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Overview
What does is mean to be intelligent?
History of Intelligence Testing
Nature of Intelligence
4 Phases of Aging Research on Intelligence
Age-related decline
Stability vs. Decline
Manipulation of Adult IQ
Growth of adult intellect
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What is the everyday role of intelligence?
• high IQ = success in life
• competence = intelligence + ??• same guidelines across the lifespan?
• academic vs. practical intelligence
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Sternberg et al. (1981)
• 3 major clusters of abilities
• problem-solving
• verbal ability
• investigated general intuitive beliefs about intelligence
• social competence
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Sternberg et al. cont’d ...
• 30-year-old planning for the future, open-minded
• 50-year-old willing to learn, established career, authoritativeness
• how do conceptions change across lifespan?
• 70-year-old socially active, up on current events, accepting of change
• motivation, effort, reading - common to all
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Binet• low ability vs. adequate ability/low motivation• assessed reasoning, judgement, imagination
Terman • IQ = (Mental Age Chronological Age) * 100• good for children, not adults
Galton • intelligence is inherited• ability to process sensory information• poor correlation with scholastic success
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• IQ tests are age-graded,average score of 100 at each age level
• move into cognition
One ability (“g”) or several abilities?
• testing began in practical circumstances,not to test everyday performance of adults
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The Primary Mental Abilities
W Word Fluency
N Number
S Space
V Verbal Comprehension
M Associative Memory
P Perceptual Speed
I (or R) Induction or General Reasoning
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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
• Vocabulary
• Similarities
• Arithmetic
VERBAL
• Digit Span
• Information
• Comprehension
• Digit Symbol
• Picture Completion
• Block Design
PERFORMANCE
• Picture Arrangement • Object Assembly
• Letter-Number Sequencing
• Matrix Reasoning • Symbol Search
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Secondary Mental Abilities
• “native mental ability’• problem solving w/ complex relationships, novel (relatively culture-free) materials
(a) Fluid Intelligence
• reflects quality of one’s brain
• depends on experience with the world
e.g. personal experience, education, culture
(b) Crystallized Intelligence
• non-novel intellectual judgments
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Woodruff-Pak (1989)
• chronological
• sequential
4 phases of changing perspectives about intelligence in the 20th century
• transitory • social, cultural and historical forces
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Phase I: Age-Related Decline
• psychometric measure was absolute
• cross-sectional studies only
• industrialization - focus on youth, acquiring new skills
• unidimensional view from ~ 1920 - 1950
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• WW1 Army Alpha Examination
• 1.7 million 18-60 yr-old officers
• declines found over the age of 20
Yerkes (1921)
Wechsler (1944)
• scores on intelligence scale designed to conform with ‘decline’ with age
“ decline of mental ability with age is part of thegeneral senescent process of the organism as a whole”
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Phase II: Stability vs. Decline
• societal attitudes changing towards old
• increased life expectancy
• sophisticated approaches: cohort, type of ability
• 1950s
• no longer univariate and unidimensional complex multivariate, multidimensional
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Owens (1953)
• total scores showed gains
• continued stability in Owens (1966)
Confused - why the discrepancy??
• 31yr follow-up of 127 men on Army Alpha
• cross-sectional studies: • longitudinal studies:
• terminal drop:
cohort effects
selective drop-out
plagues both types
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Age Differences in WAIS Verbal and Performance Scores (Wechsler, 1958)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Age
Me
an
pe
rfo
rma
nc
e
Verbal
Performance
Wechsler (1958)
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Primary Mental Abilities and Age
• sequential design began in 1956• original group of adults (22-70yrs) retested every 7 yrs• new group of adults tested at each 7yr testing session, and then followed
• Seattle Longitudinal Studies SLS; Schaie et al.
• allows for assessment of:cross-sectional effectslongitudinal effectscohort effects
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SLS: Cross-Sectional Effects
From HRR, p.308
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81 88
Age
Me
an
T S
core
s Inductive Reasoning
Spatial Orientation
Numeric Ability
Verbal Ability
Perceptual Speed
Verbal Memory
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SLS: Longitudinal Effects
35
40
45
50
55
60
25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81 88
Age
Me
an
T-S
core
s
Inductive Reasoning
Spatial Orientation
Numeric Ability
Word Fluency
Verbal Meaning
From Schaie (1994)
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SLS: Global or specific changes?
From Schaie (1989)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81 88
Age
Pro
po
rtio
n D
ecl
inin
g
One Ability
Two Abilities
Three Abilities
Four Abilities
Five Abilitities
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SLS: Cohort Effects
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81
Age
Me
an
T-S
core
s
Inductive Reasoning
Spatial Orientation
Numeric Ability
Word Fluency
Verbal Meaning
1970
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81
Age
Me
an
T-S
core
s
Inductive Reasoning
Spatial Orientation
Numeric Ability
Word Fluency
Verbal Meaning
1991
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Secondary Mental Abilities and Age
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
14-17 18-20 21-28 29-39 40-61
Age
P
erf
orm
an
ce
Fluid IntelligenceCrystallized IntelligenceGeneral Intelligence
See HRR, p.309
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Phase III: Manipulation of Adult IQ
Can we modify adults’ intelligence?
Cohort differences can boost performance thru:
Phases I and II “counting and classifying the wrinkles of
aged behaviour” (Kastenbaum, 1968)
• education • health
• work
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If cohort effects = environment forces
then
Individual environment forces … can these be manipulated experimentally to alter functioning?
cohort differences > age differences
• strong social impetus e.g., Head Start Program
SLS
individual differences in decline onset
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Mental Exercise & Cognitive Training
• environment intelligence
naturalistic phenomenon!!
But … what about cognitive training
• complex relationship btwn disease, lifestyle, personal characteristics and intellectual decline
• training young (learning) vs. old (learning, slowing, remediation) • plasticity = reserve capacity in older adults
simple and effective strategy PRACTICE
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Denney (1982)
• Optimally exercised Ability
• Unexercised Ability
ability a normal, healthy adult exhibits w/out practice/training
ability a normal, healthy adult demonstrates under the best conditions of training/practice
fluid intelligence, not dependent on experience, unlikely trained
crystallized intelligence, skills used daily
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Denney’s Unexercised & Optimally Exercised Abilities
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Age
Cogn
itive
Abi
lity
Optimally Exercised
Unexercised
See HRR, p.322
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Adult Development and Enrichment Project(ADEPT; Baltes & Willis, 1982)
(2) tailored interventions (practice, feedback, review)
(1) minimal direct training (familiarity)
(3) no training control
• tested/trained fluid abilities using tests of figural relations, induction, memory/attention• used 3 levels of intervention
• repetition improved performance, especially mass practice• long-term and transfer effects w/ (2) varied by ability, strongest effects w/ figural relations
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Schaie & Willis (SLS;1986, 1992)
• ability specific training reversed declines documented over a 14 year period
• improved performance in non-decliners
• longitudinal design, training compared with prior functioning• classified as either declining or remaining stable from 1970 - 1984• Reasoning or Space training based on status
• 7 years later, training effects substantial, greatest for decliners
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(1) inductive reasoning training (ADEPT)
(2) stress inoculation training (reduce anxiety)
(3) no training
(4) post-test (just took final test) • both training groups improved performance• range of transfer to other fluid abilities narrow
Hayslip (1989, 1995)
• non-cognitive fluid ability interventions
• long term effects but may require booster
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Phase IV: Growth of Adult Intellect
• new focus - notion of growth
• def’n and measures of intelligence increasingly important issues
• context in which one lives
• recognition of importance of aging adults i.e., size, social and economic power
• ecological validity questioned • reject traditional for everyday measures
• explore qualitative changes
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Problems with Traditional Psychometric Testswith Older Adults
• removed from academic environment
• less formal education
• increasing years since school
• many tasks not like problems they face
• emphasis on speed in performance • motivation, anxiety, caution
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Willis & Schaie (1986)
• everyday tasks correlated w/ primary abilities
• experimental everyday intellectual tasks (labels, maps, charts, paragraphs, forms, advertisements, technical documents, news text)
• overall performance on everyday tasks was primarily predicted by fluid abilities, secondarily by crystallized ability
• labels, charts, maps, forms, ads fluid
• paragraph comprehension crystallized
• old not always better than young
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Diehl et al. (1995)
(1) Observed Tasks of Daily Living (OTDL) (food preparation, medication intake, phone use)
(2) Everyday Problems Test (EPT) pencil-and-paper: meal prep.; meds, phone use; shopping, house, financial management, transportation
(3) Mental Abilities
(4) reported ADLs that needed assistance
• objective and naturalistic measures of everyday intelligence
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• OTDL, EPT affected by:• health, indirectly thru cognitive abilities
• scores on OTDL correlated w/ EPT, mental abilities and number of difficulties w/ ADLs
• age
• performance on OTDL, EPT strongly influenced by fluid intelligence measures, as well as age and crystallized intelligence
traditional tests tap into practical intelligence
Diehl et al. (1995), cont’d ...
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Everyday Problem Solving: Denney et al.
(2) age-appropriate problems to solve
(3) problems typically faced by older adults, devised in consultation w/ older adults
same general findings across studies
(1) same set of problem to solve
• increases up to middle-age, then declines • influenced by experience, but experience cannot completely overpower aging effects• older adults as good as young adults
• 3 studies, adults aged 20-80
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Denney: Everyday Problem Solving
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Age
Cog
nitiv
e A
bilit
y
OptimallyExercised
Unexercised
Practical Problems
Traditional Tests
Denney (1982)
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Cornelius & Caspi (1987)
• EPSI modestly correlated w/ (2) and (3)• EPSI, Verbal Meaning increased w/ age• Letter Series decreased w/ age
(1) Everyday Problem Solving Inventory (EPSI)
• education unrelated to EPSI, highly related to (2), moderately related to (3) • EPSI performance unrelated to familiarity
(3) Letter Series Test
• adminstered 3 tests to 20-78 year olds
(2) Verbal MeaningTest
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Cornelius & Caspi (1987) cont’d ...
4 0
4 2
4 4
4 6
4 8
5 0
5 2
5 4
5 6
20 30 40 50 60 70
Age
Pe
rfo
rman
ce
Verbal Meaning Test
Everyday ProblemSolving Inventory
Letter Series Test
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Wisdom: How does in relate to intelligence?
Wisdom consideration of whether a particular course of action should be pursued
Other conceptualizations of wisdom:
Intelligence how to accomplish tasks
integration of cognition and affect Philosophical: understanding abstract relations btwn one’s self and the rest of humanity
vs. Practical: ability to display superiorjudgment wrt important matters of real life
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Strategic Knowledge
WISDOM
Factual Knowledge
Life-span Contextualism
Value Relativism
Recognition & Managementof Uncertainty
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Studies of wisdom have shown:
• an individual’s experience and training are important
. . . but they’re not everything
• older adults perform as well as younger adults
• wisdom manifests itself optimally within human social interactions