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related materials
benziger's personality types and thinking styles theory
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personality theories and types
free personality tests
personality theories, types and testspersonality types, behavioural styles theories,personality and testing systems - for self-awareness,self-development, motivation, management, andrecruitmentMotivation, management, communications, relationships - focused on yourself or others -
are a lot more effective when you understand yourself, and the people you seek tomotivate or manage or develop or help.
Understanding personality is also a key to unlocking elusive human qualities, forexampleleadership, motivation,and empathy, whether your purpose is self-development, helping others, or any other field relating to people and how we behave.
The personality theories that underpin personality tests and personality quies aresurprisingly easy to understand at a basic level. This section seeks to explain many of
these personality theories and ideas. This knowledge helps to develop self-awareness and
also to help others to achieve greater self-awareness and development too.
!eveloping understanding of personality typology, personality traits, thinking styles andlearning styles theories is also a very useful way to improve your knowledge of
motivation and behaviour of self and others, in the workplace and beyond.
Understanding personality types is helpful for appreciating that while people are
different, everyone has a value, and special strengths and qualities, and that everyoneshould be treated with care and respect. The relevance of love and spirituality -especially at work - is easier to see and explain when we understand that differences in
people are usually personality-based. "eople very rarely set out to cause upset - they #ustbehave differently because they are different.
"ersonality theory and tests are useful also for management, recruitment, selection,training and teaching, on which point see also the learning styles theories on other pages
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such as $olb%s learning styles, &ardner%s Multiple 'ntelligences, and the ()$learning styles model.
*ompleting personality tests with no knowledge of the supporting theories can be a
frustrating and misleading experience - especially if the results from personality testing
are not properly explained, or worse still not given at all to the person being tested.
+opefully the explanations and theories below will help dispel much of the mistiquesurrounding modern personality testing.
There are many different personality and motivational models and theories, and each one
offers a different perspective.
The more models you understand, the better your appreciation of motivation and
behaviour.
personality models on this pageThe our Temperamentsour +umours
*arl ung%s "sychological Types
Myers /riggs personality types theory 0M/T' model1
$eirsey%s personality types theory 0Temperament 2orter model1
+ans 3ysenck%s personality types theory
$atherine /eniger%s /rain Type theory
4illiam Moulton Marston%s !'2* personality theory 0'nscape, Thomas 'nt., etc1
/elbin Team 5oles and personality types theory
The %/ig ive% actors personality model
'56-/ "ersonality )ssessment model
The /irkman Method
7umina 2park
Morphopsychology6ther personality theories and psychometrics tests models
personality theories and models - introduction/ehavioural and personality models are widely used in organisations, especially in
psychometrics and psychometric testing 0personality assessments and tests1. /ehaviouraland personality models have also been used by philosophers, leaders and managers for
hundreds and in some cases thousands of years as an aid to understanding, explaining,
and managing communications and relationships.
Used appropriately, psychometrics and personality tests can be hugely beneficial inimproving knowledge of self and other people - motivations, strengths, weaknesses,
preferred thinking and working styles, and also strengths and preferred styles for
communications, learning, management, being managed, and team-working.
Understanding personality - of your self and others - is central to motivation. !ifferent
people have different strengths and needs. 8ou do too.
The more you understand about personality, the better able you are to judge what
motivates people - and yourself.
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The more you understand about your own personality and that of other people, the
better able you are to realise how others perceive you, and how they react to your
own personality and style.
$nowing how to adapt the way you work with others, how you communicate, provideinformation and learning, how you identify and agree tasks, are the main factors enabling
successfully managing and motivating others - and yourself.'mportantly you do not necessarily need to use a psychometrics instrument in order to
understand the theory and the basic model which underpins it. 6bviously using good
psychometrics instruments can be extremely useful and beneficial, 0and en#oyable too if
properly positioned and administered1, but the long-standing benefit from workingwith these models is actually in understanding the logic and theory which underpin
the behavioural models or personality testing systems concerned. Each theory helps
you to understand more about yourself and others.
'n terms of %motivating others% you cannot sustainably %impose% motivation on another
person. 8ou can inspire them perhaps, which lasts as long as you can sustain the
inspiration, but sustainable motivation must come from within the person. ) good
manager and leader will enable and provide the situation, environment and opportunitiesnecessary for people to be motivated - in pursuit of goals and development and
achievements that are truly meaningful to the individual. 4hich implies that you need todiscover, and at times help the other person to discover, what truly motivates them -
especially their strengths, passions, and personal aims - for some the pursuit of personal
destiny - to achieve their own unique potential. /eing able to explain personality, and to
guide people towards resources that will help them understand more about themselves, isall part of the process. +elp others to help you understand what they need - for work and
for whole life development, and you will have an important key to motivating, helping
and working with people.
3ach of the different theories and models of personality and human motivation is a
different perspective on the hugely complex area of personality, motivation andbehaviour. 't follows that for any complex sub#ect, the more perspectives you have, then
the better your overall understanding will be. 3ach summary featured below is #ust that -a summary9 a starting point from which you can pursue the detail and workings of any of
these models that you find particularly interesting and relevant. 3xplore the many other
models and theories not featured on this site too - the examples below are a #ust small
sample of the wide range of models and systems that have been developed.
2ome personality testing resources, including assessment instruments, are available free
on the internet or at relatively low cost from appropriate providers, and they arewonderful tools for self-awareness, personal development, working with people and for
helping to develop better working relationships. 2ome instruments however are rather
more expensive, given that the developers and psychometrics organisations need torecover their development costs. or this reason, scientifically validated personality
testing instruments are rarely free. The free tests which are scientifically validated tend to
be %lite% introductory instruments which give a broad indication rather than a detailed
analysis.
There are doens of different personality testing systems to explore, beneath which sitrather fewer basic theories and models. 2ome theories underpin well-known personality
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assessment instruments 0such as Myers /riggs , and !'2*1: others are stand-alonemodels or theories which seek to explain personality, motivation, behaviour, learning
styles and thinking styles 0such as/eniger, Transactional )nalysis, Maslow,Mc®or, )dams, ()$, $olb, and others1, which are explained elsewhere onthis website.
'n this section are examples personality and style models, which are all relatively easy tounderstand and apply. !on%t allow providers to baffle you with science - all of these
theories are quite accessible at a basic level, which is immensely helpful to understandinga lot of what you need concerning motivation and personality in work and life beyond.
!o seek appropriate training and accreditation if you wish to pursue and use
psychometrics testing in a formal way, especially if testing or assessing people in
organisations or in the provision of services. )dministering formal personality tests -
whether in recruitment, assessment, training and development, counselling or for otherpurposes - is a sensitive and skilled area. "eople are vulnerable to inaccurate suggestion,
misinterpretation, or poor and insensitive explanation, so approach personality testing
with care, and be sure you are equipped and capable to deal with testing situations
properly.or similar reasons you need to be properly trained to get involved in counselling ortherapy for clinical or serious emotional situations. "eople with clinical conditions,
depression and serious emotional disturbance usually need qualified professional help,
and if you aren%t qualified yourself then the best you can do is to offer to help the otherperson get the right support.
/eware of using unlicensed %pirated% or illegally copied psychometrics instruments.)lways check to ensure that any tools that are %apparently% free and in the public domain
are actually so. 'f in doubt about the legitimacy of any psychometrics instrument avoid
using it. "sychometric tests that are unlikely to be free include systems with specificnames, such as !'2* , 2ituational 7eadership , M/T' , *attell ;
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generalisations, it%s difficult to be precise about how and when - and if - personality
actually changes.
2o where do we draw the line and say a personality is fixed and firm> The answer in
absolute terms is that we can%t.
4e can however identify general personality styles, aptitudes, sensitivities, traits, etc., in
people and in ourselves, especially when we understand something of how to define andmeasure types and styles. )nd this level of awareness is far better than having none at all.
4hich is is purpose of this information about personality and style %types%. 4hat followsis intended to be give a broad, accessible 0hopefully interesting1 level of awareness of
personality and types, and of ways to interpret and define and recognise different
personalities and behaviours, so as to better understand yourself and others around you.
the four temperaments - the four
humours/humorsThe our Temperaments, also known as the our +umours, is arguably the oldest of allpersonality profiling systems, and it is fascinating that there are so many echoes of these
ancient ideas found in modern psychology.
The our Temperaments ideas can be traced back to the traditions of the 3gyptian and
Mesopotamian civilisations over ?,@@@ years ago, in which the health of the body was
connected with the elements, fire, water, earth and air, which in turn were related to bodyorgans, fluids, and treatments. 2ome of this thinking survives today in traditional 3astern
ideas and medicine.
The ancient &reeks however first formalised and popularised the our Temperaments
methodologies around A,?@@ years ago, and these ideas came to dominate 4estern
thinking about human behaviour and medical treatment for over two-thousand years.Most of these concepts for understanding personality, behaviour, illness and treatment of
illness amaingly persisted in the 4estern world until the mid-;B@@s.
The our Temperaments or our +umours can be traced back reliably to )ncient &reek
medicine and philosophy, notably in the work of +ippocrates 0c.C
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generally thought have been the yellowish liquid secreted by the liver to aid digestion. 'n
ancient times a bucketful of yellow bile would have been the natural upshot, so to speak,
after a night on the local wine or taking a drink from the well that your next-doorneighbour threw his dead cat into last week. /lack bile is actually a bit of a mystery.
2ome say it was congealed blood, or more likely stomach bile with some blood in it.
2tudents of the technicolour yawn might have observed that bile does indeed come in avariety of shades, depending on the ailment or what exactly you had to drink the night
before. "robably the ancient &reeks noticed the same variation and thought it was two
different biles. 4hatever, these four were the vital fluids, and they each related stronglyto what was understood at the time about people%s health and personality.
'mbalance between the %humours% manifested in different behaviour and illnesses, andtreatments were based on restoring balance between the humours and body fluids 0which
were at the time seen as the same thing. +ence such practices as blood-letting by cutting
or with with leeches. 'ncidentally the traditional red and white striped poles - representingblood and bandages - can still occasionally be seen outside barber shops and are a
fascinating reminder that these medical beliefs and practices didn%t finally die out until
the late ;B@@s.2piritually there are other very old four-part patterns and themes relating to the our
Temperaments within astrology, the planets, and people%s understanding of the world, for
example9 the ancient %elements% - fire, water, earth and air: the twelve signs of the odiacarranged in four sets corresponding to the elements and believed by many to define
personality and destiny: the ancient %our Gualities% of 0combinations of1 hot or cold, and
dry or moistwet: and the four seasons, 2pring, 2ummer )utumn, 4inter. The organs ofthe body - liver, lungs, gall bladder and spleen - were also strongly connected with the
our Temperaments or +umours and medicinal theory.
5elating these ancient patterns to the modern interpretation of the our Temperaments
does not however produce scientifically robust correlations. They were thought relevant
at one time, but in truth they are not, #ust as blood letting has now been discounted as areliable medical treatment.
/ut while the causal link between body fluids and health and personality has not stoodthe test of time, the analysis of personality via the our Temperaments seems to have
done so, albeit tenuously in certain models.
The explanation below is chiefly concerned with the our Temperaments as a personality
model, not as a basis for understanding and treating illness.
early representations of the four temperaments as apersonality model
2tephen Montgomery 0author of the excellent book "eople "atterns - ) Modern &uide tothe our Temperaments1 suggests that the origins of the our Temperaments can be
identified earlier than the ancient &reeks, namely in the /ible, c.?F@/*, in the words of
the 6ld Testament prophet 3ekiel, who refers 0chapter ;, verse ;@1 to four faces ofmankind, represented by four creatures which appeared from the mist9
H)s for the likeness of their faces, they four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion,
on the right side9 and they four had the face of an ox on the left side: they four also hadthe face of an eagle.H 0from the /ook of 3ekiel, chapter ;, verse ;@1
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Montgomery additionally attributes personality characteristics to each of the four faces,
which he correlates to modern interpretations of the our Temperaments and also to
+ippocrates% ideas, compared below.
four temperaments - earliest origins
zekiel c.590BC Hippocrates c.370BClion bold blood cheerful
o sturd! black bile so"ber
"an hu"ane !ello# bile enthusiastic
ea$le far%seein$ phle$" cal"
=./. The 3ekiel characteristics, 0bold, sturdy, humane, far-seeing1, do not appear in the/ible - they have been attributed retrospectively by Montgomery. The describing words
shown here for the +ippocrates our Temperaments are also those used by Montgomery,
other similar descriptions are used in different interpretations and commentaries.
7ater, and very significantly, &alen, 0c.;D@-A@;)!1 the &reek physician later interpreted
+ippocrates% ideas into the our +umours, which you might more readily recognise andassociate with historic writings and references about the our Temperaments and our
+umours. 3ach of &alen%s describing words survives in the 3nglish language although
the meanings will have altered somewhat with the passing of nearly two thousand years.
Hippocrates c.370BC &alen c.'90()
cheerful san$uine
so"ber "elancholic
enthusiastic choleric
cal" phle$"atic
The our Temperaments or our +umours continued to feature in the thinking andrepresentations of human personality in the work of many great thinkers through the ages
since these earliest beginnings, and although different theorists have used their owninterpretations and descriptive words for each of the temperaments through the centuries,
it is fascinating to note the relative consistency of these various interpretations which are
shown in the history overview table below.
/rewer%s ;BE@ dictionary refers quite clearly to the our +umours using the translated
&alen descriptions above, which is further evidence of the popularity and resilience of theour Temperaments+umours model and also of the &alen interpretation.
The our Temperaments also provided much inspiration and historical reference for
*arl ung%s work, which in turn provided the underpinning structures and theory for the
development of Myers /riggs% and !avid $eirsey%s modern-day personality assessmentsystems, which correlate with the our Temperaments thus9
*sabel +!ers '950s &alen c.'90() )a,id -eirse! '99
/ sensin$%percei,in$ san$ine artisan
/1 sensin$%2ud$in$ "elancholic $uardian
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4 intuiti,e%feelin$ choleric idealist
intuiti,e%thinkin$ phle$"atic rationalist
=./. /ear in mind that certain copyright protections apply to the M/T' and $eirseyterms so ' recommend that you be wary of using these in the provision of chargeableservices or materials since under certain circumstances they are likely to be sub#ect to
licensing conditions.
!avid $eirsey%s interpretation of the our Temperaments is expressed by Montgomery in
a AxA matrix, which provides an interesting modern perspective and helpful way to
appreciate the model, and also perhaps to begin to apply it to yourself. *an you seeyourself in one of these descriptions>
artisansa!s #hat is6does #hat #orks
rationalistsa!s #hats possible6
does #hat #orks
$uardian
sa!s #hat is6does #hats ri$ht
idealist
sa!s #hats possible6does #hats ri$ht
0"lease note that in this article for various reasons the positions of the fourtemperamentshumours may vary when shown in a AxA matrix arrangement. The
consistent use of colourscolors instead offers help in understanding the correlations
between models.1
)gain bear in mind that nobody is exclusively one temperament or type. 3ach if us is
likely to have a single preference or dominant type or style, which is augmented andsupported by a mixture of the other types. !ifferent people possess differing mixtures and
dominances - some people are strongly orientated towards a single type: other people
have a more even mixture of types. 't seems to be accepted theory that no person canpossess an evenly balanced mixture of all four types.
Most people can adapt their styles according to different situations. *ertain people are
able to considerably adapt their personal styles to suit different situations. The advantagesof being adaptable are consistent with the powerful %;st 7aw 6f*ybernetics%, which states
that9 HThe unit 0which can be a person1 within the system 0which can be a situation or an
organisation1 which has the most behavioural responses available to it controls thesystemH.
The ability to adapt or bring into play different personal styles in response to
different situations is arguably the most powerful capability that anyone can
possess. Understanding personality models such as the Four Temperaments is
therefore of direct help in achieving such personal awareness and adaptability.Understanding personality helps you recognise behaviour and type in others - and
yourself. ecognising behaviour is an obvious pre-re!uisite for adapting behaviour -
in yourself, and in helping others to adapt too.
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overview history of the four temperaments - or fourhumoursrom various sources and references, including $eirsey and Montgomery, here is ahistory of the our Temperaments and other models and concepts related to the our
Temperaments or our +umours. The words in this framework 0from +ippocratesonwards1 can be seen as possible describing words for each of the temperamentsconcerned, although do not attach precise significance to any of the words - theyare guide only and not definitive or scientifically reliable. The correlations prior to+ippocrates are far less reliable and included here more for interest than for scientific
relevance.
=./. the colours in these charts do not signify anything - they merely assist 0hopefully1
with continuity between the different tables. The initials $ and M denote interpretations
according to $eirsey and Montgomery. )ncient dates are approximate. 2ome cautionarynotes relating to the inclusion of some of these theorists and interpretations is shown
below the grid. or believers in astrology and star-signs please resist the temptation to
categorise yourself according to where your star-sign sits in the grid - these associationsare not scientific and not reliable, and are included merely for historical context and
information.
-eirse!8+B
* reference
artisan8/
sensin$%
percei,in$
$uardian8/1
sensin$%
2ud$in$
idealist84
intuiti,e%
feelin$
rationalist8
intuiti,e%
thinkin$
Ezekiel590BC
lion o "an ea$le
E"pedocles50BC
&oea :air; Hera :earth; eo6/a$ittarius
Cancer6 /corpio6isces
Hippocrates370BC
blood black bile !ello# bile phle$"
Hippocrates370BC 4ourAualities
hot and "oist cold and dr! hot and dr! cold and "oist
lato 30BC:+;
artistic sensible intuiti,e reasonin$
(ristotle35BCcontribution tosocialorder :-;
iconic%artistic andart%"akin$
pistic %co""on%senseand care%takin$
noetic %intuiti,esensibilit! and"oralit!
dianoetic %reasonin$ andlo$icalin,esti$ator
(ristotle35BC 4our/ources ofHappiness
hedone %sensual pleasure
propraieteri % ac?uirin$assets
ethikos %"oral ,irtue
dialo$ike %lo$icalin,esti$ation
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:-;
&alen '90()4oure"pera"ents or 4our
Hu"ours
san$uine "elancholic choleric phle$"atic
aracelsus'550 4ourote"/pirits:-;
/ala"anders %i"pulsi,e andchan$eable
&no"es %industriousand $uarded
!"ph %inspirin$ andpassionate
/!lphs % curiousand cal"
Eric(dickes'905 4our=orld @ie#s:-;
inno,ati,e traditional doctrinaire sceptical
Eduard
/pran$er'9' 4our@alue(ttitudes:-;
artistic econo"ic reli$ious theoretic
Ernst-retsch"er'90 :+;
"anic depressi,e o,ersensiti,e insensiti,e
Eric 4ro""'97 :-;
eploitati,e hoardin$ recepti,e "arketin$
Hans
E!senck'950s:traitea"plesfro" hisin,entor!;
li,el!6
talkati,e6carefree6out$oin$
sober6
reser,ed6?uiet6 ri$id
restless6
ecitable6opti"istic6i"pulsi,e
careful6
controlled6thou$htful6reliable
+!ers '95:+;
percei,in$ 2ud$in$ feelin$ thinkin$
+!ers '95:-;
probin$ schedulin$ friendl! tou$h%"inded
+ont$o"er!00 on
1un$8+!ers
/ % spontaneousand pla!ful
/1 % sensibleand 2udicious
4 % intuiti,eand fer,ent
% in$eniousand theoretical
+ont$o"er!00 on-eirse!s4oure"pera"ents
sa!s #hat is6does #hat #orks
sa!s #hat is6does #hatsri$ht
sa!s #hatspossible6does #hatsri$ht
sa!s #hatspossible6does #hat #orks
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3mpedocles 0c.C?@/*1, the 2icilian-born &reek philosopher and poet was probably first
to publish the concept of %the elements% 0ire, 3arth, 4ater, )ir1 being %scientifically%
linked to human behaviour9 in his long poem %6n =ature% he described the elements inrelation to emotional forces that we would refer to as love and strife. +owever ;BE@
/rewer says that 3mpedocles preferred the names of the &reek &ods, Ieus, +era,
"oseidon and &oea. 0;BE@ /rewer, and *hambers /iographical, which references ean/allock%s book, %3mpedocle%, ;F
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The above table of correlated four temperaments and other sets of four is not designed as
a scientific basis for understanding personality - it%s a historical over view of the
development of the our Temperaments - included here chiefly to illustrate the broadconsistency of ideas over the past two-and-a-half thousand years, and to provoke a bit of
thought about describing words for the four main character types. $eep the our
Temperaments in perspective9 the history of the model provides a fascinating view of thedevelopment of thinking in this area, and certainly there are strands of the very old ideas
that appear in the most modern systems, so it%s very helpful and interesting to know the
background, but it%s not a perfect science.
8ou%ll see significant echoes of the our Temperaments in !avid $eirsey%s personality theory, which of all modern theories seems most aligned with the our
Temperaments, although much of the detail has been built by $eirsey onto a ourTemperaments platform, rather than using a great amount of detail from old our
Temperaments ideas. The our Temperaments model also features in 3ysenck%s theory, on which others have subsequently drawn. To a far lesser extent the our
Temperaments can also be partly correlated to the Moulton Marston%s !'2* theory
and this is shown in the explanatory matrix in the !'2* section. ung, Myers /riggs and /eniger%s theories also partly correlate with the our Temperaments:notably there seems general agreement that the phlegmatic temperament corresponds to
ung%s %'ntuitive-Thinking%, and that the choleric temperament corresponds to ung%s%'ntuitive-eeling%. The other two temperaments, sanguine and melancholic seem now to
be represented by the ungian %2ensing% in combination with either ungian %eeling% or a
preference from the Myers /riggs udging-"erceiving dimension.
The our Temperaments are very interesting, but being over two-thousand years old they
are also less than crystal clear, so correlation much beyond this is not easy. *onnections
with modern theories and types and traits, such as they are, are explained whereappropriate in the relevant sections below dealing with other theories.
!r 2tephen Montgomery%s A@@A book %"eople "atterns% is an excellent guide to the ourTemperaments, in which he provides his own interpretations, and explains relationships
between the our Temperaments and various other behavioural and personality
assessment models, notably the !avid $eirsey model and theories. 'ncidentallyMontgomery is $eirsey%s long-standing editor and also his son-in-law. $eirsey%s
acknowledges Montgomery%s depth of understanding of the our Temperaments in
$eirsey%s book, "lease Understand Me '', which also provides a very helpful perspectiveof the our Temperaments.
carl jung's psychological types&iven that *arl ung%s psychological theory so fundamentally underpins most of thepopular and highly regarded personality systems today it makes sense to explain a little
about it here.
*arl &ustav ung was born A< uly ;BE? in $esswil 2witerland and was the only son ofa 2wiss 5eformed *hurch 3vangelical Minister. )ccording to Maggie +yde who wrote
the excellent 'ntroduction to ung 0'con /ooks ;FFA1, he was a strange melancholic child
who played his own imaginary games, alone, for the first nine years of his life. 3ight of
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The fact that *arl ung%s %psychological types% structure continue to provide the basis of
many of the leading psychometrics systems and instruments in use today, including
Myers /riggs and $eirsey, is testimony to the enduring relevance and value of ung%swork.
jung's ideas about the conscious and the unconsciousirst it%s important to understand that ung asserted that a person%s psychological make-upis always working on two levels9 theconscious and the unconscious. )ccording toung, and widely held today, a person%s %psyche% 0a person%s %whole being%1 is represented
by their conscious and unconscious parts. Moreover, a person%s conscious and
unconscious states are in a way %self-balancing%, that is to say - and this is significant - if aperson%s conscious side 0or %attitude%1 becomes dominant or extreme, then the unconscious
will surface or manifest in some way to rectify the balance. This might be in dreams or
internal images, or via more physical externally visible illness or emotional disturbance.ung also asserted that at times in people the unconscious can surface and %pro#ect% 0be
directed at1 the outside world, particularly other people. This acknowledgement of thepower of the unconscious features strongly in the thinking of reud and notably in the
underpinning theory of Transactional )nalysis 0it%s a big section - take time to lookat it separately1.
jung's psychological 'general attitude types' -introverted and extravertedung divided psychic energy into two basic %general attitude types%9 "ntroverted and E#traverted.
These are effectively two %type% behaviours that combine with others explained later to
create ung%s psychological types. Moreover ung%s 'ntrovert and 3xtravert %generalattitude types% feature strongly as two opposite characteristics within very many modern
personality systems, including Myers /riggs and $eirsey.
The ;FAD translation of ung%s ;FA; book "sychological Types uses the words 'ntrovertedand 3xtraverted to describe these types, which in &erman would have been 'ntrovertiert
and 3xtravertiert. 2ome interpretations of ung%s ideas use the alternative words 'ntrovert
and 'ntroversion, and 3xtravert and 3xtraversion to describe ung%s types. The word3xtravert was devised by ung, which is how it appears in &erman. +e formed it from the
7atin words %extra% meaning outside, and %vertere% meaning to turn. The words extrovert,
extroverted and extroversion are 3nglish adaptations which appeared soon after ung
popularised the word in &erman. /oth %extra% and %extro% versions are acceptable 3nglish.ung formed the word 'ntrovert from the 7atin %intro% meaning inward and %vertere% to turn.
The word %attitude% in this sense means a deeper more settled mode of behaviour than the
common day-to-day use of the word.
'n his ;FA; book "sychological Types, ung described the introverted and extraverted
general attitude types as being9
H.... distinguished by the direction of general interest or libido movement..... differentiated
by their particular attitude to the ob#ect..H
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and
H....The introvert%s attitude to the ob#ect is an abstracting one.... he is always facing the
problem of how libido can be withdrawn from the ob#ect...... The extravert, on the
contrary, maintains a positive relation to the ob#ect. To such an extent does he affirm itsimportance that his sub#ective attitude is continually being orientated by, and related to
the ob#ect....H0The ;FAD translation by + &odwyn /aynes is understandably a little awkward for
modern times. %)bstracting% in this context means %drawing way%, from its 7atin root
meaning. %7ibido% in this context probably means %desire%, although the word seems first to
have appeared in earlier translations of reud, who used it in a more sexual sense.1
/oth attitudes - extraversion and introversion - are present in every person, in differentdegrees. =o-one is pure extravert or pure introvert, and more recent studies 0notably 3ysenck1 indicate that a big ma#ority of people are actually a reasonably well-balancedmixture of the two types, albeit with a preference for one or the other. =ot black and
white - instead shades of grey.
extraverted introvertedps!chic ener$! is directed out of
the person to the #orld outside
the"
the persons ps!chic ener$! is
internall! directed
ob2ecti,e % out#ard sub2ecti,e % in#ard
... "aintains a positi,e
relation to the ob2ect. o such
an etent does he affir" its
i"portance that his sub2ecti,e
attitude is continuall! bein$
orientated b!6 and related to the
ob2ect.... :1un$;
.... attitude to the ob2ect is
an abstractin$ one.... he is
al#a!s facin$ the proble" of ho#
libido can be #ithdra#n fro" the
ob2ect.... :1un$;
an etra,ert attitude is
"oti,ated fro" the outside and is
directed b! eternal6 ob2ecti,e
factors and relationships :H!de;
an intro,ert is "oti,ated fro"
#ithin and directed b! inner6
sub2ecti,e "atters :H!de;
beha,iour directed eternall!6
to influence outside factors and
e,ents :Benzi$er;
beha,iour directed in#ardl! to
understand and "ana$e self and
eperience :Benzi$er;
ung%s %general attitudes% of 'ntroverted and 3xtraverted are clearly quite different.'t is no wonder then that strongly orientated extraverts and introverts see things in quite
different ways, which can cause conflict and misunderstanding. Two people may look atthe same situation and yet see different things. They see things - as we all tend to - in
terms of themselves and their own own mind-sets.
't is almost incredible to think that these words - extravert and introvert - that we take somuch for granted today to describe people and their personality and behaviour, were not
used at all until ung developed his ideas.
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4ithout wishing to add further complication ung said that extraversion and introversion
are not mutually exclusive and will be self-balancing or compensating through the
conscious and unconscious. ) strongly outward consciously extravert person willaccording to ungian theory possess a compensatory strong inward unconscious introvert
side. )nd vice versa. ung linked this compensatory effect for example to repression of
natural tendencies and the resulting unhappiness or hysteria or illness.4e are each born with a natural balance. 'f our natural balance is upset due to repressionor conditioning then our minds will in some way seek to restore the balance, which ung
saw as the power of the unconscious surfacing as %the return of the repressed%.
jung's psychological types - the 'four functional types''n addition to the two attitudes of extraversion and introversion, ung also developed a
framework of %four functional types%.
ung described these four %unctional Types% as being those from which the H...most
differentiated function plays the principal role in an individual%s adaptation or orientation
to life...H 0from "sychological Types, ;FA;1 /y %most differentiated% ung meant %superior%or dominant.
ung%s our unctions contain significant echoes of the our Temperaments and ofthe many related four-part patterns or sets 0%quaternities%1 that relate to the ourTemperaments, dating back to ancient &reece and arguably earlier, although ung%s ideas
are more a lot sophisticated and complex than the our Temperaments model.
7ike many theorists before him who had attempted to define personality ung opted for a
four-part structure, which he used alongside his 'ntroverted-3xtraverted attitudes9
ung%s our unctions of the psyche are9
thinking and
feelingwhich he said are the functions that enable us to decide and judge, 0ung calledthese %ational%1 and
sensation and
intuition
which ung said are the functions that enable us to gather information and
perceive 0ung called these %"rrational%1.
2ignificantly ung also asserted that each of us needs to be able to both perceive and to judge0gather information and decide1 in order to survive and to carry on
normal functioning behaviour.)nd he also said that in doing this each of us prefers or favours one of the functions fromeach of the pairings.
ung%s our unctions are described below. These very brief definitions and keywords are
based respectively on descriptions by +yde, ordham and /eniger, all experts and
writers on ungian theory. The final column explains the pairings according to ung%s
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%5ational% and %'rrational% criteria, which nowadays correspond to the Myers /riggs functions of %udging% and %"erceiving% as featured in Myers /riggs% theories. Thecolours are to help the presentation and are not part of ung%s theory9
jung's four functional types - definitions
hinkin$
#hatso"ethin$is
"eanin$ andunderstandin$
anal!tic6ob2ecti,e6principles6standards6criteria6
both are oppositereasonin$and2ud$in$functions %people consciousl!prefer one or theother % 1un$ calledthese functionsrational
4eelin$
#hetherits $oodor not
#ei$ht and,alue
sub2ecti,e6personal6,aluin$inti"ac!6 hu"ane
/ensation
so"ethin$eists
sensualperception
realistic6 do#n%to%earth6practical6
sensible
both are oppositepercei,in$functions % people
consciousl!prefer one or theother % 1un$ calledthese functionsirrational
*ntuition
#here itsfro" and#here its$oin$
possibilitiesand at"osphere
hunches6 future6speculati,e6fantas!6i"a$inati,e
$atherine /eniger, a leading modern thinker in the field of personality, is not alone in
suggesting ung%s $ensation function equates to &alen%s %helgmatic temperament, and that ung%s "ntuition function equates to &alen%s &holeric temperament. 5elationships between ung%s two other functions 0Thinking and Feeling1 and the other two of the our Temperaments 0'elancholic and $anguine1are more complex and are not a direct match, although common elements do existbetween these ungian functions and &alen temperaments. 8ou might find /eniger%smodel helpful for understanding more about each of the four functional types and thecharacteristics each represents. /eniger%s four quadrants of the brain equate directly toung%s four functional types.
ung said that Thinking and eeling are %5ational% because both of these functionsevaluate experience. 'n ung%s theory theThinking and Feeling functions are%ational% because they reason and decide and judge.
ung said that 'ntuition and 2ensation are %'rrational% since they are concerned with
perception and do not evaluate. )ccording to ung the "ntuition and $ensation functions are %"rrational% because they simply gather information and
perceive the nature of something - they do not reason or decide or #udge.The 5ational and 'rrational descriptions that ung attached to the four functions might not
appear particularly significant at first, especially given that ung%s use of the words is
rather different to the modern meanings. +owever consider the modern words thatdescribe ung%s meaning of 5ational and 'rrational, respectively (udging 0%rational%Thinking and eeling1 and %erceiving0%irrational% 2ensation and 'ntuition1 and you canbegin to see how Myers /riggs arrived at their (udging and %erceivingdimension, which they developed from ung%s ideas, largely as a way of
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determining the dominance or priority of auxiliary functions within the ungian model.
0This will hopefully make more sense when you know something of the Myers /riggs model.1
+ere%s another perspective - some short descriptions of each of ung%s our unctional
Types9
jung's four functional types - descriptions
hinkin$
1un$s hinkin$ function is a rationalprocess of understandin$ realit!6 i"plications6causes and effects in a lo$ical and anal!tical#a!. *t is s!ste"atic6 e,aluates truth6 and isob2ecti,e to the etent that e,aluation is basedon personal intelli$ence and co"prehension.hinkin$ is the opposite to 4eelin$.
2ud$in$
:1un$srationalfunctions;
4eelin$
1un$s 4eelin$ function "akes 2ud$e"ents on apersonal sub2ecti,e basis. *t is a rationalprocess of for"in$ personal sub2ecti,e opinion
about #hether so"ethin$ is $ood or bad6 ri$ht or#ron$6 acceptable or unacceptable6 etc.6 andin,ol,es senti"entalit! and hu"anit!. 4eelin$is the opposite to hinkin$.
/ensation
1un$s /ensation function translates si$nalsfro" the senses into factual data. here is no2ud$e"ent of ri$ht or #ron$6 $ood or bad6i"plications6 causes6 directions6 contet6possibilities6 the"es6 or related concepts./ensation sees #hat is6 as #hat it is./ensation is the opposite to *ntuition.
percei,in$
:1un$sirrationalfunctions;
*ntuition
1un$s *ntuition function translates thin$s6facts and details into lar$er conceptualpictures6 possibilities6 opportunities6i"a$inin$s6 "!sticis" and ne# ideas. *ntuitionlar$el! i$nores essential facts and details6lo$ic and truth. *ntuition is the opposite to/ensation.
)t this point you might like to pause and go make a cup of tea and some toast. +ave a
rest. !on%t try to absorb and understand all this in one sitting if it%s new to you.
ung accordingly arranged his four functional types as two pairs of opposites, thinkingor feeling 0the rational %#udging% pairing1, and sensation or intuition 0theirrational %perceiving% pairing1, which are often shown as four points 0like =orth 2outh3ast 4est1 on a compass.
thinkin$
intuition or sensation
feelin$
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ung said that each person has a main natural conscious orientation towards one of the
four functions 0their %superior% or most %differentiated% function1, in which case the
opposite function 0the %inferior% or unconscious function1 would be represented andcompensated within the person%s unconscious.
6f the other two functions, either one could be next dominant, depending on the person,
and generally would %serve% as an auxiliary function in support of the person%s %superior%function. 0)gain #ust to complicate matters ung said that in some cases both of thesefunctions could serve as auxiliary functions, but generally the interpretation is that one
auxiliary function would be more prevalent than the other. The point here is that the
auxiliary functions are not as polarised - into conscious-unconscious - as the superior and
inferior functions, which are more strongly polarised into conscious-unconscious.1
2o, a personality would generally be represented by a conscious dominant function from
each opposite pair9 one of these dominant functions being dominant overall 0%superior%1and the other dominant function being the supporting 0%auxiliary%1 function.
'n the example above, the superior function is Thinking. The opposite Feeling function would largely or entirely be a compensatory unconscious
element within the whole person. !epending on the person either the $ensation or "ntuitionfunction would be the prevalent auxiliary function, causing its oppositepartner to reside to an appropriate extent in the unconscious, so again balancing the wholeperson.
ung%s important principle of personality being represented by one type from twoopposing types 0or a series of single types from pairs of opposites1 is featured strongly in
the models developed by $eirsey and Myers /riggs , amongst others.
'n his "sychological Types book and theory ung presented his 0ma#or eight1%psychological types% as simple combinations of 'ntroverted or 3xtraverted together with
one %superior% function, eg, %'ntroverted-Thinking% 0'T1. 't is however perfectly appropriate
and proper 0as ung explained1 to extrapolate or extend the number of ung types toinclude auxiliaries, eg, %'ntroverted-Thinking-2ensation% 0'T2 - commonly shown as
'TJ2K1 in which case %2% is the auxiliary. 2o, while ung%s work originally presented eight
main psychological types 0each represented by a two-letter abbreviation1, subsequent
interpretations commonly add the auxiliary function 0resulting in a three-letterabbreviation1. 'n fact to assist this extension Myers /riggs later introduced theudging-"erceiving dimension, which acted mainly as a means of identifying which two
of the four functions are dominant and auxiliary within the ung framework for any
particular personality 0of which more later below1.
+ere are the four conscious orientations 0aside from extraversion and introversion which
are added to the model later1. 'n these examples the prevalent auxiliary function is not
indicated. 't could be either of the right or left functions, depending on the person.thinking is superior function
thinkin$ D conscious superior
intuition D either is auiliar! sensation
feelin$
D unconscious
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feeling is superior function
feelin$ D conscious superior
intuition D either is auiliar! sensation
thinkin$
D unconscious
intuition is superior function
intuition D conscious superior
thinkin$ D either is auiliar! feelin$
sensation D unconscious
sensation is superior function
sensation
D conscious superiorthinkin$ D either is auiliar! feelin$
intuition D unconscious
jung's eight psychological typesThis all leads us to ung%s eight ma#or %"sychological Types%, which as already explainedung constructed by adding one or other of the introversion or e#traversion%general attitude types% to each of the possible foursuperior functions describedabove.
7ogically this produces eight main psychological types. The eight psychological types donot include %auxiliary% functions and as such do not represent full personalities in
themselves. The %type characteristics% below are generally applicable keywords - they are
not absolutes or exclusive. 'nterpretations can vary a lot - it impossible to summarise apersonality type that encompasses millions of variations within it in #ust a few words,
although hopefully the matrix helps to convey some sense of the collective andcomparative types within the model. uller descriptions are available on specialised
resources, for instance at !r 5obert 4iner%s excellent website www.gesher.org. 2omecommentators and resources suggest %#ob examples% for the different types, and some also
suggest examples of famous people falling into each type, although stereotypical %typing%
guesswork of this sort can be misleading if taken at all seriously. 5emember again thatthese eight main types are not the %whole person% - people comprise a least one other
functional preference, plus unconscious balancing functions, all to varying degrees, all of
which which produce personality types that are much more complex than the basic eightmain types shown here.
t!pe na"e t!pe characteristics
tra,erted hinkin$
anal!tical6 strate$ic6 plans6 i"ple"ents6or$anises others
*ntro,erted hinkin$
conte"plati,e6 disco,erin$6 theoretical6 seeksself%kno#led$e
tra,erted 4eelin$
sociable6 senti"ental6 seeks personal andsocial success
*ntro,erted 4eelin$ inaccessible6 eni$"atic6 self%contained6 seeks
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inner intensit!
tra,erted /ensation
practical6 hands%on6 pleasure%seekin$6 hard%headed
*ntro,erted /ensation
intense6 obsessi,e6 detached6 connoisseur6epert
tra,erted *ntuition
ad,enturous6 inno,ati,e6 seeks no,elt!6proposes chan$e
*ntro,erted *ntuition
idealistic6 ,isionar!6 esoteric6 "!stical6aloof
jung's psychological types - principal and auxiliaryfunctionsung%s eight main psychological types are in themselves an over-simplification. This is
borne out by ung himself in his ;FA; book "sychological Types following his
presentation of each of the eight main types9H...'n the foregoing descriptions ' have no desire to give my readers the impression that
such pure types occur at all frequently in actual practice. They are, as it were, only&altonesque family-portraits, which sum up in a cumulative image the common and
therefore typical characters....... )ccurate investigation of the individual case consistently
reveals the fact that, in con#unction with the most differentiated function, another
function of secondary importance, and therefore of inferior differentiation inconsciousness, is constantly present, and is a relatively determining factor...H
0"sychological Types, *hapter ;@, &eneral !escription of the Types, point ;;9 The
"rincipal and )uxiliary unctions1
0'ncidentally, the word %&altonesque% is a reference to 2ir rancis &alton 0;BAA-;F;;1, an
eminent 3nglish scientist, cousin of *harles !arwin, who asserted that personality andother traits and abilities are hereditary 0inherited or genetic1 factors. 'nterestingly &alton
also devised the finger-printing identification system which he first published in his book
inger "rints in ;BFA. ung%s use of the word &altonesque intends to convey a general%broad brush% meaning - the main family groups of personality - as if %inherited% - not
detailed personality types which implictly within ung%s concepts are sub#ect to much
influence and change after a person%s conception, and therefore outside &alton%s ideas ofinherited %genetic% traits.1
ung%s theory does not aim to %pigeon-hole% all people into one of eight personality types.The eight "sychological Types are simply the eight main groupings represented by
3xtraversion or 'ntroversion and one %our unctional Types% 0the superior or principal
function1. 'n reality each of these eight type-combinations 0represented by 3 or ' plus oneunction1 is augmented by one or other %auxiliary% function according to the ungian
theory whereby conscious personality is represented by a dominant function from each of
the %5ational% and %'rrational% 0#udging and perceiving1 functional pairs of opposites.
2o, for example, an %E#traverted Thinking% main psychological type would be
augmented by a preferred auxiliary function from the %'rrational% 0or perceiving1$ensing-"ntuition pairing, on the basis that Thinking is the preferred %5ational% 0or#udging1 unction.
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)nd also for example an %"ntroverted "ntuition% main psychological type would be
augmented by a preferred auxiliary function from the %5ational% Thinking-Feeling pairing, on the basis that 'ntuition is the preferred %'rrational% 0or perceiving1 unction.
jung's sixteen personality types
These types are automatically and unavoidably implied by ung%s theory, although unghimself never made a big song and dance about them. They do however help to build up a
fuller picture of ung%s theory, and they also relate directly to Myers /riggs% interpretation and equivalents of these types 0for which Myers /riggs used theiradditional udging-"erceiving dimension to determine dominance between the twopreferred functional types after the ungian 'ntroverted or 3xtraverted %attitudes%1.
7ogically, adding an auxiliary function to each of ung%s main eight "sychological Typesnow produces sixteen types, which 0subsequent to ung%s "sychological Types book1,
might be shown as follows, and in each case the first %unction% 0the middle word1 is the
most dominant. 5emember that 'ntroversion and 3xtraversion are not %unctions%, theyare ungian %)ttitudes%9
; 3xtraverted Thinking 2ensation - 3T021A 3xtraverted Thinking 'ntuition - 3T0=1
D 3xtraverted eeling 2ensation - 3021
C 3xtraverted eeling 'ntuition - 30=1
? 3xtraverted 2ensation Thinking - 320T1
< 3xtraverted 2ensation eeling - 3201
E 3xtraverted 'ntuition Thinking - 3=0T1
B 3xtraverted 'ntuition eeling - 3=01
F 'ntroverted Thinking 2ensation - 'T021
;@ 'ntroverted Thinking 'ntuition - 'T0=1
;; 'ntroverted eeling 2ensation - '021
;A 'ntroverted eeling 'ntuition - '0=1
;D 'ntroverted 2ensation Thinking - '20T1
;C 'ntroverted 2ensation eeling - '201
;? 'ntroverted 'ntuition Thinking - '=0T1
;< 'ntroverted 'ntuition eeling - '=01
Using what you know about each of these attitudes and functional types you might nowbe able to begin to identify and understand your own ungian type.
0+ow each of these ungian types including auxiliaries relate to the Myers /riggs
interpretation and system is explained in theMyers /riggs section. )s you will seewhen you come to it, the Myers /riggs system uses the additional dimension orpairing of udging-"erceiving, not only as a type indicator in its own right based onungian ideas, but also as a means of determiningfunctional dominance among the twopreferred functions, whose methodology depends also on whether the dominance isdirected via 'ntroversion or 3xtraversion.1
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4hile ung%s theories are used widely in psychometrics and personality testing, his
original purpose and focus was clinical, in pursuit of better understanding and treatment
of mental illness, and improving the quality of human existence. )s such ung placedgreater emphasis on the unconscious than is represented within modern psychometrics
and %commercialised% personality theories.
6n which point there is great value for us all in *arl ung%s thinking about the deeperworkings of the mind, especially the unconscious, beyond simply seeing ung%s ideas as amodel for categorising personality.
2ignificantly ung for instance observed that improving our awareness and acceptance of
the four functions within ourselves - whether as conscious or unconscious elements - isimportant for developing a healthy existence, and %life-balance%, as we might say today.
*onversely, repression of any of the functions, by oneself or by another person or
pressure, is unhelpful and unhealthy, and leads to problems surfacing sooner or later, one
way or another.
4e see evidence of this when parents condition or force certain behaviour on their
children, or when adults inhibit their feelings, or deny themselves sensation of reality. 4e
also see evidence of people%s unconscious mind reverting from unconscious to consciousbehaviour when they are under the influence of alcohol or significant stress. )nd we also
see the unconscious mind as a chief element within the theories of Transactional)nalysis, which when studied alongside ung%s ideas, together provide a powerful
perspective of personality and behaviour. 't%s all mighty powerful and thoroughlyfascinating stuff.
The aim of studying and learning about these ideas brings us back to ung%s own purposesand the fact that ungian theory recommends that all people should strive to develop any
neglected or suppressed functions, and to embrace all four functions as being part of the
whole person.
myers briggs type indicator
(M!"#The Myers /riggs Type 'ndicator 0M/T' 1 is a widely used and highly regardedsystem for understanding and interpreting personality, and derives most of its
underpinning theory from *arl ung%s "sychological Types ideas and to a lesserextent theour Temperaments 0or our +umours1.
Myers /riggs
0in fact 'sabel /riggs Myers working with her mother $atharine /riggs1essentially developed *arl ung%s theories into a usable methodology and system for
understanding and assessing personality 0more easily and accessibly than by becoming anexpert on ung and his theories1.
The owners of the system, the Myers /riggs oundation, explain that the purpose oftheir M/T' %personal inventory% system is to Hmake the theory of psychological typesdescribed by *arl & ung understandable and useful in people%s lives...H, and that, H..The
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essence of the theory is that much seemingly random variation in the behavior is actually
quite orderly and consistent, being due to basic difference in the way individual prefer to
use their perception and #udgment....H
0This last sentence is interesting because it highlights Myers /riggs% emphasis on andinterpretation of their udging-"erceiving dimension - basically ung%s 5ational'rrational
definitions - as a means of clarifying function dominance within each whole M/T'personality type.1
The M/T' model and test instrument was developed by $atharine /riggs and herdaughter 'sabel /riggs Myers in ;FCA after their studies particularly of *arl ung,whose basic concepts relating to this aspect of personality and behaviour are described
above.
Myers /riggs% M/T' concept is featured in $atharine /riggs and 'sabel /riggsMyers% key book %M/T' Manual9 ) &uide to the !evelopment and Use of the Myers-/riggs Type 'ndicator% which was first published in ;F
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'n most respects psychometrics tests and personality models are aids to personal
development and to helping people understand more about themselves. They are not to be
used a single basis for recruitment or career decisions.
myers briggs theory and the M!" model
The Myers /riggs
M/T'
system uses a four-scale structure for identifying andcategorising an individual%s behavioural preferences, based almost entirely on *arl ung%stheories and his 0translated1 descriptive words.
3ach of the four M/T' scales represents two opposing %preferences% 0in other words,preferred styles or capabilities1. )ll abbreviations are obvious first letters, other than =
for 'ntuition, which causes the word to be shown sometimes as i)tuition - #ust incase you were wondering. The Myers /riggs udging-"erceiving dimension basicallyequates to ung%s 5ational'rrational categories of the two pairs of ungian unctional
types. The colour coding is consistent with the colours used in the ung section - it was
not part of ung%s or Myers /riggs% theory, but hopefully the colours help explain thepattern and connections.
: ;
tra,ersion
or
"ntroversion :*;
the focus ordirection or
orientation of ourbeha,iour %
out#ard or in#ard
(ttitude ororientation
:/;
/ensin$
or
i)tuition:;
ho# #e $atherinfor"ation
4unction:1un$ian
*rrationalor +B
ercei,in$;
:; hinkin$ orFeeling
:4; ho# #e decide
4unction
:1un$ianFational or+B 1ud$in$;
:1;
1ud$in$or
ercei,in$ :;
ho# #e react tothe #orld % doprefer to "ake
decisions or keepopen to options:and also #hich
"iddle 4unctionsdo #e fa,our;
+!ersBri$$sadded
di"ensione?uatin$ to
1un$s*rrational
andFational
Myers /riggs 0'sabel /riggs Myers and $atharine /riggs1 added a fourth dimensionto the three ung dimensions 0'ntrovert-3xtravert, Thinking-eeling, 2ensation-'ntuition1,
namely (udging-%erceiving, which is related to a personality%s approach to decision-making, and particularly how the personality deals with the outer world 03xtraverted1 as
distinct from the inner world 0'ntroverted1. The Myers /riggs (udging-%erceiving dimension can also be used to determine functional dominance among the two
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preferred functional types 0aside from 'ntrovert-3xtravert, which are not functions but
%)ttitudes%, or orientations1. This can be a tricky little aspect of the Myers /riggs theory and is explained at the end of this Myers /riggs section. +appily it%s not crucialto deriving value and benefit from Myers /riggs% ideas, so don%t agonise over it if youdon%t understand it straight away.
)side from determining functional dominance, irrespective of the way decisions aremade 0by Thinking or eeling1 the (udgingtype makes decisions sooner than the %erceiving type. )s such the Myers /riggs% udging-"erceiving dimension is notfound 0as a functional dimension1 in the ung model, although (udging and %erceiving most certainly relate to the ungian descriptions respectively ofational and "rrational, which ung uses to categorise the two pairs of unctionalTypes 0the 5ational %#udging% Thinking and eeling, and the 'rrational %perceiving% 2ensing
and 'ntuition - refer to the ung explanation1.
Moving on, !avid $eirsey, in his book "lease Understand Me '', provides some
additional helpful explanation of how 'sabel Myers attached her own meanings to these
ungian words, he said, Hputting her own spin on themH. $eirsey interestingly also points
out that Myers differed markedly from ung%s use of the words 2ensation and "erception,which ung considered held the same meaning, but to which you can see here and
elsewhere that the Myers /riggs system attached different meanings. or this reason ifyou want to avoid doubt and any confusion in the minds of ungian purists then it%s safest
to use the words %5ational% and %'rrational% when correlating these ung terms to the Myers/riggs% %udging% and %"erceiving%. The right-side column is simply a translation, usingmore recognisable modern words, for showing the four M/T' dimensions.
+B*
t!pe na"es6 based on1un$s lan$ua$e
alternati,e +!ers Bri$$s
"eanin$or spin
:E; Etra,ersion or *ntro,ersion:*;
:E; Epressi,e or Feser,ed :*;
:/; /ensin$ or *ntuiti,e :; :/; Gbser,ant or *ntrospecti,e :;
0T1 Thinking or eeling 01 :; ou$h%"inded or 4riendl! :4;
:1; 1ud$in$ or ercei,in$ :; :/; /chedulin$ or robin$ :;
't is interesting to note that many of these words above appear commonly in different
personality testing systems, for example !'2* systems, which again demonstrates the
closely connected nature of many psychometrics models and products.
Most people, to varying degrees at different times depending on circumstances, use bothpreferences within each of the four scales, but each of us tends to have 0and therefore will
indicate via testing1 a certain preference for one style or another in each of the four
scales.There are no %right% or %wrong% or %good% or %bad% preferences, and there are no good or bad
or right or wrong %types% although obviously certain %preference% behaviours and
personality %types% can be more or less appropriate or effective in given situations. 4ithinpersonal limits, adaptability, as ever, is a valuable attribute. 2elf-awareness enables
adaptability. 'f you seek confirmation of the value of adaptability look at the *ybernetics page 0later best, not right now1.
+ere are descriptions of each of the M/T' preferences in slightly more detail.
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preference for theouter #orld andones o#n actionand effect on it
*E+E#traversion
or*ntro,ersion
:*;
preference forinner self andideas to understandand protect ornurture it
$athersinfor"ation b!focusin$ on facts#ithin infor"ation
*$+ $ensing or ituition :;
$athers infor"ationb! interpretin$patterns6possibilities and"eanin$ fro"infor"ationrecei,ed
decides b! usin$lo$ic6consistenc!6ob2ecti,eanal!sis6 process%
dri,en conclusions
*T+ Thinking or 4eelin$ :4;
decides accordin$to #hat "atters toself and others6and personal ,alues
in dealin$ #iththe #orldor$anises6 plans6controls6 anddecides clear fir"actions andresponses %relati,el! ?uickto decide
:1; 1ud$in$ or ercei,in$ :;
in dealin$ #ith the#orld responds andacts #ithfleibilit!6spontaneit!6adaptabilit! andunderstandin$ %relati,el! slo# todecide
)ccording to the Myers /riggs0M/T'
1 system
each of us is represented byfour preferences, one from each of the four scales. *an you begin to identify yourself,
and others around you>
: ;
E#traversion or "ntroversion :*;
do #e focus on outside #orld: ;or inner self:*;% do #efind people ener$isin$: ;orso"e#hat drainin$:*;I
:/;
$ensing or i)tuition :;
the #a! #e infor" oursel,es % ho##e prefer to for" a ,ie# andrecei,e infor"ation % obser,ed
facts and specifics:/;or #hat#e i"a$ine thin$s can "ean:;I
:; Thinking or Feeling :4;
our #a! of decidin$ % ho# #eprefer to "ake decisions %ob2ecti,e and tou$h%"inded:;or friendl! and sensiti,e toothers and oursel,es:4;I
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:1; 1ud$in$ or ercei,in$ :;
our "ethod for handlin$ theoutside #orld and particularl! for"akin$ decisions % do ?uite soone,aluate and decide:1;orcontinue $atherin$ data and keepoptions open:;I
/y measuring or categorising a person%s overall personality or behavioural style
according to four preferences - one from each of the four scales 03-', 2-=, T-, -"1, the
M/T' system logically contains sixteen main %types%, each represented by four-lettercode, for example9 32 or '=" or 32T, etc.
The sequence of the four-letter preferences within the Myers /riggs code, whateverthe combination, does not change9
The st letter denotes the ungian %ttitude% or orientation: the direction orfocus of the personality - "ntrovert or E#travert
The middle two letters denote the (ungian Functional Type preferences,namely9
The /nd letter is the preferred (ungian "rrational function 0Myers /riggs %perceiving%1 - $ensing or "ntuition
The 0rd letter is the preferred (ungian ational function 0Myers /riggs %#udging%1 - Thinking or Feeling
The 1th letter is Myers /riggs% added dimension to indicate the preferredway of dealing with the outer world: to evaluate and decide or to continue gatheringinformation - (udging or %erceiving - equating to ung%s %'rrational% and %5ational%functional type categories, and thereby enabling functional dominance to bedetermined.
)ll sixteen different Myers /riggs M/T' personality type combinations, eachbeing a four-letter code, are commonly presented in an M/T' %Type Table%.
'n the %Type Table% example below the groupings correlate 0according particularly to $eirsey1 to the our Temperaments, which for interest is reflected by the colour coding in
the table below to to aid comparisons when you look again at the our Temperaments types. +owever this is merely an interesting point of note, and is not significant in theworkings of the Myers /riggs theory or its application. The our Temperamentscorrelations are more significant in the $eirsey model.
The M/T' %Type Table% is typically shown elsewhere in other resources without these
headings, and can be shown using other groupings, depending on the views of the theoristor interpreter.
the M!" 'type table' related to $our
!emperaments %eirsey groupings / % sensin$ /1 % sensin$ 4 % intuiti,e % intuiti,e
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percei,in$ 2ud$in$ feelin$ thinkin$
/ /1 41 1
*/ */1 *41 *1
/4 /41 4
*/4 */41 *4 *
san$uine or
artisan
"elancholic or
$uardian
choleric or
idealist
phle$"atic or
rationalist
' repeat that you will see these M/T' types shown in different groupings than the$eirseyour Temperaments structure shown above. This is by no means the definitive
arrangement of the M/T' personality types. There are others. ' place no particularsignificance on the structure of these groupings and perhaps neither should you since
many great minds disagree about it.
or example Myers /riggs themselves prefer to show the types in no particular statedgrouping, but which are actually grouped in four columns 2T, 2, = and =T, which are
the four logical groupings when combining pairs of ung%s four functional types. This isclose to $eirsey%s presentation of them, but not the same.
)nd highly the regarded M/T' ungian neurologist, psychiatrist,psychopharmacologist, and psychotherapist 5obert '. 4iner, M.!., prefers the followingfour-way grouping on the basis that he considers these types to be the four most
distinguishable through observation of people%s behaviour9 T, 0%Thinker-udgers%1
0%eeler-udgers%1, 2" 0%2ensor-"erceiver%1 and =" 0%'ntuitive-"erceiver%1. 8ou pays yer
money and takes yer choice as they say. 'ncidentally 4iner%s %4iner oundation% website0www.gesher.org1 is one of the most impressive and wonderous on the web dedicated to
M/T' ungian theory, full of useful profiles and guidance for self-awareness anddevelopment. +e seems a lovely fellow.
6ther interesting groupings of the sixteen M/T' types are shown in matrixpresentations in each of the /eniger and !'2*sections. These differentgroupings attempt to correlate the personality types 0and traits implied1 between the
different systems and as such can be very helpful in trying to understand it all.
The Myers /riggs organisation is at pains to point out, rightly, that all *'2T" +types are e!ual. )s with the individual %preferences%, there are no %right% or %wrong% or
%good% or %bad% types, although again obviously, certain %type% behaviours can be more orless appropriate in different given situations.
'ndeed most people will display type-behaviours resembling many of the sixteen types inany one day, depending on the circumstances. "t is however the case that most of us
will have a certain preferred type with which we are most comfortable, and which isheld to be, according to the '2T" model, our personality.
'n terms of understanding what personality characteristics each of these sixteen various
%M/T'% types represent, at a very basic level you can simply combine the typedescriptions, for example9
)n "$T( is someone who is on balance focused inwardly 0'ntrovert - '1 who tendsto or prefers to gather information by concentrating on facts 02ensing - 21, makes
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decisions by logic and process 0Thinking - T1, and whose approach and response to the
world is based on order, control, and firm decisions 0udging - 1.
)nd for a contrasting example, an E)F% is someone who is on balance focused onexternal things and people 03xtravert - 31 who tends to or prefers to gather information
by interpreting patterns, possibilities and meaning 0'ntuitive - =1, makes decisions
according to personal values and what matters to self or others 0eeling - 1, and whoseapproach and response to the world is flexible, adaptable and understanding 0"erceiving -
"1.
)t a more detailed level it%s useful to consider %functional dominance%, specifically
relating to the original four ungian functions 0the middle two letters of the four-letterMyers /riggs M/T' code1. The methodology for identifying dominant andauxiliary functions, and thereafter Drd and Cth functions 0which do not appear in eachfour-letter type code1, is explained below in theM/T' function dominance sub-section. 4hile a little tricky for some people to grasp quickly, anyone can understand this
if they put their mind to it, and it%s well worth the effort because identifying functional
dominance does provide an excellent and rapid way to define each and any of the sixteen
main personality types from their four-letter codes without the need for reams ofsupporting notes.
)t a more complex and fully detailed level there are various resources which give
detailed descriptions of the M/T' personality types, including myersbriggs.org, and inmy opinion far more fully and clearly at the excellent www.gesher.org. The ungian
psychologist Michael !aniels% website at www.mdani.demon.co.uk is also an excellentresource for learning about Myers /riggs types and ungian theory.
M!" function dominance)cknowledgments to 2imon "usey for the in M/T' unction !ominance diagram0"owerpoint slide1 and a "! diagram: also to )ndrew 5oughton for the alternative explanation of M/T' dominance: to 'an Mitchell for correcting an error inthe the '2T example below 0previously wrongly shown as '2T1, and to os J MarK a5ibal for correcting an error in two paragraphs which wrongly referred to the And letter
being %Thinking or eeling% instead of %2ensing or i=tuition%.
or a quick explanation see the in M/T' unction !ominance diagram in"owerpoint slide format or as a "!. or a more detailed explanation of functiondominance read on.
't%s not vital to understand function dominance in order to benefit from the Myers /riggs
theory, but it does help explain how to identify the dominant function 0of the
middle two letters - the ungian unctional Types1 within any M/T'
four-letter typecode, and logically from this the au#iliary function 0and then also the 0rd and 1th functions1. The methodology therefore enables rapid description andunderstanding of any four-letter M/T' type code without supporting notes. 't%s a neattechnique. )n additional alternative explanation of M/T' dominance usingdifferent examples and perspective follows this one. eel free to skip ahead to it if the
first explanation is not to your liking. 'n any event having two different perspectives of a
complex theory is often helpful towards gaining best possible understanding.
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