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Planet Earth has always been in a State of Change; the rate of change has never been constant
Global Issues in Nematode Ecology and Management
Commonalities and Differences in Nematode Issues across the Globe
Howard Ferris
Department of NematologyUniversity of California Davis
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Big Issues in World Agriculture,Economy and Ecology
1. Global climate change and mitigation measures
2. Fossil fuel depletion and costs
3. Global trade agreements
4. Land ownership and land tenure
Context: the need to provide food, fiber, water, and shelter for 6.7 billion people
…………and their interlinkages
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Adaptation:Shifts in land-use patterns and management practices
Climate Change
Land TenureTrade Agreements
Energy Costs
Big Issues in World Agriculture,Economy and Ecology
Mitigatio
n Mitigation
Mitigatio
n
Mitigation
Mitigation-slowing the process
Adaptation-minimizing the effect on services
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How are different nematode functional groups affected by climate and land-use change?
Provide Services Provide Disservices
Mitigation tradeoffs?
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A simplistic analysis of climate change effects on soil
nematodes
But.the same factors affect growth and tolerance of hosts, prey and natural enemies of the nematodes. ….And management decisions of the environmental steward.
So, the net outcome is unpredictable, at least by me.
Temperature
Higher Lower
Higher +++ -+
Rainfall
Lower +- ---
Nematode winners and losers?
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Thermal amplitude of bacterivores
Ferris et al., 1995We have some of the necessary information……
Physiological Ecology
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Foley et al., Science 309, 570 -574 (2005)
A conceptual framework for comparing trade-offs on ecosystem services
But we need to think at a larger scale……
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Professor Shenglei Fu, Chinese Academy of Sciences:
Mitigation - reforestation – altering climateAdaptation - vegetation mixes to maximize functions and services
Services:
•pulp production
•wildlife habitat
•pollination
•refugia
•erosion control
•groundwater quality
•carbon sequestration
•decomposition
•nutrient cycling
•nutrient retention
•mineralization
•soil quality
•esthetics
•public education
Total area 50 ha.Each plot 1 ha.Treatments 14Replications 3
China, 2007
Landscape Ecology
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Mitigation/Adaptation: Coffee under tree shade – Costa Rica, 2008
•Temperature effects
•Rhizosphere interactions
•Host effects
Farmscape Ecology
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Winter cover crop – bell beansCalifornia, 2006
No-till soybeans, Brazil, 2006
•Soil fertility•Organic matter•Food web activity•Soil structure
•Fossil fuel reduction •Habitat conservation •Food web activity•Soil structure
Adaptations
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Adapted from:Meine van NoordwijkWorld Agroforestry CentreBogor, Indonesia
Environmental and econom
ic pressures
Current crops/animals
Newcrops/animals
Newcropping system
Newfarming system
Non-farminglivelihoods
Is life still possible on this planet?
Sustainagility:Change
crops/animals
Sustainagility:Change
cropping system
Sustainagility:Change
farming system
Sustainagility:Shift to non-farming
livelihood
Sustainagility:Migration to another
region of planet
Sustainability of . . .
Soil Fauna
Sustainability is a journey, not a destination
(Howard Shapiro, Mars Inc.)
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•Consistent N-yield over 75 years without input
•N-yield similar to that of high input wheat
Structure Index
Basal Index
From Glover et al., subm.
Land-use change in Kansas:Soil food web effects
Community Ecology
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Soil Food Web: Functions and Services in relation to punctuated and continuous resource supply
O Pr
B
F
P
Mineralization
Reverting to prairie?
Need to understand invasion biology of omnivores and predators
O Pr
B
F
P Regulation Eas
ier
to g
o in
thi
s di
rect
ion
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Some Global Issues in Nematode Management
Nematicide tradeoffs – production enhancement vs. economics, environmental hazards and food web simplification (pesticide treadmill)
Zimbabwe, 1961
California, 1999
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Ten Years After Cu Application
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 200 400 600 800
Cu Concentration (Kg/ha)
Pre
dat
or
Nem
ato
des
Korthals et al., 1998
Impact on Higher Trophic Levels
California, 1973
An ideal:
Biodiversity-friendly nematicides that protect roots without killing non-target soil organisms:
“immunogenic nematicides”
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Global Issues in Nematode Management
Management practices in industrialized agriculture result in food web simplification – cp1 and cp2 bacterivores and fungivores predominate
Reduction in cp3, 4, 5 higher trophic levels
Costa Rica, 2008
Farmscape Ecology
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Global Issues in Nematode Management
Nematode biomass in soil food web
Conventional
Organic
Bacterivore Biomass
Bacterivore Biomass
Herbivore Biomass
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Ln Biomass Prey
Ln B
iom
ass
Pred
ator
s
y=-3.18+1.34x; r2=0.59, p<0.05
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 200 400 600 800
Biomass of Predators
Prop
orti
on o
f Her
bivo
res
Conventional
Organic
y=0.64-0.07(ln(x+1)); r2=0.36, p<0.01
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What is the rhizosphereeffect of Theobroma on Musa?
molecular signals
border cells
protozoanematodes
arthropods
Hawes et al., 1998Farrar et al., 2003 Hirsch et al., 2003
Molecular Ecology
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Other Nematode Services – enhancing soil fertility
bacteria and bacterivore nematodes
with twenty nematodes
0 nematodes with five nematodes
Fu et al. 2005
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 20 40 80 160
Nematode Abundance
Bact
eria
l Cel
lsPositive feedback Overgrazing
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 20 40 80 160
Nematode Abundance
Bact
eria
l Cel
ls
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 20 40 80 160
Nematode Abundance
Bact
eria
l Cel
lsPositive feedback Overgrazing
An example of positive and negative feedback
Behavioral Ecology
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The Service - N mineralization- Functional Complementarity
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1-A
pr
8-A
pr
15-A
pr
22-A
pr
29-A
pr
6-M
ay
13-M
ay
20-M
ay
27-M
ay
3-Ju
n
10-J
un
17-J
un
24-J
un
1-Ju
l
8-Ju
l
15-J
ul
22-J
ul
29-J
ul
Mesorhabditis
Cruznema
Rhabditis
Total N
The Importance of Biodiversity
The Service - N mineralization- Functional Continuity
0100200300400500600700800900 Mesorhabditis
Acrobeloides bod
Total N
California, 1996
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Depleted Soils of AfricaCereal Yields
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
Mt/
Ha
DevelopedCountries
AsiaDeveloping
Latin America& Carribean
Sub-SaharanAfrica
FAO - redrawn
Corn, cassava, beans - Congo
A
B
C
D
E
F
Crossover Rotations – Oostenbrink, 1959
A B C D E F
Netherlands, 1965
California, 1982
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Land-use Change: The Global Spread of Nematodes
Examples:Citrus – Tylenchulus semipenetrans worldwideGrapevines and their nematode complexesSoybeans and Heterodera glycinesCereals and grass seeds – Anguina spp.Potatoes – Globodera and Meloidogyne spp.Bananas and Radopholus, Helicotylenchus, Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus.
Most major nematode pest problems in California are caused by non-native species.
Effects of global exploration, human migration, modern transportation:Despite regulatory efforts, major crops throughout the world support the same nematode complexes.
Some nematodes have attributes of invaders:
ArrivalEstablishmentIntegrationSpreadDetection Escape
Invasion Biology
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sugarbeet cyst nematode
Sugarbeet Cyst Nematode - Heterodera schachtii
sugarbeet production
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•Sources of resistance and other control/mitigation measures should apply in new areas of production. Caveat: consider the local acceptability of new varieties and the availability of appropriate infrastructure/technology.
But…..• Every year, we lose between 17,000 and 100,000 species as the result of human activities (The Sixth Extinction. Leakey and Lewin, 1995)• That represents an enormous loss of functions, services and genes.
•The problem is compounded by proprietary ownership of resistance genes and commercialization of seed sources, reducing local selection of desirable traits.
Adaptation to Nematode Globalization and Land-use Change
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Dr. Vandana Shiva’s movement concerned with saving seeds, trading seeds, farming without corporate-derived seed.
Ghandi: “You cannot monopolize this which we need for life.”
Genetic diversity is a common legacy – it should be conserved, not owned
Svalbard Global Seed Vault will store three million different crop varieties in case of a worldwide
catastrophe.
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Global Issues in Nematode Ecology and Management:Summary and Research Directions……
Organismal level:•Adapt knowledge from biological models and microcosm experiments
Farmscape and Landscape levels:•Adapt management to scale of system•Develop a biodiversity-friendly landscape
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Global Issues in Nematode Ecology and Management:Summary and Research Directions……
Organismal level:•Adapt knowledge from biological models and microcosm experiments
Farmscape and Landscape levels:•Adapt management to scale of system•Develop a biodiversity-friendly landscape
Thank you