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Phonology (2)
Dr. Ansa Hameed
Phonology Phone Phoneme Allophone Minimal Pairs Free Variation
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Co-articulation Effects
Supra segmental Features
Today’s Lecture
ORIGIN AND HISTORY
The term co-articulation dates from the 1930s when Menzerath and De Lacerda published a book:
Koartikulation, Stererung und Lautabgrenzung (1933).
Since the late 1960s the experimental investigation of coarticulation has developed into a major area of research.
The phenomenon of co-articulation became apparent with the detailed investigation of co-articulatory effects.
Co-Articulation Effects
Articulation is how speech sounds are produced, made or articulated.
Co-articulation is the way in which the movements of different articulators affect each other and the ways in which preceding and following articulations of an individual articulator affect its current articulation.
“The process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is
called co-articulation”.
Co-Articulation Effects
There are two well known co-articulation effects:
Assimilation Elision
Co-Articulation Effects
ASSIMILATION
Assimilation is a regular and frequent sound change process by which a phoneme changes to match an adjacent phoneme in a word. A common example of assimilation is vowels being nasalized before nasal consonants as it is difficult to change the shape of the mouth sufficiently quickly.
“When two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspects of one phoneme is taken or
copied by another, the process is known as assimilation”.
Co-Articulation Effects
Types of Assimilation
Co-Articulation Effects
PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION
If the phoneme changes to match the preceding phoneme, it is progressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation is also known as left-to-right or perseveratory or preservative, lagging or lag assimilation.
“If a phoneme is affected by one that comes earlier in the utterance, this
assimilation is termed as progressive”. For example: Baking, Organ, Bacon…
Co-Articulation Effects
REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION If the phoneme changes to match the
following phoneme, it is regressive assimilation, also called right to left or anticipatory assimilation. “If a phoneme is affected by one that
comes later in the sentence, this is called regressive assimilation”.
For example: I can go. Let me check! Good morning! Good boy.
Co-Articulation Effects
RECIPROCAL ASSIMILATION Very occasionally two sounds (invariably adjacent) may
influence one another in reciprocal assimilation. When such a change results in a single segment with some of the features of both components, it is known as coalescence or fusion. This notion was identified by Sanskrit Grammarians as Sandhi or fusion. “If there is a mutual influence between the two
phonemes, it is reciprocal assimilation”. For example: What you want? Would you? In case you need it Has your letter come?
Co-Articulation Effects
Elision is the omission of one or more sounds such as a vowel, a consonant or a whole syllable in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce. Sometimes a sound may be elided for euphonic effects.
“The term elision describes the disappearance of a sound”.
Or “The omission of a sound segment which would be
present in the deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation is technically described as elision”.
The reason of elision is, in some instances, the difficulty of putting certain consonants sounds together while maintaining a regular rhythm and speed.
Elision
WORD-INTERNAL Weak, central vowels are elided when
they occur in unaccented syllables between two consonants.
Examples: certain, student, vision, classical, nasal, etc.
Alveolar consonants are elided when they occur between two consonants.
For example: handsome, postpone.
Types of Elision
AT WORD BOUNDARIES Word-final alveolars [t,d] are generally
elided when they are preceded and followed by other consonants, especially when the following consonant is a plosive.
Examples: next turn, best joke, send two, rubbed down.
THINK OF SOME EXAMPLES OF ASSIMILATION AND ELISION IN URDU LANGUAGE
Examples: ‘Ghalat’ spoken as ‘ghalt’ ‘Qadar’ spoken as ‘qadr’
Supra segmental Features
DEFINITION 1. ‘denoting a feature of an utterance other than
the consonantal and vocalic components, for example (in English) stress and intonation’
Retrieved From:http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/suprasegmental
‘of or relating to significant features (as stress, pitch, or juncture) that occur simultaneously with vowels and consonants in an utterance’
Supra segmental Features
Linguistics . pertaining to or noting features of speech,as stress, pitch, and length that accompany individual consonants and vowels and may extend over more than one such segmental element;pertaining to junctural and prosodic features
. Retrieved from:http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/suprasegmental
Supra segmental Features
SyllablesORIGIN . Greek sullabē, fromsun- 'together' + lambanein 'take‘
‘a unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants, forming the whole or a part of a word; for example, there are two syllables in water and three in inferno’.
Retrieved from:http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/syllable
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
A syllable is a unit of sound composed of
a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel), and
the consonants that cluster around this central peak.
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
Parts of a Syllable:
1.ONSET:( Optional)Initial segment of a Syllable
2. RHYME: ( Obligatory) Core of a syllable, consisting of a nucleus and coda
3.NUCLEUS/CENTRE/PEAK: (Obligatory)Central segment of a syllable Coda/Termination: (Optional) Closing segment of a syllable
NOTE(A syllable thus has three positions):
Nucleus/Centre/Peak Onset Coda/Termination
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
A syllable is a unit of sound ,and, therefore we should look at the phonetic transcription of words and not their Orthographic representation.
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
Phonetically ,a syllable is said to consist of a centre which has little or no obstruction to the flow of air and which sounds comparatively loud
KINDS OF SYLLABLES
Open Syllables Closed Syllables Syllables consisting of only a vowel Syllables where the central vowel is both preceded
and followed by one or more than one consonant
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
A Syllable is made up of two kinds of elements :
Vowels Consonants
The vowels are the obligatory elements and the consonants are the optional. A vowel can be a syllable by itself ,it may be preceded by one,two,or three consonants .Or it may be followed by one ,two, three, or four consonants.
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
The vowel is the central element in a Syllable and is called the Nucleus. The consonants that precede the central vowel are called the Releasing Consonants while the consonants that follow the Central vowels are called Arresting Vowels.
The structure of English syllable can thus be shown as:
(CCC) V (CCCC)
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
When two or more consonants occur together without a vowel between them in the same syllable, such consonants are said to form a CONSONANT CLUSTER e.g. the word (TEXTS ) has a four consonant-cluster at the end .
When two or more consonants occur together in a word but belong to different syllables (e.g the consonants /n/ and /t/ in the word (CONTEXT),they are called ABUTTING CONSONANTS
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
SYLLABIC CONSONANT In a Syllable, a nucleus is generally a
vowel ,preceded or followed by consonants ,which are marginal elements but there are some special cases where the consonant is the nucleus of the syllable e.g.in words like Bottle cattle,kettle, cotton and mutton,the second syllable has two sounds ,both consonants either /tl/or /tn/.In such cases /t/ and /n/ occupy the nuclear position and are called SYLLABIC CONSONANTS ,represented as V.(i.e. not as C )
Supra segmental Features: Syllable
Stress
‘An emphasis given to a particular syllable or word in speech, typically through a combination of relatively greater loudness, higher pitch, and longer duration…..
’ http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/stress
Supra segmental Features: Stress
A Syllable prronounced more prominently than the other syllables in the sme word is said to be STRESSED or ACCENTED syllable.A stressed syllable is often mentioned by a small vertical line just above and before its beginning ,as shown in ‘chapter and ad ’mire
Supra segmental Features: Stress
Primary stress Secondary stressI
In English we find three kinds of syllables in term of stress :
Syllables with primary or strong stress Syllables with secondary or weak stress Syllables with no stress
Supra segmental Features: Stress
There are four features that have been identified crucial in deciding stress placement
The Phonological structure of these syllables,(i.e.the sequences of consonants and vowels making up the syllables
The grammatical category of the words(i.e.whether the word is noun,adjective or a verb)
The morphological structure of word i.e whether the word is Simple or Compound
Supra segmental Features: Stress
Examples of the words that are orthographically similar but differ in pronunciation ,in accordance with the Word Class to which they belong:
(The stress is placed on the second syllable of Verb, but on the second syllable of nouns and adjectives)
ABSTRACT CONDUCT CONTRAST PERFECT INSULT PERMIT REBEL RECORD
Supra segmental Features: Stress
Intonation
Definition: In linguistics, the use of changing vocal pitch to convey grammatical information or personal attitude.
Retrieved from:http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/intonationterm.htm
Supra segmental Features: Intonation
‘the rise and fall of the voice in speaking’
Retrieved from:http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/intonation
‘manner of utterance; specifically : the rise and fall in pitch of the voice in speech’
Retrieved from:http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intonation
Supra segmental Features: Intonation
‘the quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations producing it; the degree of highness or lowness of a tone’:
Supra segmental Features: Tone
Speech may be divided into tone units.Each tone unit is composed of:
A tonic syllable (obligatory) Optional elements which precede the tonic
syllable (pre-head, head) Optional elements which follow the tonic
syllable (tail)
Supra segmental Features
Complex Tones and Pitch Height
Fall: neutral statement Rise: neutral question, Fall-Rise: scepticism Level: boredom, disinterestIn ordinary speech intonation tends to take
place within the lower part of the speaker´s pitch range. Only with strong feelings we use extra pitch height.
Neutral Statement: Fall
Rise: questioning, doubt, desire to continue conversation
Fall-Rise: surprise, scepticism
Level: boredom, lack of interest
Recap
Fromkin, V. & R. Rodman (1988). An Introduction to Language. New York: Holt-
Saunders, 4th edition. Gimson, A.C. (1980). An Introduction to the
Pronunciation of English. London: Ed. Arnold, 3rd edition. Jones, D. (1950). An Outline of English Phonetics.
Cambridge: Heffner & Sons. Mc Carthy, P. (1967). English Pronunciation.
Cambridge: Heffer & Sons, 4th edition Kathryn LaBouff (2007), Singing and Communicating
in English. Oxford Univ. Press
References
Retrieved from::http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/suprasegmental
Retrieved from:http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/suprasegmental
Retrieved from:http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/intonationterm.htm
Retrieved from:http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/intonation.