40.96 indicating a signicant eect at theP 0.05 level (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). The data wereanalyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science,version 17.0 (SPSS, Chicago, Illinois, USA).

Results

Descriptive statistics for each variable by gender andweight status are reported in Table 1 and Pearsonsproductmoment correlations in Table 2. With re-gard to physical self-perception, the main eects ofgender were found in the perceived coordination(F1,2545 10.2, Po0.002, ES5 0.4), sport competence(F1,2545 11.4, Po0.001, ES5 0.4) and PPA(F1,2545 33.2, Po0.001, ES5 0.7) scales, with boysreporting higher scores than girls. Main eects(Po0.001) were also obtained among groups, withnormal-weight children showing lower perceivedbody fat (F2,2545 109.1, ES5 1.12.6) and highercoordination (F2,2545 35.7, ES5 0.61.3), sportcompetence (F2,2545 22.1, ES5 0.41.0) and PPA

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(F2,2545 16.5, ES5 0.60.8) scores than overweightand obese peers.For body dissatisfaction, signicant eects were

shown on gender (F1,2545 4.7, P5 0.031, ES5 0.2),group (F2,2545 89.0, Po0.001, ES5 0.62.0) andtheir interaction (F2,2545 4.7, Po0.01), with boyspresenting lower values than girls. Post hoc analysisrevealed dierences (Po0.001) between all the groups,with obese children showing the highest values, over-

weight the intermediate and normal-weight the low-est values. Conversely, post hoc analysis for thegender group interaction maintained signicantdierences (P5 0.04) only for the group of normal-weight individuals.With regard to motor performances, main eects

(Po0.001) were consistently found for gender(standing long jump: F1,2545 107.3, ES5 1.0; medi-cine ball-throw: F1,2545 56.0, ES5 0.9; 20m sprint:

Table 1. Descriptive statistics by gender and weight

Variable Group Boys (n5 140) Girls (n5 120)

Mean SD MinimumMaximum Mean SD MinimumMaximum

Anthropometric measuresHeight (cm) NW 155.7 11.0 134.1179.9 155.2 8.9 134.9173.1

OW 156.9 7.7 143.0173.0 156.7 6.7 143.2175.8OB 160.7 10.4 134.9180.1 155.4 8.6 141.0174.0

Weight (kg) NW 45.3 8.7 31.166.9 45.1 8.5 30.064.2OW 57.6 7.3 44.679.0 58.6 7.3 45.179.9OB 75.0 12.5 48.597.0 69.3 11.1 51.299.8

BMI (kg/m2) NW 18.5 1.7 15.622.2 18.6 2.0 15.323.0OW 23.3 1.4 20.926.5 23.8 1.4 20.826.7OB 28.8 2.0 25.633.0 28.6 2.9 25.436.8

Physical self-perceptionCoordination NW 32.5 3.9 20.036.0 29.9 4.8 17.036.0

OW 29.5 4.9 20.036.0 25.5 6.5 9.035.0OB 24.0 6.4 7.036.0 24.0 7.2 10.035.0

Body fat NW 7.5 3.3 6.024.0 9.6 4.8 6.027.0OW 14.8 7.7 6.034.0 17.0 8.5 6.036.0OB 24.1 7.2 6.036.0 23.1 8.0 7.036.0

Sports competence NW 30.7 4.9 10.036.0 27.5 5.9 10.036.0OW 28.0 6.2 11.036.0 23.2 7.2 8.036.0OB 22.7 7.3 6.036.0 22.4 7.7 6.034.0

Physical ability NW 20.8 3.2 11.025.0 17.6 3.2 12.025.0OW 18.5 3.7 11.025.0 15.7 3.2 10.024.0OB 17.0 3.4 11.025.0 15.8 3.4 10.023.0

Body imageCurrent body image NW 3.2 0.6 1.54.0 3.2 0.7 2.05.0

OW 4.2 0.6 3.05.5 4.2 0.7 2.05.0OB 5.3 0.7 3.07.0 4.6 0.6 3.05.5

Ideal body image NW 3.6 0.8 1.07.0 3.0 0.7 1.05.0OW 3.5 0.6 2.05.0 3.1 0.6 2.04.0OB 3.8 0.8 1.05.0 3.3 0.5 2.04.0

Body dissatisfaction NW 0.3 0.9 4.02.0 0.2 0.6 1.01.0OW 0.8 0.8 1.02.5 1.1 0.9 2.03.0OB 1.5 0.7 0.03.0 1.3 0.5 0.52.0

Motor performanceStanding long jump (cm) NW 177.0 18.3 153.0228.0 145.9 8.2 124.9162.1

OW 148.6 21.6 99.9197.1 123.5 22.5 77.3175.7OB 134.1 27.4 90.2209.8 111.7 19.3 70.0150.0

Medicine-ball throw (m) NW 4.9 1.2 2.18.0 4.1 0.7 2.96.0OW 4.8 1.0 3.37.5 4.1 0.9 2.36.5OB 5.7 1.5 3.410.0 4.2 0.9 2.86.2

20m sprint (s) NW 3.8 0.3 3.24.6 4.1 0.3 3.55.1OW 4.1 0.5 3.25.4 4.4 0.5 3.56.6OB 4.3 0.5 3.25.5 4.6 0.4 3.45.3

30m sprint (s) NW 5.4 0.4 4.66.5 5.8 0.4 5.06.9OW 5.9 0.5 4.57.4 6.2 0.5 4.87.5OB 6.2 0.8 4.58.9 6.5 0.6 5.18.0

10 5m shuttle run (s) NW 20.7 1.2 18.122.8 22.5 1.4 19.226.9OW 22.6 1.8 19.226.4 23.8 2.2 19.428.2OB 23.0 1.3 20.025.9 24.6 2.2 21.130.9

SD, standard deviation; MinimumMaximum, range; NW, normal-weight; OW, overweight; OB, obese.

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F1,2545 22.6, ES5 0.5; 30m sprint: F1,2545 28.5,ES5 0.6; and shuttle run: F1,2545 52.1, ES5 0.8),with boys showing best performances. Signicantmain eects (Po0.001) for groups emerged on allmotor tests, with normal-weight children showingbetter performances in the standing long jump(F2,2545 83.6, ES5 0.51.6), shuttle run(F2,2545 40.4, ES5 0.91.3) and 20m (F2,2545 28.9,ES5 0.41.2) and 30m sprint (F2,2545 49.1,ES5 0.51.4) than their overweight and obese peers.Obese children, however, showed better throwingperformances (F2,2545 5.5, ES5 0.40.5) than nor-mal-weight and overweight peers.Body dissatisfaction and physical self-perception

dimensions met each of the conditions necessary tobe tested as a mediator in the analysis (Baron &Kenny, 1986). In the male sample (Fig. 1), bodydissatisfaction was a signicant mediator of the eectof BMI on all dependent variables. Regarding PPA,the direct eect of BMI decreased to a non-signi-cant level, thereby showing a stronger mediationeect of body dissatisfaction. Similarly, PPA andthe three physical self-perception aspects mediatedsignicantly the eect of BMI on body dissatisfac-tion. For girls (Fig. 2), body dissatisfaction was asignicant mediator of the eect of BMI on perceivedbody fat, while perceived body fat was a mediator ofbody dissatisfaction. Other signicant mediating ef-fects did not emerge.

Discussion

This study included a multi-disciplinary approach tothe examination of the relationships among physicalself-perception and motor performance in sedentarynormal-weight, overweight and obese boys and girls.Furthermore, because body image is one of theaspects of psychological well-being more seriously

compromised in obesity (Wardle & Cooke, 2005), weinvestigated the eect of BMI on body dissatisfactionand physical self-perception components, as well asthe reciprocal mediation eects of the dependentvariables.The results suggest that low perceived physical

competence and ability, poor motor performanceand body dissatisfaction might be important corre-lates of childhood obesity. Findings conrm thatobese children have a signicantly lower self-percep-tion of their physical competence (Southall et al.,2004; Sung et al., 2005), and perform poorly on eldtests in which they are required to move more of theirheavier body mass against gravity than lean peers(Deforche et al., 2003; Fogelholm et al., 2008). Incontrast with previous results suggesting the exis-tence of a certain cut-o from which movementdiculties appear (DHondt et al., 2009), signicantdierences on weight-bearing tasks were also foundbetween normal-weight and overweight children. Inaddition, in this study, obese participants were moreprocient in the throwing task than normal-weightand overweight participants, consistent with previousresearch on upper limb push and pull strength(Riddiford-Harland et al., 2006).According to DHondt et al. (2009), the reported

inverse relationship between weight-bearing tasksand BMI should not be explained only from thebiomechanical point of view but also from theinuence of other complementary mechanisms. In-deed, moving a heavier body mass against gravity, inaddition to poor self-perception of physical compe-tence, might decrease the motivation of obese chil-dren to be involved in physical activity programs,which in turn negatively inuences their motor per-formance. Stodden et al. (2008) suggest that childrenwith low actual and perceived motor skill compe-tence will be drawn into a negative spiral of disen-gagement, resulting in lower physical activity levels.

Table 2. Pearson correlations of BMI and different aspects of physical self-perception with motor performance tests (boys: n5 140; girls: n5 120)

Variables Gender SLJ MBT 20m 30m 10 5m

BMI Boys 0.55w 0.29w 0.37w 0.48w 0.53wGirls 0.63w 0.14 0.41w 0.50w 0.39w

Coordination Boys 0.43w 0.08 0.42w 0.46w 0.42wGirls 0.47w 0.03 0.31w 0.41w 0.33w

Body fat Boys 0.53w 0.18* 0.49w 0.55w 0.52wGirls 0.56w 0.19* 0.37w 0.40w 0.38w

Sport competence Boys 0.51w 0.02 0.41w 0.47w 0.46wGirls 0.45w 0.03 0.35w 0.40w 0.35w

Perceived physical ability Boys 0.41w 0.01 0.41w 0.46w 0.46wGirls 0.40w 0.03 0.21* 0.26^ 0.27^

Body dissatisfaction Boys 0.54w 0.15 0.40w 0.45w 0.46wGirls 0.52w 0.07 0.16 0.36w 0.38w

*Po0.05, ^Po0.01, wPo0.001; unmarked correlations were non-significant.SLJ, standing long jump; MBT, medicine ball throw; BMI, body mass index.

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This will provide fewer opportunities for the furtherdevelopment of motor skill competence and lead tothe development of lower perceived competence.Across developmental years, the negative spiralof disengagement increases, resulting in higher levelsof physical inactivity and obesity (Stodden et al.,2008).Although these ndings are supported by the

competence motivation theory (Harter, 1985), whichposits that perception of competence is related tosuccessful performance and is a critical determinantof subsequent motivation to participate in physicalactivity, in the present study, perceived physicalcompetence was moderately associated with motorperformance results. Therefore, poor perceived co-ordination, sports competence and physical ability inchildren could also be associated with negative feel-ings about their bodies. Consistent with previousresearch, the present ndings demonstrate that over-weight and obese children are more dissatised withtheir body image than their normal-weight peers, andBMI is positively related to body dissatisfaction(Wardle & Cooke, 2005; Newman et al., 2006).Furthermore, body dissatisfaction mediated all theassociations between BMI and dierent aspects ofphysical self-perception in boys but not in girls. The

same pattern of results was found for physical self-perception as a mediator of the relationship of BMIwith body dissatisfaction. Therefore, physical self-perception improvements, usually achieved throughphysical activity and sport experiences, could reducebody dissatisfaction of overweight and obese boys.However, female body dissatisfaction might belinked more to esthetic appearance than sport com-petence and physical ability. Thus, enhancing per-ception of competence and ability in obese girlswould not inuence their body dissatisfaction asmuch as could happen in boys.The gender dierences in body dissatisfaction may

reect the dierent sociocultural inuences on boysand girls to conform to an idealized physique. Inparticular, results showed that females reportedgreater body dissatisfaction and higher perceivedbody fat scores than males, probably indicatingrelevant social pressures on girls to be thin, regard-less of their weight status. In contrast, non-over-weight boys reported a negative mean score of bodydissatisfaction, indicating a desire to be larger. How-ever, it is not clear whether boys desire to lookbulkier or more muscular, and whether a relationshipwith their BMI exists (Wardle & Cooke, 2005). Thisargument was supported by the strong mediating

Fig. 1. Mediation analysis for the reciprocal eects between body mass index and dierent aspects of physical self-perceptionin boys (n5 140). Sobel values (z), standardized regression coecients (b) and square correlations values (R2) are reported,with initial R2 in parentheses. *Po0.05,^Po0.01, wPo0.001, NS, non-signicant.

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eect of body dissatisfaction on the link betweenBMI and the individuals perception of strength,speed and agility found in our study. Recent studiesreported that male adolescents desire a biggerbody in order to be stronger and tter, and toincrease their sport performance (e.g., Ricciardelliet al., 2007). In particular, the pursuit of muscularitywas related to many male physical attributes includ-ing size, strength, speed and tness.Additional gender dierences were found on all

motor tests and modes of physical self-perception.Boys showed better motor performance and higherperception of their coordination, sport competenceand physical ability than girls. These ndings are inagreement with the gender-related dierences inchildrens physical and perceived competences re-ported in previous studies (Crocker et al., 2000;Sung et al., 2005; Barnett et al., 2008), and supportHarters model (1985) that considers actual compe-tence as a precursor of perceived competence.Usually, boys engage in physical activities and sportsmore frequently than girls (Physical Activity Guide-lines Advisory Committee, 2008). The more frequentopportunities to develop physical abilities and skillslead to improved perception of competence, which inturn inuences physical activity participation.

Compared with normal-weight peers, overweightand obese participants demonstrated signicantlylower actual and perceived physical competences,which have been identied as correlates of physicalactivity in children (Crocker et al., 2000; Raudseppet al., 2002; Southall et al., 2004; Barnett et al., 2008;Stodden et al., 2008). Childhood obesity is likely tohave adverse eects on physical self-perception andmotor performance. It could be suggested that betterself-perception of overweight and obese childrenmight be attained not only through body weightreduction resulting from healthy eating and increasedphysical activity but also through the improvementof physical abilities. According to the conceptualmodel hypothesized by Stodden et al. (2008), success-ful experiences, measured in terms of increased skillsand abilities, are expected to enhance the perceptionof competence and motivation to maximize chil-drens physical activity participation and challengethe tendency to sedentary behaviors. Perceived com-petence is also proposed as a main construct withindierent theoretical approaches to motivation to-ward sport and exercise, including achievementgoal theory (Nicholls, 1984) and self-ecacy (Ban-dura, 1997). From this viewpoint, the type of exerciseused, especially in the early stages of a program,

Fig. 2. Mediation analysis for the reciprocal eects between body mass index and dierent aspects of physical self-perceptionin girls (n5 120). Sobel values (z), standardized regression coecients (b) and square correlations values (R2) are reported, withinitial R2 in parentheses. *Po0.05, ^Po0.01, wPo0.001, NS, non-signicant.

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appears to be important in helping obese childrenestablish lifelong physical activity patterns. Based onthe present ndings, throwing tasks should be in-cluded in exercise programs for obese children whoachieve better results than their leaner counterparts.In contrast, at the initial phase of an intervention,weight-bearing activities should be limited with obeseparticipants, considering that their poor perfor-mances may cause them to decrease their physicalactivity and increase their sedentary behaviors.One merit of the study was the adoption of a

multidimensional approach to investigate the linksamong morphological aspects, physical self-percep-tion, body image and motor performance, whichwere not examined together in previous research.Notwithstanding, the study is limited because it wascross-sectional, and therefore the causal relationshipbetween variables can only be hypothesized. Experi-mental or longitudinal designs would be more in-formative about causality.

Perspectives

The increase of obesity in children and youth high-lights the urgent need for suitable interventionsdesigned to promote healthy active habits in youngindividuals. An understanding of the relationshipsbetween weight status, physical self-perception and

performance could help educators and trainers totailor exercise programs for obese children in orderto provide them with positive experiences gainedfrom physical activity, and thereby increase theirmotivation. When working with physically inactiveobese children who show low physical self-perceptionand condence in their capability, it seems reason-able to suggest that educators prioritize throwingtasks over weight-bearing activities in order to bol-ster the participants perception of physical compe-tence. This is especially important in the initial stagesof an exercise regime so as to enhance the childrensadherence to the exercise program and decrease theirsedentary behaviors. From a public health perspec-tive, the present ndings open up possibilities forfuture longitudinal or intervention designs to estab-lish the direction of the examined relationships, evenincluding t obese children.

Key words: body image, children, overweight, obesity,physical self-perception.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the Administration of Foggia(0008285-III/3) and the University of Foggia (21794-II/5). Weexpress our gratitude to the headmasters, teachers, childrenand their families for making this study possible.

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