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Section 3
Managing Project Teams and Conflicts
The People in Projects
People perform the work and determine the success or failure of a project. This chapter discusses
the organizational structure, roles, and responsibilities of the people involved in projects.
Stakeholders
A stakeholder is anyone who has a vested interest in the project. Stakeholders are individuals and
organizations who are actively involved in the project, or whose interest may be positively or
negatively affected as a result of project execution or successful project completion. Stakeholders
often have conflicting objectives, needs, and expectations. Finding appropriate resolutions can be
one of the major challenges of project management. The project team must identify the
stakeholders on a project, determine what their needs and expectations are, and then manage and
influence those expectations to ensure a successful project. In general, differences between or
among stakeholders should be resolved in favor of the customer. Understanding the customer is
key to determining the true requirements of a project.
Customers
Customers for any development and investment project are either internal or external to the project.
External Project Customers the general public or their elected representatives
Internal Project Customers individuals who will use the deliverables or information produced
at various stages of the project (internal to the project)
Sponsors
Project sponsors are individuals or groups that represent external project customers by advocating
a project or group of projects. They may be internal or external tothe project.
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Opposition Stakeholders
Opposition stakeholders are stakeholders who feel that their interests will be harmed by theproject. Examples could include local governments, stakeholder associations, environmental
advocacy groups, and others.
What is a Project Team?
Every project has a project team. The project team consists of every person who works on a
project, including state employees, consultants, contractors, utility companies, resource agencies,
and property owners. Project team members are responsible for delivering products with thequality promised, in a timely and cost effective manner. Each team member is an internal customer
for some deliverables and a supplier of other deliverables.
Project teams may be formally or informally organized, depending on the complexity of the
project. Individual team members may be active or inactive as a project progresses through the
project lifecycle.
A project team is a cross-functional group of employees that meets regularly to:
Support through action one or more of the organizational or location objectives
Carry a project through from start to finish, using a disciplined development approach
Evaluate action success to-date and make adjustments that are needed
Proactively attack key project needs that extend into two or more work groups
All organizations have at least one project team. Project teams stay intact until the project they are
working on is finished. A project team may be comprised of staff members from the samedepartment, multiple departments or even several different organizations. The basic duties of a
project team are to work on and oversee a particular project, typically for a specified time period.
The team should include five to eight highly committed individuals. That size often seems to
provide the most appropriate range of energy, participation and decision-making ability.
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Membership on the team depends on the desired project outcomes and the scope of activities. If
the number of employees in the organization is 10 or less, you might include all employees on the
team.
A project team is effective if the team is comprised of a cross-section of the employees, including
executives, middle managers and entry-level employees. A cross-functional team can help to
ensure that all levels of the organization have a chance to provide input to the development and
implementation of the action plans for change, thereby increasing the ownership and participation.
Also, a cross-functional team can bring a rich diversity of ideas often useful in generating diverse
perspectives and opinions during the project.
The team should include people who can make decisions about the project, can ensure that the
project is fully resourced to achieve its desired results and are affected by the project. Ideally, the
team can include members from outside the organization, such as investors and specialists in the
areas of products and services.
Characteristics of a Project Team
The group's makeup that is the size, membership, and stability is primarily influenced by:
The nature of the given project or objective
The degree of cross functional representation required
The ability of each individual to actively participate in the project's completion
Limiting the group's size to ten or less people for problem solving effectiveness
The type of objective work required -- information sharing versus problem solving
Providing departmental representation without departmental overload
The urgency for project implementation
Meeting frequency, location, and timing options include:
Meeting regularly until the objective is complete
Meeting lengths being around one hour or less
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Getting together every one or two weeks, depending on the nature of and need for the project
Limiting the active number of project teams in process at any given time
Normally meeting in the standard locations that are available
Skills desired of members would include:
A desire for and understanding of continuous improvement and quality
A basic awareness of communication, problem solving, decision making, and project
development tools
Shared responsibility in the content, impact, and success of the project
An understanding of how the project will impact the profitability of the organization
The ability to spend time on project development tasks between meetings
Possible constraints to team effectiveness and regular meetings include:
Requiring a given person to lead or to be on too many teams
Failing to have a given department actively represented
Not having the necessary support information for prompt decision making
Failing to regularly complete action items away from the meeting
Lack of effective team leadership
Not developing and following a systematic plan for project completion
Building the Project Team
In projects where some or all of the partners are working together for the first time, they need to
grow into a team, rather than work as a group of individuals. If all partners could do the work
individually and achieve the same result as the project aims for, there would be no need for
cooperation and no project. The project team is a new organisation that allows partners to benefit
from wider input of expertise and skills, facilitates individual learning and leads to higher
performance and achievements through the project.
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While the project outcomes, structure and responsibilities are defined on a very tangible and
technical basis, teamwork involves a lot of softer aspects of human interaction. Not only do
teams consist of people with different backgrounds and specialisations but also different types and
characters, such as leaders, implementers, visionaries, collaborators, etc. A mix of these different
roles is very valuable for projects. In order to ensure that all members have an equal status in the
team, some teams define some core values or ground rules for collaboration, such as:
Open and honest communication and feedback
Respecting each other as professionals
Supporting each other and providing help when needed
Listening to feedback and ideas
Have the chance to ask questions any time
Sharing information, expertise, skills, etc. within the team
Pro-active participation of all members in the team
Open-minded and constructive approach to conflicts
Teams go through certain stages of development, that to some extent correspond to the
stages of the project lifecycle. At the beginning, when partners come together for the first time as
individuals, they start to get to know each other with a certain distance and try to identify their
own position in the group. Next, team members start testing and challenging each other: Different
ideas on how the project can be realized come up and conflicts can arise. This phase is
important and can sometimes take a long time. Once it is completed, the team develops a
shared vision and agrees on values, rules and processes for working together. The roles of the
team members are established and they develop trust in each other as the basis for joint
performance and support (these phases are often described in project management literature
as forming, storming, norming, performing).
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For the management of the project, it is important to be aware of these phases and when they are
happening. This varies from project to project but impacts directly on the performance of the
partnership. When the partners come together for the first time, everyone is usually highly
motivated and things can move quite fast. However, when this initial phase ends and the team
enters the phase of challenging each other and the project, work may get delayed
(unfortunately this often coincides with the project start-up phase when delays are most
critical). Even during implementation, when the team is working well together, there will be
periods of higher and lower performance and motivation of partners. The task of the project
manager is then to identify the lower phases and intervene in a way to support the team to
get back on track, for example by bringing partners together in a meeting.
Planning the closure phase and exit strategies are important for the technical and contentrelated aspects of the project but also for the team. At the end of the project, it is important to
celebrate the achievements of the team and look ahead to new projects and challenges. This may
well involve breaking up a team after very intensive and fruitful collaboration, which is why this
phase is called mourning
Factors that Influence Team Performance
1. Team Composition and Roles
The single most important element about team composition is having a team that is effective
working together. Collaboration and communication skills are two of most critical personal skills
demanded of all members. The ability and willingness to recognise and value the different roles
and contributions of team members is essential. Every team needs problem solving, influence,
process and compliance behaviours and values if it is to be successful. People possessing those
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different requirements for group success have very different behaviours and conflict can be one of
the products of their interactions. Team development at the very start of the project should include
training in communication skills, and the recognition and valuing of the different behaviours,
values and personal skills needed for team success.
No more than five to seven key members should be in a core team - the nucleus of the group. Co-
ordination and communication issues grow exponentially if more people are added to the core
team. When additional resources are required, apply them on an as needed basis. If you have a
requirement demanding more than five to seven people, reduce the individual team goals to a
scope that can be covered by five to seven - or have more teams.
Roles that must be present include champion/sponsor, leader, facilitator, technical expert,
coordinator, chronicler, communicator/presenter and someone to ensure the team keeps it
collective eyes on the goal. One person may fulfill more than one role, or roles may be rotated or
shared, but they must be done - absent any one of them, the team suffers in its performance.
2. Team Goals and Expectations
The establishments of specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time framed goals for teams
are absolutely essential to their success. If goals are not set for the team at the outset that
meet those five criteria, then the first goal of the team is to develop goals and gain approval
of their goals from their sponsor. Failure to do this is the single biggest reason that teams
fail. Establishing the goals and making them known is the single best way to define and
manage expectations, and provide the basis for measuring progress and contribution.
3. Team Resources
The resources a team needs to meet its goals vary widely, based on any number of elements. The
two resources that tell a team - any team - just how important their goals are to the
organisation are time and talent. If team membership is simply layered on top of existing
duties, if meetings are constantly delayed or cancelled because of other issues, if expertise
cannot be made available by functional areasbecause the expertise is too busy working on
other things, if briefing meetings with sponsors and leadership are difficult to schedule or
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keep getting changed, if team questions or concerns do not get quick review and response,
then team goals aren't that important.
Team Sponsorship
The sponsor needs to be highly placed, actively engaged on a regular basis with the team, able to
make things happen so the team can move forward to its goals, and has to have access to the very
top leader on a routine basis. If those criteria are met, team performance is given a real chance to
succeed - without it teams may be successful, but it will take longer and introduce a real chance for
ineffectiveness and lack of enthusiasm.
Team Rewards and Recognition
Studies have shown that the top two things people in their work want are, being recognised as a
contributing member of a worthy enterprise, and recognition and reward for their
accomplishments. People want to identify with the enterprise. They want to know that what they
do has value in the marketplace, and has value to the success of their organisation. The
organisation has to communicate that every position adds value - some may be more obvious than
others, but the "we are all in this together" approach and philosophy of work leads to high
performance. Recognition and rewards can come in many forms. Accomplishment on team
projects needs to be publicised, and individual accomplishment within teams should lead to actions
that make it clear that team participation and success lead to opportunities.
What is Motivation?
Motivation is a decision-making process, through which the individual chooses the desired
outcomes and sets in motion the behaviour appropriate to them. Motivation differs from motives.
Motives are defined as learned influences on human behaviour that lead us to pursue particular
goals because they are valued. Motivation can therefore be thought of as the degree to which an
individual wants and chooses to engage in certain behaviours. For example what motivates one to
study? The answer lies in whether one: (1) Want to study - what are the reasons, if so? (2) Choose
to study? - Why are you reading these revision notes? What factors mean that you have taken the
decision to study? How much effort do you put in?
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Individual behaviour is at the heart of human motivation. Why is individual behaviour so
important in trying to understand and then influence motivation?
- Every individual has a set ofneeds and a different set ofgoals
- Individuals behave in a way as to satisfy their needs and fulfill their goals
- Therefore, individuals behave differently!
- Businesses, as organisations, are in a position to offer some of the satisfactions that individuals
seek:
Why is motivation important for businesses?
It is often said that the best businesses have the best motivated workers. Well-motivated employees
are usually characterised by:
- Higher productivity (i.e. they produce more for a given level of resources than poorly-motivated
workers)
- Better quality work with less wastage
- A greater sense of urgency (things happen quicker - when they need to)
- More employee feedback and suggestions made for improvements (motivated workers take more
"ownership" of their work")
- More feedback demanded from superiors and management
- Working at 80-95% of their ability
Motivational Theories
Motivational theories can be divided into two categories, content and process theories. Content
theories assume that all individuals possess the same set of needs and therefore prescribe the
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characteristics that ought to be present in jobs. Process theories stress the difference in peoples
needs and focus on the cognitive processes that create these differences.
Content theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a "content theory" of motivation. Maslow's theory consisted of
two parts: (1) The classification of human needs, and (2) Consideration of how the classes are
related to each other
Maslow (1954) suggested a hierarchy of needs up which progress. Once individuals have satisfied
one need in the hierarchy, it ceases to motivate their behaviour and they are motivated by the needat the next level up the hierarchy.
This theory was not intended as an explanation of motivation in the workplace; however, many
managerial theorists have enthusiastically adopted it. The theory suggests that employees will
always tend to want more from their employers. When they have satisfied their subsistence needs,
they strive to fulfill security needs. When jobs are secure they will seek ways of satisfying social
needs and if successful will seek the means to the ultimate end of self actualization.
How does the Hierarchy Work?
- A person starts at the bottom of the hierarchy (pyramid) and will initially seek to satisfy basic
needs (e.g. food, shelter)
- Once these physiological needs have been satisfied, they are no longer a motivator. Tthe
individual moves up to the next level
- Safety needs at work could include physical safety (e.g. protective clothing) as well as protection
against unemployment, loss of income through sickness etc)
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- Social needs recognise that most people want to belong to a group. These would include the need
for love and belonging (e.g. working with colleague who support you at work, teamwork,
communication)
- Esteem needs are about being given recognition for a job well done. They reflect the fact that
many people seek the esteem and respect of others. A promotion at work might achieve this
- Self-actualisation is about how people think about themselves - this is often measured by the
extent of success and/or challenge at work
Process theories
What all process theories have in common is an emphasis on the cognitive processes indetermining his or her level of motivation.
Equity theory assumes that one important cognitive process involves people looking around and
observing what effort other people are putting into their work and what rewards follow them. This
social comparison process is driven by our concern for fairness and equity. Research by Adams
(1965) and others confirms equity theory as one of the most useful frameworks for understanding
work motivation.
Valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory had resulted from Vrooms (1964) work
into motivation. Vrooms argument was that crucial to motivation at work was the perception of a
link between effort and reward. Perceiving this link could be thought of as a process in which
individuals calculated first whether there was a connection between effort and reward and then the
probability (valences) would follow from high performance (instrumentality.) The motivational
force of a job can therefore be calculated if the expectancy, instrumentality and valence values are
known. The individuals abilities, traits, role perceptions and opportunities attenuate the
motivational force.
The main contribution of both types of process theory has been to highlight the effects of cognitive
and perceptual processes on objective work conditions. It suggests that managers need to pay
attention to four main aspects of their subordinates perceptions:
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1. Focus on the crucial expectancy values (the link between effort and their performance.)
2. Managers should determine what outcome employee values.
3. They need to link the reward that subordinates value to their performance.
4. Managers need to ensure that wage rates are not perceived as inequitable.
Conflict Resolution in Project Management
Conflict is a situation of competition in which the parties are aware of the incompatibility of
potential future positions and in which each party wishes to occupy a position which is
incompatible with the wishes of the other. Conflict is viewed as a cycle: As with any social
process, there are causes; also, there is a core process, which has results or effects. These effects
feed back to effect the causes. To understand conflict further, the situation must include elements
of interdependence, emotions, perceptions, and behaviors. For example, conflict occurs between
parties whose tasks are interdependent, who are angry with each other, who perceive the other
party as being at fault, and whose actions cause a business problem.
Conflict can be constructive and healthy for an organization. It can aid in developing individuals
and improving the organization by building on the individual assets of its members. Conflict canbring about underlying issues. It can force people to confront possible defects in a solution and
choose a better one. The understanding of real interests, goals and needs is enhanced and ongoing
communication around those issues is induced. In addition, it can prevent premature and
inappropriate resolution of conflict.
Constructive conflict occurs when people change and grow personally from the conflict,
involvement of the individuals affected by the conflict is increased, cohesiveness is formed among
team members, and a solution to the problem is found. However, if conflict is not managed
properly, it can be detrimental to an organization by threatening organizational unity, business
partnerships, team relationships, and interpersonal connections.
Deconstructive conflict occurs when a decision has not been found and the problem remains,
energy is taken away from more important activities or issues, morale of teams or individuals is
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destroyed, and groups of people or teams are polarized. Destructive conflict has a predictable
pattern known as the Drama Triangle. By learning how to identify these unproductive roles and
how to effectively handle each role player, managers can prevent some conflicts from occurring
and resolve those that do. Most individuals know how to assume the following three roles:
Persecutorrefers to a person who uses aggressive behavior against another person, attacking the
intended victim. An attack can be direct or indirect and be physical, verbal, or both. The
persecutor's actions deliver a message that "you are not okay" while making the persecutor feel
righteous and superior.
Victim refers to a person who uses nonassertive behavior so others view them as "I'm not okay."
This behavior encourages others to either rescue or persecute the victim. Victims will feel helpless,
inadequate, sad, scared, or guilty. The victim role is often used because the individual is feeling
stressed, has low self-esteem, or is being persecuted by another.
Rescuer refers to a person who uses either nonassertive or aggressive behavior. Individuals
become rescuers because they will not say "no" and unwillingly assume the responsibility of
solving the victim's problem. In contrast, others will assume the rescuer role to demonstrate
superiority over the victim.
It is important for a project manager to understand the dynamics of conflict before being able to
resolve it. The internal characteristics of conflict include perception of the goal, perception of the
other, view of the other's actions, definition of problem, communication, and internal group
dynamics.
Perception of the goal becomes a problem when success becomes competitive or "doing better
than the other guy." The focus is placed on the solution rather than attaining the goal.
Perception of the othercan create conflict when the attitude becomes "us versus them."
Similarities and differences are emphasized causing division within a group.
View of other's actions can be a problem when the situation is competitive instead of
cooperative. Behavior can be suspicious in a competitive environment.
Definition of problem can result in conflict when the size of the problem is escalated, issues are
misconstrued, and original issues are lost.
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Communication in a competitive environment can cause mistrust and information may be
withheld or may be lacking. Communication is not open and honest.
Internal group dynamics can be negative when the group structure is centralized and rigid
rather than safe and open. Conformity is emphasized and tasks dominate over the needs of the
team members.
These characteristics can strongly influence the behavior style of group members and affect the
potential outcome of the conflict. In some instances, the project manager's lack of skills to
effectively manage and resolve conflict can be the problem.
Antecedents of Conflict
Incompatible personalities or value systems
Overlapping or unclear job boundaries
Competition for limited resources
Interdepartmental/intergroup competition
Inadequate communication
Interdependent tasks
Organizational complexity
Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rulesUnreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure
Collective design making
Decision making by consensus
Unmet expectations
Unresolved or suppressed conflicts
Approaches to Conflict Resolution
InProject Management,five (5) modes for conflict resolution are explained and the situationswhen they are best utilized are identified. These modes are Confronting, Compromising,
Smoothing, Forcing, and Avoiding.
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Confronting is also described as problem solving, integrating, collaborating or win-win style. It
involves the conflicting parties meeting face-to-face and collaborating to reach an agreement that
satisfies the concerns of both parties. This style involves open and direct communication which
should lead the way to solving the problem. Confronting should be used when:
Both parties need to win.
You want to decrease cost.
You want create a common power base.
Skills are complementary.
Time is sufficient.
Trust is present.
Learning is the ultimate goal.
Compromising is also described as a "give and take" style. Conflicting parties bargain to reach a
mutually acceptable solution. Both parties give up something in order to reach a decision and leave
with some degree of satisfaction. Compromising should be used when:
Both parties need to win.
You are in a deadlock.
Time is not sufficient. You want to maintain the relationship among the involved parties.
You will get nothing if you do not compromise.
Stakes are moderate.
Smoothing is also referred to as accommodating or obliging style. In this approach, the areas of
agreement are emphasized and the areas of disagreement are downplayed. Conflicts are not always
resolved in the smoothing mode. A party may sacrifice its own concerns or goals in order to satisfy
the concerns or goals of the other party. Smoothing should be used when:
Goal to be reached is overarching.
You want to create obligation for a trade-off at a later time.
Stakes are low.
Liability is limited.
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Any solution is adequate.
You want to be harmonious and create good will.
You would lose anyway.
You want to gain time.
Forcing is also known as competing, controlling, or dominating style. Forcing occurs when one
party goes all out to win its position while ignoring the needs and concerns of the other party. As
the intensity of a conflict increases, the tendency for a forced conflict is more likely. This results in
a win-lose situation where one party wins at the expense of the other party. Forcing should be used
when:
A "do or die" situation is present.
Stakes are high.
Important principles are at stake.
Relationship among parties is not important.
A quick decision must be made.
Avoiding is also described as withdrawal style. This approach is viewed as postponing an issue for
later or withdrawing from the situation altogether. It is regarded as a temporary solution because
the problem and conflict continue to reoccur over and over again. Avoiding should be used when:
You cannot win.
Stakes are low.
Stakes are high, but you are not prepared.
You want to gain time.
You want to maintain neutrality or reputation.
You think problem will go away.
You win by delaying.
Researchers examined the impact of the conflict resolution styles used by individuals in shaping
their work environment and affecting the level of ongoing conflict and stress. Results of the study
showed that individuals who use a certain style to conflicts can create environments with varied
degrees of conflicts. Individuals who use more of a confronting style create an environment with
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lower levels of task conflict, which reduces relationship conflict and stress. Whereas, individuals
who use more of the forcing or avoiding styles tend to create an environment with more task
conflict, which increases relationship conflict and stress. The study suggests conflict develops not
only in environmental circumstances but in the styles used by individuals when confronted with a
conflict. The manner in which a person responds to organizational dissension and uncertainty will
influence the responses of others and the individual's work experience.
Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict
Functional conflict is when employees would disagree or debate on how to best achieve a certain
goal, and does not focus on the goal itself. Because of this, it can lead to the choice of a superior
way to reach the goal. A functional conflict is constructive because the effects lead to a better or
efficient and ingenious way to solve the conflict. Conflicts are said to be constructive when they:
(a) bring up rather than hide matters in which there may be disparities; (2) oblige individuals to be
direct, and to encourage problem-solving; and (3) focus on the concerns instead of the individuals
themselves. Examples of functional conflict are qualitative decision-making, the encouragement of
ingenuity and improvement, and high interest with employees.
Dysfunctional conflict on the other hand is destructive because they put a stop to improvement or
accomplishment of an aim. This occurs when managers identify that the conflict obstructs theachievement of the goals. A conflict is said to be dysfunctional when: (1) the members repudiate to
work together in finding a solution; (2) a superior is indisposed or incapable to mediate; (3) one or
both the members decline to accept the superiors arbitration; (4) it lack communication. The
members fail to voice out what is needed to solve a problem, or at least diverge on how the conflict
should be interpreted.
With these two conflicts, functional and dysfunctional, the manager should decide wisely on how
to balance both conflicts, without allowing the functional conflict to end up being dysfunctional.
There is no exact way or a rule to follow; all the manager has to follow is his own decision. It all
depends on him on how he will resolve the conflict at hand. If the manager himself cant decide on
how to resolve the problem, then it would be quite impossible for it to be resolved among the
employees. One of the antecedents of conflict is relative deprivation and group identification.
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Interpersonal conflict often results from relative deprivation. An expected achievement of one is
often short of ones target or principles. This can lead an individual to be utterly depressed. If one
is the reason of the distress, then conflict can grow from there, although it does not mean that
actual conflict takes place. Aside from individual deprivation, a more serious case is when a group
is what causes the distress. When one is outnumbered and being deprived by more people, it can be
more serious and lead to much larger conflict. Instead of just trying to live up to the expectations of
one, you are actually trying to satisfy a group of people who are possibly trying to come up with
ways for you to not be able to cope up with them.
SECTION 5
Communicating in the Project Life Cycle and Project Profile
SECTION 6
Logical Framework Analysis
SECTION 7
Result Based Management
Managing Project Resources
Understand what resources are, and the types of resources that are typically available. Appreciate
the importance of managing project resources, and their effect on project duration.
Apply project resource management tools and techniques for managing project time.
SECTION 5
Project Initiation and Planning
Describe the project initiation process, including how to identify, rank, and select information
systems projects, as well as establish a project charter.
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Explain project scope planning, including how to develop the project workbook, scope statement,
and baseline project plan.
Describe project scope definition, verification, and change control.
Understand Integrated Project Planning and Management Cycle
SECTION 6
Project Communication and Documentation
Describe Project Management Configuration Plan
Understand the different methods of communicating professionally
SECTION 7
Managing Project Quality
Understand the concept of quality and why it is important.
Discuss quality management pioneers and quality certifications and standards in industries today.
Describe tools and techniques for managing quality, including quality planning, quality assurance,
and quality control.
SECTION 8
Managing Project Risk
Understand the concept of risk and its relationship to project management.
Identify categories of risk and their effect on information systems projects
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Apply techniques for managing project risk, including risk management planning, risk
identification, qualitative risk analysis, quantitative risk analysis, risk response planning, and risk
monitoring and control
SECTION 9
Investment and Development Project Execution and Control
Describe the seven project management processes that are part of project execution.
Discuss the activities project managers engage in during project execution.
Explain some of the key problems in investment and development projects that occur during
project execution.
Describe the importance of communication to project execution.
SECTION 10
Managing Procurement in projects
Understand the appeal of outsourcing.
Explain project procurement management.
Describe how to plan purchases and acquisitions.
Explain how to plan contracting and contract administration.
Understand contract closure
SECTION 11
Project Closure and Audit
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Define project control and closure Understand the importance of, and general philosophies behind,
project control and closure.
Apply techniques for managing project control and closure.
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