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Organizational Behaviour20-9 OVERVIEW study material (Intermediate+Final)

This summary can be used alongside:Organisational Behaviour (4th edition)

BEDRIJFSKUNDE+ECONOMIE BACHELOR JAAR 1

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Contents:Intermedia e:Chapter A: Organisational behaviour in the pastChapter B: Personality and self-conceptChapter C: Personal characteristicsChapter D: Perceive and communiealeChapter E: MotivationFinal:Chapter F Motivation theoriesChapter G Group dynamicsChapter H TeamworkChapter I Organisational elimateChapter J lntercultural differencesChapter K Decision-making processChapter L Power and politicsChapter M LeadershipChapter N ChangeChapter 0 CSP

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Overview study material: Organizational Behaviour

Chapter A: Organisational behaviour in the pastOrganisational behaviour observes the interactions and ha bits of people and organisations. lttries to imprave the organisations effectiveness.Pfeffer found evidence that 'people-centred practices' are strongly associated with higherprofits and significantly lower employee turnover. Seven people-centred practices insuccessful companies:

1. Job security: eliminate fear of losing a job2. Careful hiring: emphasis on good fit with company culture3. Power to the people: decentralisation and self-managed teams4. Generous pay for performance5. Lots of training6. Less emphasis on status: to build a 'we' feeling7. Trust-building: through the sharing of critica I information

HistoryClassic social theoryRational-system viewHuman relations viewSymbolic interactionism - postmodernismConflict-critica! view

Marx, Drukheim, WeberTaylor, Fayol, Barnard, SimonMayo, Follett, McGregorWeickMarx

Rational-system viewTaylorHe is the faunder of scientific management. This is an approach to management in which alltasks in organisations are analysed, routinized, divided and standardised in depth, insteadofusing rules of thumb. Th s leads to more efficiency due to the increasing pace of workingbecause of the divided subtasks. Consequences: Higher output Standardisation Control and predictability The routine of the tasks allowed the replacement of skilied workers by non-skilied

workers Thinking is for managers, workers only work Optimisation of the tools for each workerFayolHe is the faunder of 'management'. lntroduced five basic management tasks:

1. Planning: predicting a course of action to meet the planned goals.2. Organising: allocating materials + organising people. Authority, discipline, controL3. Leading: giving directions + orders to employees. Convince + influence + motivateothers to make them accomplish the goals.4. Co-ordinating: harmonise different departments to one unit, working for the generalinterest of the company.5. Controlling: to what extent the goals were met+ orders are followed. Carried out by

an independent + competent employee.To execute those basic tasks, tourteen management principles should be obeyed:

1. Division of Iabour2. Authority and responsibility3. Discipline4. Unity of cammand5. Unity of direction

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6. Subordination of individual interest to the general interest7. Fair remuneration of persennel8. Centralisation9. Hierarchy10. Order11. Equity12. Stability of tenure of personnel: low turnover13.1nitiative by every employee14. Unity among the employees

Six skilis a manager should possess:1. Physical qualities2. Mental qualities3. Moral qualities4. General education5. Specific education6. Experience

BernardBuild his theory on general principles of co-operative systems. He describes individuals asseparate beings but not totally independent, freedom is bounded by biologica! and physicallimitations. Effectiveness wil! increase by co-operative actions, necessary elements: Willingness to co-operate A common purpose Communication about the actions Specialisation Incentives Authority Decision-making

SirnonCategorised under the rational-system view because of his rational approach to the workingof organisations and he tried to apply principles of the hard science to social sciences (ad-ministrative -7 decision-making processes). Organisation is characterised by communication,relationships and decision-making processes. How to motivate employees: Loyalty of the employee to the organisation: commitment, identify himself Training Coercion: psychological manipulations to convince the worker into being motivated.Humans have psychological and sociallimitations in thinking rationally, bounded rationality.Human relations viewHuman Relations MovementEstablished because unions wanted better working conditions and researchers wanted moreattention to the hu man factor within an organisation.MayoHe did research to the attention that was given to employees at Western Electric's Haw-thorne plant. Outcomes of this research: There is no correlation between working conditionsand the employee output. Motivation was stimulated by status and the influence of mutualadjustments within the workgroup.

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Overview study material : Organizational Behaviour

FollettShe stressed the importance of human relations in organisations, particularly the imprave-ment of the relationship between management and employees. Employees were the keyparts, paying attention to their needs was the way to imprave productivity. Follett's view onmanagement was the integration of the individual and the organisation. She focussed oninterestand needs of the workers and managers. Six concepts of Follett's work:1. Dynamism: dynamic social relations2. Empowerment: a self-developed capacity, nota pre-existing thing. Power-over: coercive power Power-with: co-active power.3. Participation: co-ordination of the contribution of each individual -7 unit. Clear com-munication, openness, explicitness.4. Leadership: Communication, vision sharing. lnspires others to innovate and achievegoals.5. Conflict: Shows differences between people, neither good nor bad. Solution: integra-tion.6. Experience

McGregorHe formulated two different approaches regarding the human nature, see Table 1.4Symbolic interact ionism- postmodernismSymbolic interactionismFocus on individual behaviour and interactions on micro-level. Subjective interpretations:World is created by communication. Explains why people can have different reactions andmake different decisions in the same situations.PostmodernismA very subjective and situation orientated 'theory'. Postmodernism makes it impossible todevelop general applicable theories of this world.Conflict-critical viewConflict theorySocial structures and relations within organisations are based on conflicts between groupsand social classes. This is in contrast with the rational-view.Critica/ theoryThere is no general idea, but the concept is a being opposed to functionalism and capitalism.Morgan presents eight metaphorical lenses for visualizing an organisation as:Positive

1. Machines: orderly relationships, clearly defined logical system with subsystems, pre-dictability and controllability.2. Organisms: adaption to environment, open system that transfarms inputs into outputs,dealing with survival.3. Brains: having information-processing capacity, strategy formulation, planning proc-esses and management, self-regulation of dispersed intelligence.4. Cultures: constructed beliets and interpretations, subjective reality, own language,shared values, norms and mental models.

Negative5. Politica/ systems: competition, conflict, influencing, power, politicking, own goals vs.organisational goals.6. Physical prisons: being controlled mentally, constrained thinking, unconsciously get-ting trapped in web of own creation.

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7. Flux and transformation: self-producing system, mutual causality, dialeetic change.8. lnstruments of domination: ugly face, external domination of environment and hu-mans, dominating own people.

Modern theoretica/ perspectives on organisations: Ecological approach: take a look at whole population within one branch because or-ganisations react in the same way very aften if they are operating in the same envi-ronment. lnstitutional approach: see the nature of an organisation as given. Organisations copyothers. lnterpretive approach: organisations are structured socially -7 subjective. Organisation learning: adaptive learning + knowledge development. Resource dependence: the extent to which organisations are dependent of the envi-ronment. Try to secure resources. Transaction cast: managers should reconsider on every decision the cast effective-ness of their actions.

Theory + Research + Practice = he most complete information for better understanding andmanaging organisational behaviour.Four ways to obtain data in a valid way:

1. Observation: recording the number of times a specified behaviour is exhibited.2. Questionnaires: ask respondents fortheir opinions or feelings about work-related is-sues.3. Interviews: rely on face-to-face or telephone interactions, ask respondents questions

of interest.4. Indirect methods: obtaining data without any direct contact with respondents.

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Chapter B: Personality and self-conceptSee figure 2.1Self-conceptThe concept the individual has of himself as a physical, social and spiritual or moral being.How you view yourself. Cognitions support self-concept, represent any knowledge, apinion orbelief about the environment, oneself or one's behaviour. Among all the types of cognitions,anticipation, planning, goal setting, evaluating and setting personal standards are the mostrelevant to OB. The extent of self-concept differs per culture.Consists of: Self-esteem Self-efficacy Self-monitoring Locus of controlSetf-esteemThe value one places on themselves.High self-esteem: confident, competent, able to cope with failure, (egotistical, aggressive)Low self-esteem: feel useless, doubt about own judgement.Four ways to build employee self-esteem:

1. Be supportive by showing concern for personal problems, interests, status and contri-butions.2. Offer work invalving variety, autonomy and challenges that suit the employee's val-ues, skilis and abilities.3. Strive for supervisor-employee cohesiveness and build trust.4. Have faith in each employee's self-management ability. Reward each success.

Six pillars of self-esteem:1. Live consciously: be actively and fully engaged in what you do and with whom you in-teract.2. Be self-accepting: do not be overly judgemental of your thoughts and actions.3. Take personal responsibility: for your decisions and actions.4. Be self-assertive: be authentic and willing to defend your beliefs when interacting withothers, rather than bending to their will to be accepted.5. Live purposefully: have clear short-term and long-term goals and realistic plans forachieving them -7 create a sense of controL6. Have personal integrity: be true to your word and your values.

Self-efficacyDefined as 'a person's belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a spe-eitic task.' lt refers to personal beliefs about your competencies, skilis and abilities. Low self-efficacy is associated with learned helplessness, meaning the belief that one has no controlover one's environment.Four sourees of self-efficacy beliefs:

1. Priorexperience2. Behaviour models3. Persuasion from others4. Assessment of physical/emotional state

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High self-efficacy: be active, manage the situation, set goals, plan, prepare, practice, tryhard, creatively solve problems, learn from setbacks, visualise success, limit stress.Low self-efficacy: be passive, avoid difficult tasks, low commitment, don't even try, becomediscouraged through setbacks, blame setbacks on lack of ability or bad luck, experiencestress, become depressed, think of excuses for failing.Self-efficacy requires eight actions within an organisation:1. Recruiting/selection/job assignments2. Job design: complex, challenging, autonomous3. Training and development4. Self-management5. Goal setting and quality impravement6. Coaching7. Leadership8. RewardsSelf-monitoringSelf-monitoring is the extent to which people abserve their own self-expressive behaviourand adapt to the environment. There is a positive relationship between high self-monitoringand career success.High self-monitoring: unfair person who cannot be trusted.Low self-monitoring: person ignores all verbal and non-verbal communication.Locus of controlLocus of control is the extent to which a person takes responsibility for his or her behaviourand the consequences of this behaviour. Two types: lnternal: people who believe they have the capacity to influence the environment andassume that they can control events in their lives by effort and skill (passing the exam

-7 you studied a lot). Sensitive for rewards. External: people who believe that events in their lives and things that they want toachieve are subject to uncontrollable farces, luck, chance and powertul others (pass-ing the exam -7 test was easy). Not sensitive for rewards, they do want rewards butnot if they have to work harder to perfarm better.PersonalityPersonality is the combination of stabie physical and mental characteristics that give the indi-vidual his or her identity. How you appear to others. lt is formed by interacting genetic (na-ture) and environmental (nurture) influences. Traits are the characteristics of people in differ-ent situations. When looking at personality two models are important: Cattell's sixteen personality factors (Table 2.2, p. 62) The Big Five (Table 2.3, p. 63)The Big Five personality dimensions:1. Extraversion: extravert (outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive) (reserved,quiet, introverted)2. Agreeableness: adapter (trusting, good-natured, co-operative, soft-hearted, forgiving)

hallenger (rude, cold, uncaring, unsympathetic)3. Conscientiousness: focused (dependable, responsible, achievement-orientated, per-sistent) lexible (sloppy, inefficient, careless, disorganised, easily distracted)4. Emotional stability: stabie (self-confident, relaxed, secure, unworried) unstable(anxious, depressed, angry, indecisive)5. Openness to experience: explorer (intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad-minded)preserver (unimaginative, conventional, habit-bound)

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Personality typesTypes are based on common patterns of characteristics between people. People belang totypes (traits belang to people). Two important type theories:1. Jung's typology: distinguished three dimensions

People's cognitions (how people receive): sensing I intuiting People's judgements: thinking I feeling People's view of the world: extravert I introvert

2. Myers and Brigg's personality typology (MBTI): added an extra dimension The choices people make on how to allocate time priorities: judging I perceiv-ingThose four dimensions can be combined in 16 different ways: personality types.

Psychological tests in the workplaceTwo types: Typical performance: personality tests Maximum performance: intelligence tests

Three difficulties:1. Predictive validity: can a test actually predict job performance?2. Differential validity: are different races measured in different ways?3. In what extent does faking alters a test?

Abilities and stylesAbility: a braad and stabie characteristic responsible fora person's maximum performanceon mental and physical tasks.Style: a pattem or preferred way of doing something.Skill: the specific capacity to manipulate objects physically.Competence: an underlying characteristic of an individual which is causally related to effec-tive or superior performance.> There is no best style, they are just different. Competence can be more (better) or less.lntelligence: an individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning and problem-solving.

Nature: genetically Nurture: environmental lyTwo types of abilities determine all cognitive performance: a general mental ability (requiredfor all cognitive tasks) + abilities unique to the tasks at hand.Mental abilities (g =general factor): Verbal comprehension: to understand what words mean

Word fluency: to produce isolated words Numerical reasoning: to make quick and accurate computations Spatial ability: to perceive spatial (ruimtelijke) patterns and to visualise Memory Perceptual speed: to perceive figures, identify similarities and differences, carry outtasks invalving visual perception lnductive reasoning: to reason from specifics to general conclusions

Cognitive stylesThe way an individual perceives environmental stimuli, and organises and uses information.Two theories:1. Kirton's adaption-innovation modelFocus on interaction between people and their changing environment.

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Adapter: doing things better Innovator: doing thing different2. Riding's cognitive styles model, two independent dimensions Wholist-Analytic: the habitual way in which people process information Wholists: tend to see the whole of a situation Analytics: see the situation as a collection of parts and will focus onone or two of these parts at a time, while excluding other parts. Verbal-lmagery: people's preterred mode of representing information

Learning styles

Verbaliser: read, listen to or consider information in words.lmagers: read, listen to or consider information they experience fluent,spontaneous and frequent mental pictures.

Kolb's experientiallearning cycle, see figure 2.6.Describes learning as a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation ofexperience. The four abilities required to be an effective learner are situated on two inde-pendent dimensions:1. Concrete experience - reflective observation2. Abstract conceptual isation- active experimentation

Four learning styles:1. Divergers: imaginative abilities, indecisive2. Assimilators: new theories, impractical3. Convergers: practical, too quickly without enough data/missing important implications.4. Accommodators: experimenting + carry out plans, impractical +do notcomplete workon time.

Honey and Mumtord's learning styles modelFour-stage process + four learning styles: Activist: having experience (CE) Reflector: reflect experience (RO) Theorist: conclusions regarding the experience (AC) Pragmatist: planning next steps (AE)

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Chapter C: Personal characteristicsValuesValues: standards or criteria for choosing goals or guiding actions that are relatively end u ringand stabie over time.

1. Content aspect People differ in the values they think are important2. lntensity aspect People differ in the extent of importance of those valuesRakeachlnstrumental values: desirabie ways or modes of behaviour to reach a desirabie goal.

Moral values I competence valuesTerminal values: desirabie goals a person wants to reach during his or her life. Self-centred (personal) I society-centred (social)-7 Values are connected, work tagether to help people reach their desirabie goals throughdesirabie ways of behaviour.Swartz basic human values modelFigure 3.1 (p. 108)Self-transcendence :* Universalism* Benevalenee

Con servation:* Tradition, conformity* Security

Self-enhancement:*Power* Achievement* HedonismOpenness to change:* Self-direction* Stimulation

Work values: expressions of basic values in the work setting.-7 Intrinsic (openness to change), extrinsic (conservation), social (self-transcendence), pres-tige values (self-enhancement).AttitudesAttitude: beliets and feelings people have about specific ideas, situations and people, whichinfluence their behaviour.Attitudes are more directed towards specific goals or situations, while values are more ab-stract. Th ree components which clarify this difference: Cognitive component beliefs, opinions, knowledge about a certain object, situa-tion, person. Affective component: feelings, moods, emotions. Behavioural component how a person intends or expects to act towards some-thing or someone.Cognitive dissonance: situations where different attitudes are in conflict with each other. Tosolve, change attitude (dissonance reduction).Fishbein and AzjenTheory of Planned Behaviour, tigure 3.2Subjective norm: the perceived social pressure whether or not to engage in the behaviour.

)i' Someone's intentions to engage in a given behaviour are the best predietor of thatbehaviour.

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)i- More favourable attitude and subjective norm + great perceived behavioural con-trol stronger intention to engage in certain behaviour.Most important, work related attitudes:

1. Organisational commitment: extent to which an individual identifies oneself with theorganisation and is committed to its goals.2. Job involvement: the extent to which an individual is personally involved with his orher work role. ldentification with a specific job.3. Job satisfaction: the degree of tulfilmentand pleasure one finds in his or her job.The general attitude towards one's job. Sources:

Need tulfilment Discrepancy: meet expectations, represent the difference betweenwhat an individual expects to receive from a job and what he or sheactually receives. Value attainment: perception that a job allows for tulfilment of an indi-vidual's important work values. Equity: how 'fairly' an individual is treated at work. Dispositionallgenetic components: a tunetion both of personal traitsand genetic factors rather than the factors mentioned above.Key correlations with job satisfaction:

1. Motivation2. Absenteeism3. Withdrawal cognitions4. Turnover5. Job performance

EmotionsEmotions: complex human reactions on personal achievements and setbacks.Positive (goal congruent) I negative (goal incongruent)Positive affectivity (experience pos. emotional states) I negative affectivity (experienceneg. emotional states)

Feit emotions: actual or true emotions Disrlayed emotions: organisationally desirabie and appropriate emotions in a givenjobEmotional intelligence: ability to manage your own emotions and those of others in matureand constructive ways.Components: self-awareness, self-management (personal), social awareness, relationshipmanagement (social).Emotional contagion: the process through which people catch the feeling of others. 'The rip-ple effect': water ripples because of wind.

);- Perceiving and adopting other people's facial expressions.Effective use of the emotions of the principle of emotional contagion:1. lnfluencing2. Communication: convincing3. Conflict management: negotiating + solving conflicts4. Leadership: inspiring + coaching5. Change management: communication

Emotionallabour: the effort, planning and control that are needed to express organisationallydesired emotions during interpersonal interactions.

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Emotional dissonance: the conflict between feit and displayed emotions.Flow in the workplaceFlow: subjective psychological stat that occurs when one is totally involved in an activity andfeels simultaneously cognitively efficient, motivated and happy.Five Cs to maximise flow:

1. Clarity2. Centre: an ability to focus3. Choice: belief they control their life, they have choices4. Commitment: to the activity which is needed to achieve goals5. Challenge: balance between skilis and challenges

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Chapter D: Perceive and communiealePerceptionPerception: cognitive process that enables us to interpretand understand our environment.Adds meaning to the already gathered information.Social perception: the process by which people come to understand one another.Factors influencing perception: Perceived target: why a person looks the way he does.

Attention-drawing features: colour, clothing. Perceptual grouping: form individual stimuli into a meaningful pattern. Continu-ity, closure, proximity, similarity. Perceiver: Personality, mood, attitudes. lmplicit personality theories: a network of assumptions that we hold about var-ious types of people, traits and behaviours. Confirmation bias: seek and interpret information that verifies existing beliefs. Setting: interaction between perceiver and perceived target takes place. Contrast effect: perceive stimuli that differ trom expectations as being evenmore different than they really are. Primacy effect: the information first received often continues to colour laterperceptions of individuals. Anchoring. (first-impression)Social information-processing model of perception:Stage 1: Selective attentionlcomprehensionPeople are not capable to fully comprehend all information. Attention: the process of becom-ing consciously aware of something I someone. Salient stimuli: stands out from its context.Stage 2: Encoding and simplificationObserved information is not stored in the memory in its original form. Raw information -7mental representations. To accomplish, perceivers assign pieces of information to cognitivecategories. A schema represents a person's mental picture or summary of the information.Cognitive categories are necessary to make the schema meaningful.Stage 3: starage en retentionStarage in long-term memory consists of separated and related categories.

1. Event memory: specific and general events.2. Semantic memory: general knowledge about the world.3. Person memory: single individuals I groups of people.Stage 4: Retrieval and responseRetrieve information from memory when people make judgements and decisions.

AttributionsAttributions: explanations for behaviour, based on cognitive evaluations.Types of attributions:

1. Locus of causality: internal factors (person) and external factors (environment) of be-haviour.2. Stability3. Controllability4. Generalizability5. Desirability6. Proximity: several causes

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Attribution theories:1. Correspondent interenee theory (Jones and Davis)How an alert perceiver infers another's intentions and person dispositions from his orher behaviour. The extent to which a person's disposition is derived from a perceivedslide of behaviour depends on non-camman effects, social desirability of effects, de-gree of choice.2. Covariation principle (Ke//ey)T o be the eau se of behaviour it must be present when the behaviour occurs and ab-sent when it does not.

External attributions: high distinctiveness lnternal attributions: Low distinctiveness, high consistency, low consensus3. Attribution model (Weiner)How people infer causes for observed behaviour.Five biases, which lead to wrong interpretations: Fundamental error: interring someone's success to external causes and failure

to internal causes. Defensive attribution Actor-observer effect: actars make different attributions about themselves

compared to observers. Self-serving bias: interring positive outcomes to internal factors and negativeoutcomes to external factors. Fundamental attribution error: desirabie actions and behaviour are attributed

to internal factors when it is made by in-group members and to external eaus-es for out-group members.Self-fulfilling prophecySelf-fulfilling prophecy: describes how people behave so that their expectations come true.Pygmalion effect. High self-expectations -7 greater effort + better performance -7 higher ex-pectations.Set-up-to-fail syndrome: negative side of circle.CommunicationCommunication: the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver, and the per-ception of meaning between the individuals involved.Perceptual process model of communication: receiver creates meaning in their own minds.Sender -7 receiver encodes: message (contain hidden agendas, must match with the type ofcommunication)-7decoding -7 receiver creates meaning of messageTwo interrelated communication levels:

1. Content level: what information is send.2. Relationship level: how is information send, based on emotional status or attitudinalreactions towards our environment.

Feedback: the receiver's responsetoa message.Noise: anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of a messages.Barriers to effective communication

1. Process barriers: Sender barrier Encoding barrier Message barrier Medium barrier Decading barrier

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Receiver barrier Feedback barrier2. Personal barriers: no trust, dislike, etc.3. Physical barriers: the physical distance between sender and receiver.4. Semantic barriers: encoding and decading errors

Interpersonaf communicationCommunication competence: use effectively the appropriate communication behaviour in agiven context. Three components: Communication abilities/traits Situational factors Individuals involved

Verbaland non-verbal communicationVerba!: oral communication I written communication. Conscious, clear and rules.Non-verba!: without spoken/written words. Unconscious & automatically.Bath must be consistent.Listening: actively decading and interpreting verbal messages.Listener comprehension is influenced by listener-, message-, speaker-, environmental char-acteristics.Communication styles:1. Assertive: expressive, self-enhancing, not at the expense of others.

2. Non-assertive: timid, self-denying.3. Aggressive: expressive, self-enhancing, at the expense of others.

Organisational communication patterns1. Hierarchical communication: exchanges of information and influence between organ-isational members. Communication distortion: modifying the content of message. Downwards: from supervisor to employee Upwards: from employee to supervisor2. The grapevine: unofficial communication system of the informal organisation. Fourpredictabie patterns: single-strand, gossip, probability, cluster. Liaison individuals: leak information Organisational moles: to enhance power and status

Communication differences between men and wamenThis causes problems concerning productivity and communication.

1. Men are too authoritarian2. Men do nottake wamen seriously3. Women are too emotional4. Men do notaccept wamen as co-workers or bosses5. Wamen do not speak up enoughCaused by linguistic styles; person's characterise speaking pattern.

Men use report talk: direct way of communicationWamen use rapport talk: less direct way of communication, everybody involved.Genderflex: temporary u se of communication behaviours typical of the other gender in orderto increase the potential for influence.

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Strategie and asymmetrie informationCommunication can be disturbed on purpose, two phenomena:1. Adverse selection: hidden information about one part to an agreement.2. Moral hazard: hidden action by one part to an agreementafterit has been made.

Modern eommunieationInternet, intranet (organisation's private internet), extranet (connects internal employees withstrategie partners).lnformation richness: if communication of an item of data provides substantial new under-standing it is rich. Best: face-to-face.lnformation overlaad: information exceeds our information processing capacity.Decrease of productivity, ineffective communication, loss of information, inadequate deci-sions and workplace stress.Solutions: increasing the information-processing capacity or reducing the information load.

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Chapter E: MotivationMotivation: professional processes that cause goal-orientated actions.Needs theories: individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs.Job characteristics model: the taskitself is the key to employee motivation.Historica! roots of modern motivation theories:Content theories: try to explain the things that actually motivate people in their job. What mo-tivates people? Maslow, Alderfer, McC/elland, Herzberg, McGregorProcess theories: explain the actual processof motivation. How do people get motivated?Maslow's need hierarchy theorySee figure 5.21. Self-actualisation: actualise one's full potential2. Esteem: internalesteem needs (desires for feelings, power), externalesteem needs(reputation, recognition) -) higher self-confidence3. Love: belongingness, giving and receiving4. Safety: security, need for freedorn.5. Physiological needs: to sustain life, hunger, sleepiness.Barriers:

People appreciate the sarne needs differently. Employees do not always achieve their needs through work.Alderfer's ERG theoryRefinernent of Maslow's hierarchy needs model. Five dirnensions -) three dimensions:1. Existence needs: safety, physiological2. Relatedness: to maintain relationships3. Growth-related needs: development of potentialFrustration-regression assurnption: people rnay regress down to lower need level when ahigher need is frustrated. -) Motivation by sernething else.McC/ellands need theories1. Need for achievement: need to accornplish sernething difficult. Characteristics: mod-erate risk-takers, higher personal responsibility, need for more feedback.2. Need for affiliation: rnaintaining social relationships, joining groups.3. Need for power: desire to influence, 'if I win, you lose' rnentality.Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theoryFigure 5.4 (p. 221)Job satisfaction -) better job performance.Hygiene factors erase sourees of dissatisfaction: policies, supervision, salary. Extrinsic.Motivators fester job satisfaction: achievernent, responsibility, recognition. lntrinsic.-) Job enrichrnent: rnodifying a job in such a way that an employee has the opportunity toexperience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility and advancement.lnternal weakness of theories: they do not reveal about the actual motivation process. People seek security People seek social systems People seek personal growth

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Job characteristics modelHackman and Oldham, tried to determine how work can be structured so that employees areinternally motivated. See figure 5.5.Critica! psychological states: Experienced meaningfulness: is the work valuable? Experienced responsibility: personal accountability for the outcomes of his or her et-

forts. Knowledge of results: able to determine whether or not the outcomes of the work aresatisfactory.

Th s model is the opposite of Taylor and his scientific management.

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Chapter F: Motivation theoriesThere are different aspects to how people can be motivated and how it influences theirperformance: In this section three process theoriesof motivation are elaborated (expectancytheory, equity theory and goal-setting theory). Further, important tools such as feedback andgiving rewards will be discussed.The Expectancy theory is the idea that people's actions are driven by expectedconsequences. Hedonism of one component of expectancy theory: Hedonistic people striveto maximise their pleasure and minimize their pain. This theory can be used to prediefbehaviour in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made.There are two theoriesof motivation: Victor Vroom's expectancy theory and Lyman Porterand Edward Lawler's extension of Vroom's theory.Vroorn's expectancy theoryMotivation boils down to the decision about how much effort to exert in a specific tasksituation. Vroorn's expectancy model is structured in a three-stage sequence of expectations:1. Motivation is affected by an individuars expectation that a certain level of effort willproduce the intended performance goal.2. Motivation is influenced by a person's perceived chances of getting various outcomes as

a result of performing at a level, which would result in the benefits.3. Individuals are motivated to the extent that they value the outcomes receives. Thismeans that only if the perceived value of the outcome is higher than the perceived valueof the castleffort will the effort be exerted.

Expectancy represents an individuars belief that a particular degree of effort will be foliowedby a particular level of performance(effort-7performance expectation). Taking the form ofsubjective probabilities for expectancies, zero is the perception that effort has no effort onperformance and one is the perception that everything depends on effort. The factorsinfluencing an employee's expectancy perceptions are: Self-esteem, self-efficacy, previoussuccess at the task, help received from a supervisor and subordinates, informationnecessary to complete the task and goods materials/equipment to work with.lnstrumentality: a person's belief that a particular outcome depends on performing at aspecific level (performance-? outcome perception). Performance is instrumental when itleads to something else (e.g. passing exams is instrumentalto graduating from university).Valence: positive or negative values people place on outcomes. lt mirrors our personalpreferences (e.g. most employees place a positive value (valence) on receiving additionalmoney whereas job loss would be likely to prove negatively valent for most individuals). Theoutcome of valenee depends on an individuars needs but the sum of the valences of allrelevant outcomes has to be positive.The Vroom's Expectancy Model is visualised in Figure 6.1 on page 243On the basis of Vroom's Expectancy Model Lyman Porterand Edward Lawler developed anextended expectancy model. This model tempts to identify the souree of people's valencesand expectancies and to link effort with performance and job satisfaction.Effort is a tunetion of two elements: the perceived values of a reward (reward's valence) andthe perceived effort- reward probability that means the expectation that performance will

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lead to rewards. Performance is determined by moir than effort: lt also depends on anemployee's ability and traits and on how the employee perceives his/her role perception. Thehigher the employee's abilities the higher the performance when employees understand theirroles.Employees receive both intrinsic (self-granted and consist of intangible) and extrinsicrewards (tangible outcomes) for performance. The job satisfaction, in turn, is determined byemployees' perception of the equity of the rewards received. The employee's future effort-rewards probabilities are influences by past experience.The Porterand Lawler's Expectancy Model is shown in Figure 6.2 on page 244Even though the expectancy theory prediets some components accurately (e.g. taskpersistence, achievement), it has bee criticised for several reasons: Theory is difficult to test Measures used to assess expectancy, instrumentality and valenee have questionablevalidityExpectancy theory can be useful for creating motivating working environments where peoplelike to work and achieve high performance.Non-ehallenging work leads to boredom, frustration and low performance. Too difficult taskscause frustration as they are not attainable. lt is crucial to pay attention to individual whentrying to influence people's expectancies.As the expectancy theory is based on perceptions, motivation decisions should not be casedon manager's view of abilities.Organizations also have to deal effectively with employees' instrumentalities to enhancemotivation: trust and honesty are important aspects of organizations that are values byemployees. Organizations have to monitor valences for various rewards.The concept of instrumentality is applied in the concept of performance-related pay (PRP),referred to as pay-for-performance. The idea behind pay-for-performance schemes is to giveemployees an incentive for working harder or smarter; it is something extra.The Equity Theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness andjustice in social exchanges. This theory is basedon cognitive dissananee theory (developedby Leon Festinger in 1950s). Equity theory focuses on what people are motivated to do whenthey feel treated inequitable. According to his theory: People are motivated to maintain consistency between their cognitive beliefs and their

behaviour Perceived inconsistencies create cognitive dissonance/psychological discomfort that

motivates corrective actionThe key components of the individual-organization exchange relationship are inputs andoutcomes. This relationship is central to employees' perception of equity and inequity that isevaluated by camparing their inputs and outcomes with others.When making equity comparison, employees consider on-the-job inputs and outcomes.(shown in Table 6.2, Page 249).There are three equity relationships: equity, negative inequity and positive inequity. Whentwo people have equivalent backgrounds and perfarm the same tasks, equity exists for anindividual when the ratio of perceived outcomes to inputs equals the ratio of outcomes toinputs.

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However, if the individual enjoys greater outcomes for similar outputs, is it called negativeinequity. On the other hand, the individual perceives positive inequity when the outcome toinput ratio is greater than of the other person.The Equity Theory of Motivation is shown in Figure 6.3 on page 248.There are two key findings on the equity theory of motivation in organisations:1. Negative inequity is less tolerabie than positive inequity. People who feel a negativeinequity are more powerfully motivated to correct the situation.2. lnequity can be reduced in several ways (shown in Table 6.3, Page 251)Individuals tend to campare themselves with similar others or close friends rather thandissimilar ones. Further, men and women have the same reaction to negative inequity.To maintain feeling of equity in organization, the following aspects should be considered: Managing job behaviour needs understanding of cognitive processes lt is important to pay attention to employees' perception on what is fair and equitable Hiring and promotion decisions basedon merit-based and job-related information is seen

as equitable Having the ability to appeal against any decision promotes the belief that organizationstreat employees fairly Equity outcomes makes employees being more likely to accept and support

organizational change Organizations can promate teamwork among employees by treating them equitably Treating employees inequitably leads to conflicts The organization's elimate should be for justice as it significantly influences employees'job satisfaction.A Goal is what an individual is trying to accomplish or an action or object someone is aimingfor. Goal setting has been promoted through management by objectives (MBO). lt is anapproach that includes participation in decision-making, goal setting and objective feedback.Loeke's Model of Goal Setting (Figure 6.4 on page 255) involves four motivationalmechanisms;1. Goals are personally meaningful and direct one's attention on what is relevant andimportant2. Goals motivate us to act so that the level of effort expended proportionately to thedifficulty of the goal3. The effort expended on a task over an extended period of time is represented bypersistenee4. Goalscan encourage people to develop strategies and action plans enabling them toachieve their goalsIn general, goal setting works in different cultures even though goal specificity and difficultyvary between cultures.Goal difficulty reflects the amount of effort requited to meet a goal. There is a positivecorrelation between goal difficulty and performance but as the goal seems impossible toreach, the performance drops (see Figure 6.5, on page 256). Goal specificity pertains to thequantifiability of a goal, which refers to the extent to which a goal is specifically stated andspecified. Setting specific, difficult goals leads to poorer performance:

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Overview study materie/: Organizationa/ Behaviour

There are two explanations:1. Employees are not likely to make an increased effort to achieve complex goals unless

they support them2. Noveland complex tasks take employees langer to completeFurther, Feedback iets people know i f they are going in the right direction. lt provides theinformation needed to adjust direction, effort and strategies for goal accomplishment. Hence,goals pus feedback is the recommended approach.The contingency approach is a methad that seems best suited to the individual and situation.lndividual ditterences make it necessary to establish different goals for employeesperforming the same job.Goal-commitment is the extent to which an individual is personally committed to achieving agoal. lt affects the goal-setting outcomes by both strengthen the intention and lower theunwillingness to reach a goal over time.The number of sourees that can be used as input for goal-setting:1. Time and motion studies2. Average past experience3. Employee and his/her superior may set the goal particulately through give-and-take

negotiation4. Conducting external or internal benchmarking (used when an organization wants to

campare its performance or internal work processes with those of other organizations orother internal units, departments within the organization)

5. Strategy of company may affect the goals set by employees at various level within theorganizationGoals must be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result- oriented, and Time bound (SMART).When people have multiple goals, goal conflict may arise. Goal conflict refers to degree towhich people feel that multiple goals are incompatible. There are three types of goalconflicts:1. Externally imposed goal my be in conflict with a personal goal2. People have to achieve multiple outcomes when performing a single tasks leading totrade-off between performance quality and quantity3. Several tasks or goals have to accomplishedTechniques to increase goal commitment in organizations can be found on page 259Goal setting only works when people are committed to the goals established. Higher goalcommitment can be achieved by understanding the goals.Feedback serves the following to two functions: lt is instructional and motivational. Feedbackinstructs when it clarifies roles and motivates when it serves as a reward.T o better understand the feedback-performance relationship, the cognitive-processingmodel of feedback (Figure 6.6 on page 262) can be used.The sourees of giving feedback are 'others', the taskitself and 'oneself'. People who tend tobe high in self-confidence rely more on personal feedback than those with low self-confidence.The recipient who gets feedback differs in character, perception and cognitive evaluation.The recipient's character (self-esteem and self-efficacy) can help or hinderone's readinessfor feedback. Others having low self-esteem and self-efficacy do not seek for feedback.

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High self-monitors are more open to feedback whereas high self-monitors are tuned intotheir own internal feelings. The perception can be perceived in a positive or negative way.Research shows that negative feedback can be seen as a challenge and set higher goalswhereas positive feedback can less motivate to do better. However, destruclive criticism canreduce the beliefs of self-efficacy and self-set goals of recipients.When receiving feedback, people evaluate it based on several aspects (accuracy, credibilityof the source, fairness, expectancies and behavioural standards). lf one or more of thesecognitive criteria are failed to meet the feedback it will be played down.As feedback is related to the goal-setting process it comes to the same behaviouraloutcomes: direction, effort and persistenee and resistance.Table 6.5 in page 265 lists some further problems with regard to organizational feedbacksystems. Tips on how to help managers to build credible and effective feedback systems arelisted on page 265.The 360-degree feedback and upward feedback are newer approaches as they involvemultiple sourees of feedback. Nowadays, more and more employees receive feedback fromsubordinates or even outsiders, which covers all relevant stakeholders in an employee'sperformance ('360-degree'). However, when customers are not included it is described as270-degree feedback. The popularity for even subordinates giving 'upward' feedback' to hisor her boss has grown for at least six reasons:1. Traditional performance-appraisal systems created dissatisfaction2. The trend to team-based organizations instead of traditional hierarchies3. 'Multiple raters' are considered to be more valid feedback than single-souree rating4. Support of computer netwerk technology facilitates multiple-rater systems5. Trend towards participative managementand employee empowerment6. Co-werkers are said to know more about a professienal's strengths than the bossStudies have shown that upward feedback had a positive impact on the performance of lowto moderate performers. Further, repeated upward feedback had a lasting positive effect onperformance. Both 360-degree and upward feedback may be a motivational tooi as thefeedbackbasedon anonymity is deccupled from pay and promotion decision. Developingeffective 360-degree programmes is not easy as several interconnected steps need to beinvolved. On page 268, Table 6.6 the organizational conditions for 360-degree feedback aresummarised.Rewards are an omnipresent feature of organizational life. But rewards go far beyendmonetary compensation. Hence, there are different reward systems that are similar to eachother on some interrelated common components. There are three different types ofrewards: financial/material (extrinsic), social (extrinsic) and psychic (intrinsic). Whereassocial rewards involve praise and recognition from ethers psychological rewards come frompersonal feelings of self-esteem, self-satisfaction and accomplishment.

In general, extrinsic rewards (money or praise) come from the environment and intrinsicrewards (pleasure from a task) are self-granted. lf an employee obtains extrinsic rewards hegets extrinsic motivated just like intrinsic rewards turn to an intrinsic motivated employee. Incultural context, however, intrinsic job characteristics are only high valued in rich countrieswith lower power distance and an individualistic culture.

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Besides the different types of rewards, four organization's reward norms dictate the natureof exchange: Profit maximisation: The objective to maximise its net gain in a selfish way. A profit-

maximising employee would thereby seek maximum rewards and even leave theorganization for a better deal

Equity: The reward equity norm says that rewards should be in proportion tocontributions. lt is the most common phenomenon in cultures. The equity norm is drivenby basic principles of fairness and justice but its cultural strength varies.

Equality: The reward equality norrn is about rewarding all parties equally withoutconsidering their comparative contributions. As there is not absolute equality inhierarchical organizations, the gap between high-level and !ow-level employees is frornimportance. The smaller the pay gap, the better the individual and organizatienarperformance.

Need: This norm states that distributing rewards should be according to employee's needrather than their contributions.The individual preferenee for reward-allocation norms and the social, cultural and political-economie context when imprementing a reward system might enhance people's jobsatisfaction and motivation.Th ere are three general criteria for the distribution of rewards: Performance in terms of re sult (tangible outcomes) Performance in terms of actions and behaviours Non-performance consideration (where is type of job is rewarded)Organizational Practices to stimulate a Performance culture is stated in table 6.7 on page275. Sametimes organizational reward systems do not achieve the desired motivationalimpact. On page 273, eight reasans for that are listed.Financial rewards have an impact on the performance in three dif ferent ways: Motivational: the sense that rewards make people try harder Sending signals: paying an extra payment when the target is reached 'Worker sorting' effect: organizations using rewards extensively tend to attract peoplevaluing such rewards.Th ere are several issues to consider when deciding on the right ba anee between monetaryand non-monetary rewards:1. Employees value interesting work and recognition more than money2. Extrinsic rewards can lose their motivating factor over time3. Monetary rewards must be large enough to generate motivationPay should not be linked to goal achievement unless the performance goals are under theemployees' control, the goals are quantitative and measureable and large payments aremade for performance achievement. The visualization of the General Model ofOrganizational Reward Systems is illustrated in Figure 6.7 on page 270.

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Chapter G: Group dynamicsGroups and teams are an inescapable feature in our everyday life. The term 'group' can bedefined as two or more freely interacting individuals who share collective norms and goalsand have a common identityThe psychoiogist Edgar Schein made distinctions between a group, a crowd and anorganization (shown in Figure 7.1 on page 296): the size of a group is limited by thepossibilities of mutual interaction and mutual awareness. Hence, a whole organization cannotbe considered as a group as they do not all interact and are aware of each other.But work teams, subparts of departments or other informal associations amongorganizational members are by definition a group.The psychoiogist Rensis Likert views organizations as a colleetien of groups rather thanindividuals. According to Likert, groups have a psychological tunetion and are moreproductive if they satisfy individual's needs.A formal group is formed by the organization to help the organization to accomplish a goal(e.g. work groups, team, committee). Functional reporting between subordinates and groupmanagers is one characteristic of a cammand or functional group. The aim of a task group isto complete a particular task fora limited time. In organizations, employeescan belangtoacammand group and to at least one task group.An informal group evolves naturally and is not created on purpose by an organization.There are two specific types of information groups: friendship groups and interest groups.Whereas friendship groups arise from common characteristics of people (age, ethnicbackground), interest groups develop because of a common interest or activity they belangto. Forma I and informal groups often overlap which may be problematic as it can foster theproductive teamwork on the job but a so threaten the productivity by 'gossip'.Groups fulfil two basic functions: organizational and functional (shown in table 7.1 on page299). The social identity theory states that these functions are defined by personal socialaffiliations: Groups that are similar to ourselves reinforce the personal social identity andmotivate the individual to belang to that group.Social networks are social entities and the relations between them. They differ from groupsor teams as they have no clear boundaries. Social networks or 'shadow organizations' canemerge in a given company or be prescribed.In the field of research the social netwerk analysis is a systematic and quantifiable collectionand analysis of social relations. Emerged in the 1930s, the methad has developed throughthe insights of statistics, social-psychology and sociology. The sociogram (shown in figure7.2; page 300), is one output of a social netwerk analysis. lt concerns with the structure andpatterning of relationships and identifies their causes and consequences. Th ere are differenttypes of individuals that can be identified: (1) Star (individual having large number ofrelations), (2) lsolate (individuals having no relations), (3) Bridge builder (individualconnecting parts of the netwerk).Tuekman's group development and formation processGroups and teams go through a maturation process in identifiable stages. The psychoiogistBruce W. Tuckman proposed in 1977 the five-stage model (Figure 7.3; P.301), which is akinto Maslow's need hierarchy model.Stage 1: Forming: Group members are uncertain and anxious a bout their roles. The mutualtrust is low. lf formal leader does not assert his/her authority, another leader emerges.Stage 2: Storming: Th s is the time of testing the leader's policies. Subgroups are shapedthat can lead to procrastination. Some groups may stayin the second stage due to eruptionsturning into rebellion

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Stage 3: Norming: Power struggles are resolved as the new respected member becomes theleader. Questions about authority and power are resolved and team spirit develops.Members have found their proper roles.Stage 4: Performing: The activity is focused on task problems. The elimate is characterisedby open communication, strong cooperation and helping behaviour. lnstead of conflicts andjob boundary disputes, the members are cohesive and personal committed to group goals.Stage 5: Adjourning: The workis done so that members feel a campeiling sense of lossThere are rituals celebrating the "end" or "new beginning". Leaders ernphasis the valuablelessans learn in group dynamics. Everyone gained new experiences.Evidence has shown that Tuckmans's performing stage, in what researchers called groupdecay, can be subdivided into: De-norming: different standard of conduct towards the project among the members astheir interest and expectation change De-storming: Whereas sudden conflicts arise in the storming stage, slowly discontentcomes up during the de-storming stage De-forming: Work groups falls apart in subgroups. Group members isolate themselvesfrom each other. As a result, performance declines rapidly.A study shows that interpersonal feedback increases as the group develops throughsucceeding stages and becomes more specific during the group development. Further, thecredibility of peer feedback increases as well as the amount of positive feedback.In the early group development stages active, aggressive and task-oriented leadershipbehaviour are related tostrong functioning. Supportive, decentralized and participativebehaviour, on the other hand, leads to poorer functioning but lead to more productivity andsatisfaction throughout the life of the group.Roles are sets of behaviour that people expect of accupants of a positionRole theory attempts to explain how these social expectations influence employee behaviourRole episode is composed of a snapshot of the ongoing interaction between two people(shown in Figure 7.4 on Page 304 . At the beginning of any role episode, the role senderperceives the relevant organization's or group's behaviour requirements that serve as astandard for tormulation expectations for the focal person's behaviour. Then, the role senderevaluates the action behaviour of the focal person's behaviour against those expectationsfoliowed by verbal and non-verbal messages. The focal person accurately or inaccuratelyperceives the communicated role expectations, which can be experienced as role overlaad,role conflict and role ambiguity. Then the focal person responds constructively by engaging.Roles overload occurs as the total of what role senders expect of the focal person farexceeds his or her ability. Role conflict is experienced when various members of the roleset expect various things of the focal person. This may be also the case when values, ethicsor personal standards collide with others' expectations.Those who do not know what is expected of them experience role ambiguity. lt can fosterjob dissatisfaction, cause lack in self-confidence and hamper job performance.Taskroles enable the work group to pursue a common purpose while maintenance roleskeep the group together. In table 7.2 on page 306, task and maintenance roles that need tobe performed by group members are listed.Norms are shared attitudes, opinions, feelings or actions that guide social behaviour. Theyevolve due to psychological and sociological mechanisms and have a powertul influence ongroup and organisational behaviour. Norms develop in the following four ways: Explicit statements by supervisors or co-workers Critica! events in the group's history Primacy

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Carry -over behaviours from past situationsGroup membersenforce norms for the following four reasons:1. Group/organisation survive2. Clarification of behavioural expectations3. Avoidanee of embarrassment4. Clarification of central values/unique identityTwo different approaches determine the optimum group size: mathematica! rnadelling andIabaratory simulationsThe first approach, the mathematica! modelling, includes building around certain desiredoutcomes of group action (e.g. decision quality). But this research is inconclusive due todiffering assumptions and statistica! techniques.The second approach, the Iabaratory simulations, assumes that group behaviour needs tobe observed first in controlled Iabaratory settings. This studies exploit that brainstormingproductivity of ideas does nat increase as the size of the group increases.In genera!, the group size depends on the organisation's objective. While a three- to f ive-member group would be appropriate to make high-quality decisions, a larger group couldgenerate creative ideas and socialise new members. According to studies, the increase ingroup size leads to more directive group leaders and decreasing group member satisfaction.Further, it was found that diverse dyads performed better than homogeneaus sensing dyadsthat work on a complex task. However, that was the case when camparing them withhomogeneaus intuiting dyads. Several studies reveal that task-related diversity leads togreater effectiveness whereas relations-oriented diversity (e.g. gender, age) even inhibitseffectiveness. Diversity may increase the knowledge pool but toa much heterogeneity canmake the communication between team members difficult.The three major threats to group effectiveness are the Asch effect, groupthink and socialloafing. Even though conformity to norms, role expectations, policies and rules need to beestablished in an organisation, there are two drawbacks: First, the pressure to conformsuppresses creativity and influences members concerning their attitudes that are nat of anyorganisational need. Second, blind conformity destrays creative thinking.The psychoiogist Soloman Asch has shown in his study that naive subjects conform to 80 %to a majority opinions that is obviously wrong. He called the distartion of individual judgmentby a unanimous but incorrect opposition the Asch effect.Unlike Aseh's subjects, who are strangers to each other, members of groups involved ingroupthink are tightly cohesive. lt is the mode of thinking that people engage in when theyare deeply involved in a cohesive in-group and is a deterioration of mental efficiency thatresults from pressures.The last threat to group effectiveness is socialloafing which refers to the tendency fo rindividual effort to decline as group size increases. There are four explanations for the socialloafing effect:

1. Equity of effort2. Loss of personal accountability3. Motivational loss due to sharing rewards4. Co-ordination loss as more people perfarm the taskLabaratory studies have shown that social loafing occurs when the task is perceived to beunimportant or simple, group members thought their individual output is nat identifiable andwhen members expect their co-workers to laaf.

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Chapter H: TeamworkKatzenbach and Smith defined the term 'Team' as a small number (between 2-25 members)of people with complementary skilis who are committed to a common purpose and approachfor which they hold themselves mutually accountable. The following conditions apply to ateam: members of the group have shared goals and interact with each other to achieve thosegoals. Moreover, team members have well-defined and interdependent roles and anorganisational function as team.As organisations want to use effectively talents to imprave performance of all groups, thecontingency model for staffing work teams (Figure 8.2 on page 329) would beappropriate. Th s way, it can also train and develop new talents whereas concentration oftalent would lead to the maximised performance.Within every team are different roles with its positive qualities and allowable weaknesses inorder to be successful. Meredith Belbin identified in her framework nine roles that can beclassified into do-roles, think-roles and social ro/es (shown in Table 8.1 on page 330). Increative groups is a balance of all these roles that are complementary to each other.Erik Sundstrom developed the general typology of work teams and identified four generaltypes of work teams: advice, production, project and action teams. Further, he examinedthese types by means of four key variables: the degree of technica! specialisation and of co-ordination with other work units, work cycles and typical outputs.Advice teams are formed to broaden the information base for decisions. They tend to have alow degree of technica! specialisation and co-ordination. The second type of team,production teams, perfarm day-to-day operations, have a low degree of technica!specialisation but a high degree of co-ordination as work flows from one team to another.Project teams, on the other hand, have a high degree of technica! specialisation as they arespecialised in that field. The degree of co-ordination is low for traditional units but high forcross-functional units. The last type of teams, action teams, have a high degree of technica!specialisation and co-ordination. The only challenge for those teams is to perfarm at its peakon demand.There are two effectiveness criteria for work teams: performance and variability. Whereasperformance satisfies the need and expectations of outsiders (clients, customers and fans),team variability satisfies the team member's willingness to contribute. The ecological modelof work-team effectiveness (Figure 8.3, page 334) illustrates the interaction of work teamsin their organizational context. lt emphasizes the need of an organization life-support system.Six critica! variables in the organizational context help work teams to be effective: strategy,structure, technology, culture, rewards system and administrative support/training. The fiveimportant factors of the interna processes of work teams are listed in Figure 8. 3 and againexpanded in Table 8.3 on page 335.However, 80% to 100% of teams have difficulties in achieving their goals that may have thefollowing reasons: Hidden agendas Lack of understanding and/or leadership Wrong mix of team members Unhealthy team environmentFigure 8.4 on page 336 presents a summary of why work teams fail and what managers andteam managers should bear in mind to avoid problems. The main threats, according to thatfigure, are unrealistic expectations reading to frustration, which, in turn, eneaurages people toabandon teams.

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Further, the common management mistakes involve doing a poor job of creating a supportiveenvironment for teamwork.Michael J. Stevens and Micha el A. Campion developed a model for assessing one'sreadiness for teamwork as also organizations need to make sure teams are staffed withskilied people. In Table 8.4 on page 338, lnterpersonal KSAs (the right Knowledge, Skilisand Abilities) and the Self-management KSAs are divided up. The KSAs that areinterpersonal are conflict resolution, collaborative problem solving and communication. Theother KSAs that are involved in self-management are goal setting and performancemanagementand planning and task co-ordination. Team-oriented organizations need tokeep in mind to consider these KSAs when recruiting, hiring, staffing and training. But thisalone is not enough: other characteristics such as personality also facilitate team functioning.Studies have shown that co-operation is superior to competition and to individualistic effortsin promoting achievement and productivity. Further, Co-operation with intergroup competitionpromotes lower achievement and productivity.The three most important components of teamwork are co-operation, trust andcohesiveness.Co-operation occurs when individual efforts are integrated to achieve a collective objective.Morton Deutch showed how people's beliefs are related to their interdependence: whenacting in co-operation, people believe that goal attainment by other people will also fostertheir own goals but, in turn, believe that goal attainment by others will diminish their ownwhen they are in competition. Hence, team members are in a 'mixed motive's situation.Trust is the reciprocal (give-and-take) faith in other's intentions and behaviour. Thepersonality trait called propensity to trust includes one's general wil lingness to trust othersand is an element of organizational trust model. Trust involves a cognitive leap that is basedon beyond the actual experience with another person. Totrust someone means to have faithin samebody's good intentions. However, the act of trusting someone also carries risks ofbetrayal. There are six guidelines for building and maintaining trust:

1. Communication: Teil the trust by informing team members and employees2. Support: Provide any helpand be approachable/available3. Respect: Delegate authority and listen actively to others' ideas4. Fairness: Ensure that appraisals and evaluations are objective and impartial5. Predictability: Keep to promises and be consistent and predictabie6. Competence: show your campetences of good business sense

Cohesiveness is the processof togetherness. Team members that are cohesive sticktagether for the following reasons: the enjoyableness each others' company and the need toaccomplish a common goal. There are two types of cohesiveness: Socio-emotional cohesiveness: this type of togetherness develops when individualsderive emotional satisfaction from team participation lnstrumental cohesiveness: this type of togetherness develops when team members aremutually dependent on one another as they do not believe in achieving the team's goalaloneThere is evidence to the conneetion between team cohesiveness and performance: Insmaller cohesive teams the performance effect was strong. This effect becomes evenstronger in military groups and sport teams. Further, this has also the most powertul impacton the commitment to the task. Regarding the performance, the tendency for success ratherbinds team members together.

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However, cohesiveness does notminimise friction. To conclude, enhancing groupperformance is not likely to be effective by tostering interpersonal attraction.Steps Managers can take to enhance the two types of cohesiveness are listed in table 8.5 onpage 342.The three approaches to teams in action are: quality circles, virtual teams and self-managedteams. All have recognisable labels, some research evidence and range from low to highdegrees of empowerment. The three types of teams are distinct but still overlap somehow.In gene ral, quality circles are also called parallel structures as they exist outside normalchannels of authority and communication. On the other hand, self-managed teams areintegrated into the organisational structure whereas virtual teams tend to be parallel.Quality circles consist of small teams of people who work in the same field of activity andidentify, analyse and recommend salution for problems. They (10-12 members) meet onregular basis during work hours once a weekor twice a month. Management supports thequality circle programme by additional training. Not monetary rewards but intrinsic motivationis the primary reward for quality ei rele volunteers.In the field of research, one expert made the conclusion that about 60% of quality circlesfailed due to poor implementation. However, the lack of standardised variables makesresearch on quality circle inconclusive.Virtual teams contain of individuals across various boundaries using the communicationtechnology. They may be defined as a physically dispersed task team that conducts itsbusiness through modern information technology. The characteristics that differentiate virtualteams from traditional teams is shown in Figure 8.6 on page 345. Whereas the spatialdistance in virtual teams is distributed and the communication is mediated technologically,traditional team's distance is proximal and the communication takes place in face-to-facemeetings. In the dynamic global environments, virtual teams are beneficia! due to flexibility,lower costs and improved resource utilisation. However, the lack of face-to-face interactioncan weaken trust, communication and accountability that can lead to low individualcommitment, role overlaad, role ambiguity, absenteeismand socialloafing. The flow ofconversation is in virtual teams disturbed because communication modalities (paraverbal andnon-verbal) cannot be mediated. Further, difficulty in communication and understanding thesalienee of information and in interpreting the meaning of silence can cause problems.Hence, those teams are more task-oriented and less in the exchange of social-emotionalinformation. To prevent geographical and organisational distance, trust that is notbasedonstrong interpersonal relationships had to be established. The so-called 'swift' trust developson social bonds formed by informal chats. Virtual teams that started with low levels of trusthad a lack of social introduction, concern with technica! uncertainties and a lack ofenthusiasm whereas high level of trust showed high enthusiasm and extensive socialdialogue. Repairing broken trust aftera conflict between virtual team members is the mostcritica! role for the e-team leader.Research has proven that the group development in virtual teams is similar to that for face-to-face teams. However, virtual teams yield poorer decisions than face-to-face meetings. Theteam members in face-to-face groups, moreover, are more satisfied with the team's outcomebut the effectiveness of information exchange is the same in virtual and face-to-face teams.Team leaders in virtual teams need to consider two things to be effective: focus on resultsand recognise that virtual teams require better supervisory skilis among existing managers.In table 8.7 on page 347 eight recommendations of leadership in virtual teams are listed.Self-managed teams are groups of workers that are given 'administrative oversight' such asplanning, monitoring and staffing fortheir task domains. Those work groups supervisethemselves and are referred to autonomous work groups are self-directed work groups.

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uverv ew s u y ma er a : urgan za ona e av our

Team members share or rotate leadership and hold themselves mutually responsible. Thefarmer manager starts as a team leader and is responsible for keeping the project on track.During the team maturation, the farmer manager acts more as coach but remains member ofthe team. T o determine whether on-the-job training and coaching is necessary, the teammembers measure their progress against the agreed-upon goals, approach, skilis andcompetences. The most delegaled tasks among companies with self-managed teams arework scheduling and dealing directly with customers.Self-monitored groups are a British concept from the 1940s that is often in place inAustralia, Scandinavia, USA and the Netherlands. Team members of self-managed teamsscore high on group autonomy that empowers those who are able to handle additionalresponsibility. Group autonomy camprises three types: work methad autonomy, workscheduling autonomy and work criteria autonomy.Studies concluded that self-managed teams positively affect productivity and specificattitudes such as responsibility and control but negatively affect general attitudes andabsenteeism. Other studies searched out that disciplinary actions must be handled by agroup consensus and that group cohesiveness lead to higher performance. Further, societalvalues and personality need to be taken in consideration when implementing self-managedteams in multinational companies. The approach to better build a new production aroundself-managed teams than convert an existing one is called 'greenfield sites'. However, mostorganizations cannot afford to apply to the Greenfield opportunities. As the organizationalalready adjusted to clear leadership it, in addition, is difficult to employ self-managed teams.Structural redesign is necessary to make the self-managed team be a part of theorganization. Toencourage the new self-managed teamwork, goal setting and rewards needto be adapted.Team building is a term for many techniques aimed at improving the internal functioning ofwork teams. They strive for greater cooperation, better communication and less dysfunctionalconflict. Team building gives team members the possibility to struggle with simulated or real-life problems. Analysing the outcomes can then determine on how to imprave the teamprocesses. The four purposes of team building are according to Richard Beckhard: (1) to setgoals, (2) to analyse the way work is performed, (3) to examine the way a group is workingand its processes and (4) to examine relationships among the people.An analysis of a survey states that high-performance teams have the following eightattitudes: Participative leadership, sharing responsibility, aligned on purpose, goodcommunication, future focused, focused on task, creative talents and rapid response.Self-management leadership is the process of leading others to lead themselves. lt isassumed that self- managed teams fail if team members are not taught toengage in self-management behaviours. Hence, transition training that engages managers in self-management leadership behaviours, is necessary. There are six aspects of self-management leadership behaviour to develop team members' self-management skills:teach others to appreciate and motivate themselves, ask others to keep track of their ownprogress and expect much from themselves. Further, managers should expect teammembers to practice their skilis and be critica! of their own performance. Hence, instead ofdomination, empowerment is the primary goal.

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Overview study material: Organizationa/ Behaviour

Chapter 1: Organisational elimateClimate is the shared perception about what is important and appropriate in an organization.The elimate is determined by feelings, reflections and behaviour of people. lt can changeover time whereas culture is a state determined by history. Culture is resistant to changeand is about the examinatien of underlying values and assumptions. Climate, however, onlyexamines surface level manifestations. In Table 9.1 on Page 373, the eight dimensions ofClimate Perceptions are listed.The following items can assess elimate and can take action to change climate:Communication, Values, Expectations, Norms, Policies and Rules, Programs andLeadership.A Conflict is a process in which on party experiences its interests as being negativelyaffected by another party. Conflict can strengthen or weaken over time.Frederick Taylor believed that conflicts threatened management's authority and henceshould be avoided. Later, researchers recognized the inevitability of conflicts. In the 1970s,OB specialists realized that conflicts had positive and negative outcomes that depend on itsintensity and nature (see Figure 9.1 on Page 375). Too little conflicts leads thus toa lack ofcreativity. But excessive conflicts, on the other hand, can decrease the organizationalperformance due to workplace aggression and violence.Conflicts are related to people's personalities. As people have different traits andcharacteristics, conflicts are likely to occur.There are two kinds of distinction: personality contiiets - intergroup conflicts, and functionalconflicts - dysfunction conflicts. The first distinction is about the origins of conflicts whereasthe second one deals with the outcomes of conflict.Personality contiiets aften refer to people's personalities. These personalities are stabieand different. They can influence a number of other factors. Conflicts at the individuallevelcan grow and endanger an organization. The manager should thus proteet the organizationby doeurnenting the nature of the conflict. Conflicts among work groups (intergroupconflicts) are a threat to organizational competitiveness. Too much cohesiveness can leadto groupthink. Changes associated with increased group cohesiveness revealed thatmembers of in-groups consider themselves as a collection of unique individuals but othergroups as being similar. Further, outsiders are seen as threat but in-group members viewthemselves as morally correct. Finally, the perception of reality distorts as in-group membersoveract differences between their group and the other group.Among situations that tend to produce either functional or dysfunctional conflicts belang,for instance, incompatible personalities, unclear job boundaries and competition for limitedresources (see Page 379). Stimulating functional conflict sametimes is essential to gainvalue in the decision-making groups. Programmed conflict can be helpful as it means toraise different opinions apart from personal feelings. This way, contributors have to defend orcriticize ideas based on personal preferences. Two programmed conflict techniques are: Devil's advocacy: This technique is about one individual playing the role of devil'sadvocate and thus generate critica! thinking (see Figure 9.2 on Page 379} Dialeetic method: This technique is time-honoured as it is referable to dialeetic school of

philosophy in Greece. lt is about exploring opposite positions in a structured debate.However, this methad requires more skill training than the devil's advocacy andovershadows the issue.

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Overview study matenal: OrgamzatJOnal Benav1our

Afzalur Rahim identified five different conflict-handling styles that are classified in high to lowconcern torself and low to high concern for others. These two variables produce five styles:integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding and compromising. Each style has its strengthandlimitations so that there is no best style.

lntegrating/problem-solving style: the problem of the issue is cooperativelyidentified in order to generate solutions and select one of them.Strength: long-lasting impact; Weakness: time-consuming

Obliging/ smoothing style: it emphases on the commonalities and is appropriate incomplex problems. Strength: eneaurages co-operating; Weakness: temporary fix

Dominating I forcing style: it has high concern forself and low co neem for othersand is appropriate in implementing an unpopular solution. Strength: speed;weakness: resentment

Avoiding tactic: it suppresses the issue and is appropriate for trivial issues. Strength:buys time in ambiguous situations; Weakness: temporary fix

Compromising: it involves moderate concernforself and others and is appropriatewhen parties possess equal power. Strength: demoeratic process; Weakness: keepstrom creative problem solving

These types of styles are used when contiiets become dysfunctional.Negotiation is a decision-making process that involves dependent parties with differentpreferences. There are two types of negotiation: distributive and integrative. The first typeconcerns that sharing of a fixed amount, whereas the integrative type of negotiation goesbeyond. lt calls fora win-win strategy where all can benefit The added-value negotiation isan integrative approach (see Figure 9.4 on Page 383). However, the success of integrativenegotiation depends on the quality of information exchanged. Unethical tactics innegotiations can erode trust and goodwill.When conflicting parties are unable to integrative negotiation, third-party interventions areessential to abandon fixed-pie thinking (or win-lose think

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