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MRS. STAHLMARINE BIOLOGY
Unit 3Geology of the Ocean,
Water, Waves, and Tides
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Some Facts
Planet Earth began about 400 MYA
Surface was so hot that water could not remain there
No free oxygen gas in the atmosphere
Ocean began forming 4.2 billion years ago
Life first evolved in the oceanOcean covers 70.8%
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The Formation of the Oceans
1st-> Earth was composed of cold matter and that over time several factors such as energy from space and decay of radioactive elements-> caused increase in temperature.
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2nd Heating continued on for several hundred million years until the center of the Earth was hot enough to melt iron and nickel.
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3rd
Elements melted and went to the core (denser) and raised the core temperatures to 2,000 C
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4th Molten material from Earth’s core moved to the surface and spread out, creating some of Earth’s landscape.
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5th
Heating / cooling took place, water in the form of water vapor was carried to the surface where it cooled, condensed, and formed the ocean.
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Origin of Life
Gaseous oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the evolution of modern photosynthesis (3 billion years ago).
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Oxides
Chemical Compound containing at least one oxygen atom as well as another element.
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The Earth was devoid of oxygen…
Because oxygen is a strong oxidizer of other compounds it tends to form oxides with these compounds, which bind any free oxygen.
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Formed as a result of
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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Biologists theorize that the molecules (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, and ammonia) formed and accumulated in the ocean and over time the ocean turned into a huge, highly concentrated bowl of nutrient soup.
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The molecules then became organized and the first cells evolved.
There wasn’t any oxygen so the first cells had to be anaerobic.
The first cells were also heterotrophs or relied on others for food.
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The oldest marine fossil is marine bacteria and was found in NW Australia between 3.4 and 3.5 billion years old.
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The Ocean Today
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There are Four Major Basins
1.Pacific2.Atlantic3.Indian 4.Arctic
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What is the order from largest to smallest?
1.Pacific2.Atlantic3.Indian 4.Arctic
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The area around Antarctica is referred to as the
Southern or Antarctic
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Body of Water Define Examples
SeaBody of
saltwater that is smaller than an
ocean and landlocked.
Mediterranean Sea
Red SeaCaribbean Sea
GulfSmaller body of
water that is mostly cut off
from the larger ocean or sea by land formations.
Gulf of California
Gulf of Mexico
Persian Gulf
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Continental Drift
The movement of the seafloor caused by the continuous movement o the continents that rest on it.
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The seafloor is constantly being replaced with new seafloor, therefore organisms have to adapt constantly.
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Inner Core
Outer Core
Lower Mantle
Upper Mantle
Astheno-
sphere
Litho-sphere
Crust
-Solid- Pressure- Dense- Hot- Iron and nickel
-thick layer of liquid material that surrounds the inner core.
-inner layer-thickest layer-Greatest mass-Magnesium / Iron-flows slowly- Magma
-Rigid - liquid-just below crust -flows under stress
- layer right below crust
-thinnest and coolest layer-continental and oceanic crust
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WHICH AREA AM I??????
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The thickest layer……
Mantle
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Made of Iron and Nickel…..
Inner Core
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Thick Layer of Magma…..
Mantle
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Greatest Mass…..
Mantle
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Outer region is rigid
Upper Mantle
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Inner Layer Flows
Mantle
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Hottest Layer
Inner Core
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Thinnest and Coolest
Crust
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Outermost Layer
Crust
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We know most about this layer……
Crust
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Lithosphere Asthenosphere
- Rock Sphere
- Tectonic plate
- Very strong
- Weak
- Easily deformed layer of
the Earth
- Acts as a “lubricant” for
the plates to slide
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Label!!!!!!
Take a few minutes and label the diagram of the Earth.
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Crust
Inner Core
Outer Core
Mantle
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Oceanic Crust Continental Crust
- Basalt
- Thin crusts under the
oceans
- Thinner and denser
- More active
- Granite
- Floats on top of Mantle
- Makes up the
continents
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19th CenturyEdward Suess
Early 1600’sSir Frances Bacon
1915Alfred Wegener
1960’sH.H. Hess
Continents may have once been connected to each other. Continents may have once been connected to each other.
Proposed Gondwanaland- fusion of Southern Continents (S. America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia).
Proposed Gondwanaland- fusion of Southern Continents (S. America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia).
One supercontinent= Pangaea. Forces of the Earth’s rotation separated the continents.
One supercontinent= Pangaea. Forces of the Earth’s rotation separated the continents.
Molten rock / Magma in the mantle moved by convection currents (heating and cooling of magma).
Molten rock / Magma in the mantle moved by convection currents (heating and cooling of magma).
Moving ContinentsTimeline of Moving Continents
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Pangaea
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The man of Pangaea is
Alfred Wegener
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Evidence of Continental Drift
1. Continental plates fit together like a puzzle.
2. Distribution of Earthquakes -> occur in narrow zones that correspond to areas along ridges and trenches. Most active areas of crustal movement.
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3. Temperature of Sea Bottom-> highest temps at ridges. Temps decrease with distance from ridges. Why do you think that is?????
Heating magma oozing out.
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4. Age of rock samples from seafloor. Youngest rock was found near ridges and older rocks were found further away.
5. Fossils collected on opposite coasts were similar.
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6. Coal deposits and other geological formations matched up on opposite sides of the Atlantic.
7. Sediment gets thicker and thicker as you move away from the ridges.
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8. Seafloor Spreading-> basalt magma from the mantle rises to create new ocean floor at mid-ocean ridges. On each side of the ridge, sea floor moves from the ridge towards the deep sea trenches, where it is subducted or sucked back into and recycled back into the mantle
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9. Magnetic evidence-> * 170 reversals in the past 76 million
years (north / south polarity switched back and forth). Reverses directions.
* Caused by fluctuations in the movement of material in iron-nickel outer core.
* When rocks are in the molten stage they are free to move around and act like tiny little compasses pointing either north or south.
* When the rocks cool they keep whatever their orientation is. There are literally stripes on the rocks that show the magnetic bands and they match up on either side of the mid ocean ridge= magnetic anomalies.
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Continental Drift was not accepted at first because:
Scientists thought that he did not have enough evidence to prove his theory.
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Laurasia consisted of: Europe, Asia, and North America
Gondwanaland- S. America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia
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What did H.H. Hess propose in regards to continental movement?
Magma moved by convection currents to the region below the upper mantle and crust. The magma then would flow laterally under the mantle (heating / cooling took place). It would then cool and sink backwards into the core. Sometimes it breaks through and volcanoes are formed-> how the mid oceanic ridge was formed.
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Cross OUT XXXXXXXXX
Page 9 The formation of oceanic crust and volcanoes form!!!!
We have already covered both topics
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Rift ValleyRuns along the length of a portion of the
mountain crests. High volcanic activity.
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Fracture Zones-
linear regions of unusually irregular sea bottom.
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What happens to the old ocean floor / crust?
Regions called subduction zones take the old material / sinks down into the mantle and when it hits the magma of the mantle it liquefies and recycles itself through convection currents into the core.
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Seafloor Spreading
Oceanic plates are diverging from one another, the magma rises along a rift zone and spreads out at the surface building new sea floor. The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the rift zone. The mid-oceanic ridge is the primary site for sea-floor spreading. Earthquakes and volcanoes are where seafloor spreading is occurring.
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Theory of Plate Tectonics
The lithosphere is viewed as a series of rigid plates that are separated by earthquake belts that are located around trenches, ridges, and faults.
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Seven Major Plates are:
1._Pacific2. North American3. Eurasian4. South American5. African6. Antarctic7. Australian
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Where plate boundaries move apart and new lithosphere is
formed divergent plate boundaries occur. Where the old lithosphere is destroyed
because the plates move toward each is called
convergent plate boundaries.Where the plates move past
each other = Faults.
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Transform Fault
Special kind of fault that is found in sections of the mid-ocean ridge. Each side is formed by a different plate and the plates scrape against each other
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Rift Zones
Where the lithosphere splits, separates, and moves apart as new crust is formed.
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Rift Communities / Deep Sea Vents
Thriving communities of marine organisms
Depend on chemosynthetic activity of bacteria for their nutrients.
Represent food webs that exist in the absence of sunlight.
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The Ocean Bottom
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Bathygraphic Features
Physical features of the ocean bottom
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The ocean bottom is divided into two different regions the Continental Margin and the Ocean Basin.
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Continental MarginsRegion that lies beneath the neritic zone.
Consists of continental shelf and continental slope
Composed of granite that is covered by sediment and have similar features to the edge of the nearby continent.
See Figure 3-12 on page 56 to discuss the formation of the continental shelf.
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Continental Shelf
Generally flat areas 40 miles wide and 430 feet deepSlopes gently toward the bottom of the ocean basin
Produced by waves that constantly erode land mass and by natural dams, reefs, rocks, and volcanic barriers.
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Continental SlopeTransitional levelShelf break is where the shelf ends and the
slope beginsShelf break is where there is a rapid change
in depth to the seafloor Less sedimentSubmarine Canyons-> aligned with river
systems on land and they create a ripple effect on the sea floor. At the end it fans out = Deep Sea Fan.
They are formed by turbidity currents = underwater avalanches of sediment (large accumulations of sediment collapse).
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Continental Rise
small slope at the base of the continental slope. Created by landslides that carry sediment to the bottom of the slope.
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The Ocean Basin:
SeafloorFour Main basins: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic
Composed of Basalt Rock covered with a thick blanket of sediment.
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Abyssal Plains and Hills
Bottom of the ocean basinFlatFormed by sediment from turbidity currents
Spread out on the ocean floor are abyssal hills (3300 ft. high).
Formed by volcanic activity
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Seamounts
Steep sided formation that rises sharply from the bottom.
Formed by underwater volcanoes
Some show us coral reef activity and erosion proving that they may have been above water at one point in time.
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Ridges and Rises
Series of large, underwater volcanic mountains that run through every ocean.
Separates the ocean basins
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Trenches
Most common in the Pacific Ocean
Mariana Trench-> the deepest spot on the Earth is the Challenger Deep and is 6.85 miles deep.
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The Ocean Floor
Continental shelf is very productive because it relatively shallow and provides lots of sunlight and nutrients.
Abundant marine life on the shelfNo sunlight in the abyss.Limited to chemosynthetic bacteria in
vent communitiesOcean floor organisms rely heavily on
organisms falling from above.
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Composition of the Seafloor
The entire seafloor is made up of basalt rock with a blanket of sediment on top.
Sediment is made up of: Living organisms land Atmosphere Sea that accumulates over time
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Why is the sediment so important to organisms that live on the
continental slope, shelf, and abyssal plains?
Provides a habitat for many organisms and a source of nutrients for others.
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Five types of sediment:BiogenousHydrogenousTerrigenousCosmogenousLithogenous
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HydrogenousForms when dissolved materials come
out of a solution such as a precipitate.Precipitation is caused by changes in
temperature, pressure, and chemically active fluids.
Types include Manganese nodules (ore material in the ocean that comes from terrigenous and volcanic, and also hydrothermal material), Phosphates, evaporative salts, Metal sulfides, and carbonates (rocks with high amounts of calcium).
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LithogenousComposed of fragments of Pre-existing
rock materialFormed by Physical and Chemical
Weathering-> break-up of exposed rock, movement of sediment, and large particles of rock that are deposited near the edges of the continents and it accumulates
Most is made up of quartzWhere is it found? -> Neritic zone (near
shore), beaches, continental shelves, pelagic zones (deep sea floor).
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BiogenousSkeletons and shells of dead marine
organisms.Biogenous ooze= made up of 30% of
microscopic shells. When it hardens it turns into rock and can make chalk or Diatomaceous Earth.
Calcareous ooze= Calcium carbonate= Coccolithophorians (algae) and Foraminiferans (protozoan’s)
Silicareous ooze= Silica= Radiolarians (Protozoan’s) and Diatoms (algae)
Found in the Pelagic zone
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Foraminiferans
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Coccolithophorians
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Radiolarians
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Diatoms
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Terrigenous
Found in the deep sea and is formed by accumulation of turbidites
Turbidites are sea-bottom deposits formed by massive slope failures where rivers have deposited large deltas. These slopes fail in response to earthquake shaking or excessive sedimentation
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Turbidites
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Cosmogenous
Composed of material from outer space
Space dust and meteor debris
Forms an insignificant amount of ocean sediment