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Curs 8
2016/2017
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2C/1L Optoelectronică, structuri, tehnologii, circuite, OSTC
Minim 7 prezente curs + laborator
Curs - sl. Radu Damian◦ Joi 15-18, P5◦ E – 70% din nota 20% test la curs, saptamana 4-5?
◦ probleme + (?1 subiect teorie) + (2p prez. Curs) 2prez=0.5p
◦ toate materialele permise
Laborator – sl. Daniel Matasaru◦ Joi 8-14 par
◦ L – 15% din nota◦ C – 15% din nota
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Curs 7
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Dioda electroluminescenta
Capitolul 7
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Caracteristica putere optica emisa functie de curentul direct prin LED este liniara la nivele mici ale curentului.
Nu exista curent de prag
La nivele foarte mari puterea optica se satureaza
Responzivitatea
Tipic r=50μW/mA
A
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Pr o
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Capitolul 8
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LASER = Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation = Amplificarea Luminiiprin Emisie Stimulata
Un foton incident poate cauza prin absorbtietranzitia unui electron pe un nivel energetic superior
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Emisia spontana – electronul trece in stareaenergetica de echilibru emitand un foton
Trecerea se realizeaza prin recombinarea uneiperechi electron-gol
Directia si faza radiatiei emise sunt aleatoare
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Emisia stimulata – un foton incident cu energie corespunzatoare poate stimula emisiaunui al doilea foton fara a fi absorbit
Noul foton are aceeasi directie si faza cu fotonul incident, Lumina rezultata e coerenta
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La un material cu 4 nivele energetice tranzitiaradianta a electronului (3) se termina intr-o stare instabila, starea de echilibru obtinandu-se prin emisia unui fonon
Inversiunea de populatie se obtine mult maiusor datoritaelectronilor din stareaintermediara
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Pentru ca emisia stimulata sa apara, fotoniiemisi trebuie sa ramana in contact cu materialul o perioada mai mare de timp – 2 oglinzi necesare
Pentru a permite extragerea radiatiei e necesar ca una din oglinzi sa fie partial reflectanta
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Castigul diodei laser (eficacitatea aparitieiemisiei stimulate) depinde◦ de caracteristicile energetice ale materialului din
care e realizata dioda
◦ de energia pompata din exterior (curentul prindioda)
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Filtre spatiale in regiunea activa
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Pentru operarea in impulsuri, un salt de λ/4 ingusteaza suplimentar spectrul diodei laser
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Se utilizeaza suprafete reflective selective pentru filtrare optica
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Amorsarea emisiei stimulate necesitapomparea unei anumite cantitati de energie –curent de prag
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Curentul trece prin zona activa ducand la amplificarea luminii
curentul ce parcurge zona corespunzatoarereflectorului Bragg modifica indicele de refractieal acestei zone deci lungimea de unda
zona centrala suplimentara permite reglaj fin suplimentar in jurul valorii impuse de reflectorulBragg
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Dezavantajul metodelor anterioare e dat de limita redusa a reglajului (~10nm)
Reflectorul Bragg esantionat (periodic) produce spectru de filtrare periodic
Regland unul din reflectori se obtinerezonanta la suprapunerea celor douaspectre
Dezavantaj : reglajul e discret
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Oglinzile pot fi realizate din straturisuccesive din semiconductori cu indici de refractie diferiti – reflector Bragg
Prelucrarea laterala se rezuma la taierea materialului
Caracteristici puteri de ordinul 1mW lungimi de unda 850 si 980 nm radiatie de iesire circulara cu divergenta redusa Curenti de prag foarte mici (5mA) si putere
disipata redusa circuite de control speciale nu sunt necesare Banda de modulatie mare (2.4GHz) Stabilitate mare cu temperatura si durata de viata
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Dependenta de temperatura a curentului de prag este exponentiala
I0 e o constanta determinata la temperaturade referinta
0/0
TTth eII
Material Lungime de unda T0
InGaAsP 1300 nm 60÷70 K
InGaAsP 1500 nm 50÷70 K
GaAlAs 850 nm 110÷140 K
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Curentul de prag variaza cu temperatura si cu timpul
Variatia tipica 1-2%/°C
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Puterea scade in timp exponential
τm – timpul de viata
Diodele laser sunt supuse la conditii extreme de lucru◦ densitati de curent in zona activa 2000÷5000A/cm2
◦ densitati de putere optica: 105÷106 W/cm3
Diverse definitii ale timpului de viata faccomparatiile dificile
mtePtP
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Cresterea curentului duce la scaderea duratei de viata
◦ n = 1.5÷2 (empiric)◦ dublarea curentului duce la scaderea de 3-4 ori a duratei de viata
Cresterea temperaturii duce la scaderea duratei de viata
◦ E = 0.3÷0.95eV (valoarea tipica in teste 0.7eV)◦ cresterea temperaturii cu 10 grade injumatateste durata de viata
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Coerenta radiatiei emise◦ LED: tc ≈ 0.5ps, Lc ≈ 15μm
◦ LASER : tc ≈ 0.5ns, Lc ≈ 15cm
Stabilitatea frecventei◦ detectie necoerenta (modulatie in amplitudine)
◦ mai ales in sistemele multicanal
Timpul de raspuns
Viteza, interval de reglaj
20
cc tcL
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Amorsarea emisiei stimulate necesita pompareaunei anumite cantitati de energie – curent de prag
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Apare saturare la nivelemari de curent
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regim LASER
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eficienta de conversie electro-optic (randament)
tipic, randamente sub 10% sunt intalnite
eficienta cuantica◦ interna
◦ externa
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Erbidium Dopped Fiber Amplifier
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Bazat pe efect Raman
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405 nm – InGaN blue-violet laser, in Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD drives
445–465 nm – InGaN blue laser multimode diode recently introduced (2010) for use in mercury-free high-brightness data projectors
510–525 nm – Green diodes recently (2010) developed by Nichia and OSRAM for laser projectors.
635 nm – AlGaInP better red laser pointers, same power subjectively twice as bright as 650 nm
650–660 nm – GaInP/AlGaInP CDDVD, cheap red laser pointers
670 nm – AlGaInP bar code readers, first diode laser pointers (now obsolete, replaced by brighter 650 nm and 671 nm DPSS)
760 nm – AlGaInP gas sensing: O2
785 nm – GaAlAs Compact Disc drives
808 nm – GaAlAs pumps in DPSS Nd:YAG lasers (e.g., in green laser pointers or as arrays in higher-powered lasers)
848 nm – laser mice
980 nm – InGaAs pump for optical amplifiers, for Yb:YAG DPSS lasers
1,064 nm – AlGaAs fiber-optic communication, DPSS laser pump frequency
1,310 nm – InGaAsP, InGaAsN fiber-optic communication
1,480 nm – InGaAsP pump for optical amplifiers
1,512 nm – InGaAsP gas sensing: NH3
1,550 nm – InGaAsP, InGaAsNSb fiber-optic communication
1,625 nm – InGaAsP fiber-optic communication, service channel
1,654 nm – InGaAsP gas sensing: CH4
1,877 nm – GaInAsSb gas sensing: H2O
2,004 nm – GaInAsSb gas sensing: CO2
2,330 nm – GaInAsSb gas sensing: CO
2,680 nm – GaInAsSb gas sensing: CO2
3,030 nm – GaInAsSb gas sensing: C2H2
3,330 nm – GaInAsSb gas sensing: CH4
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Control putere optica
Control temperatura
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Ca si in cazul LED, pentru DL intensitatealuminoasa emisa este o functie de curentulprin dioda◦ aproape exclusiv, DL sunt controlate in curent
◦ controlul in curent are avantajul unei viteze maimari de lucru
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Cerinte pentru driver-ele de diode laser◦ viteza mare de basculare pentru minimizarea
interferentei intersimbol◦ curent mare de iesire◦ capacitatea de a rezista la variatiile de tensiune pe
dioda Laser
Cerintele sunt dificil de respectat deoarecesunt contradictorii◦ viteza mare presupune micsorarea dimensiunii
componentelor◦ micsorarea dimensiunii scade tensiunea de strapungere
scade capabilitatea de curent/putere disipata
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Viteza◦ caracterizata de timpii de crestere si de cadere
◦ suma acestora trebuie sa fie mult mai mica decatperioada de bit la viteza nominala de lucru
Testarea vitezei de lucru◦ standardizata
◦ “eye diagram”
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Curent de iesire◦ laserele trebuie polarizate in vecinatatea pragului,
astfel incat o mica variatie de curent sa poatadeschide dioda
◦ driver-ele de DL trebuie sa poata furniza: un curent de “polarizare”
un curent de “modulatie”
◦ Curentul de “polarizare” (~ de prag) variaza cu temperatura si varsta diodei extrem de mult
◦ Curentul de “modulatie” (semnal) nu depinde de aceste elemente deoarece pentru DL pragul depinde de temperatura si varsta
panta este aproximativ constanta
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Variatii de tensiune pe dioda LASER◦ generate de variatiile mari de curent si rezistenta
interna a diodei
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Impedante de intrare si iesire
Se lucreaza la viteze mari (1Gb/s, 10GB/s)◦ se aplica considerente de proiectare a circuitelor de
microunde
◦ Intrarea in amplificator are tipic o impedanta de 50Ω
◦ Iesirea trebuie adaptata la impedanta diodei Laser
daca aceasta impedanta e prea mica, se creste la valoriadecvate (~25Ω) prin introducerea unui rezistor in serie
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Tipic etajul de iesire se realizeaza diferential
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La viteze mari se utilizeaza tipic tranzistoareunipolare si etajul diferential se realizeazasimetric
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Necesar datorita variatiei curentului de “polarizare”
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circuitul RC din schema de reglaj a curentuluide polarizare realizeaza o filtrare trece sus a semnalului
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La frecvente prea mici de lucru bucla de reatiee suficient de rapida pentru a urmari si anulacurentul de semnal
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Bucla de reactie are efect si in cazul unei suite lungi de biti 1 transmisi◦ In acest caz, la limita curentul emis de dioda laser in
starea OFF ajunge jumatate din curentul corespunzatorstarii ON
◦ Capacitatea de filtrare din bucla trebuie aleasa mare pentru a minimiza acest efect
◦ daca valoarea e prea ridicata e necesara o capacitate externa circuitului integrat
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Capitolul 9
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Cerinte◦ eficienta crescuta a conversiei optic/electric◦ zgomot redus◦ raspuns uniform la diferite lungimi de unda◦ viteza de raspuns ridicata◦ liniaritate
Principii de operare◦ fotoconductori◦ fototranzistori◦ fotodiode pn
pin
pin cu multiplicare in avalansa
Schottky
oPRR
oBB PII
oPII
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Principiu
Recent dispozitive Metal Semiconductor Metal (filtru interdigital) au inceput sa fie utilizatepentru usurinta de fabricare si integrare in aplicatii mai putin pretentioase
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Jonctiunea pn estepolarizata invers
Lumina este absorbitain regiunea golita de purtatori, un fotonabsorbit generand o pereche electron-gol
Sarcinile sunt separate de campul electric existent in regiunea golita si genereazaun curent in circuitul exterior
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Energia necesara pentru eliberarea uneiperechi electron gol
Lungime de unda de taiere
Puterea optica absorbita in zona golita de purtatori (w) aflata la o adincime d in interiorul dispozitivului
gEhc
h
gE
hcmax
fwd
i ReePwP 11
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Coeficientul de absorbtie pentru materialeleuzuale
Valoarea mare a coeficientului de absorbtiela lungimi de unda reduseimplica scaderearesponzivitatii
Ca urmare comportareatuturor materialelor estede tip trece banda
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Eficienta cuantica - raportul dintre numărul de perechi electron-gol generate şi numărul de fotoni incidenţi
In unitatea de timp numarul de fotonidepinde de puterea optica, iar numarul de electroni impune curentul generat
Responzivitatea
f
e
n
n
hP
eI
hc
e
P
IR
o
W
AmR 8.0
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hc
e
P
IR
o
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Dezavantajul major pentruGe este curentul de intuneric mare
Material Eg (eV )
GaAs 1.43
GaSb 0.73
GaAso.88Sbo.12 1.15
Ge 0.67
InAs 0.35
InP 1.35
Ino.53Gao.47As 0.75
Ino.14Gao.86 As 1.15
Si 1.14
Material λ [μm] Responsivitate [A/W] Viteza [ns] Curent de intuneric
Si 0.85 0.55 3 1
Si 0.65 0.4 3 1
InGaAs 1.3-1.6 0.95 0.2 3
Ge 1.55 0.9 3 66
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Curentul invers al jonctiunii p-n, datoratagitatiei termice, prezent in absentailuminarii
Constituie o importanta sursa de zgomot(limiteaza aplicatiile Ge)
◦ β – coeficient de idealitate
◦ R0 – rezistenta la intuneric a diodei (inversproportionala cu aria diodei)
0eR
kTII SD
21
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Existenta campului electric in regiuneagolita de purtatori face ca eventualiipurtatori generati optic sa fie acceleratispre terminale pentru constituireafotocurentului
Problemele utilizarii diodei pnpolarizate invers ca fotodetector suntgenerate de adancimea extrem de mica a zonei golite (w)
Puterea optica absorbita in interiorul acestei zone e in consecinta redusa
Purtatorii generati inafara zonei de golire ajung eventual in zona golita si vor fi accelerati spre terminale, darviteza fenomenului este prea redusa pentru aplicatii in comunicatii
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Solutia consta in introducerea unui stratfoarte slab dopat (intrinsec) intre cele douazone ale diodei
◦ creste volumul de absorbtie deci crestesensibilitatea fotodiodei
◦ capacitatea jonctiuniiscade ducand la crestereavitezei
◦ este favorizat curentul de conductie (mai rapid) fatade cel de difuzie
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tipic, adancimea stratului intrinsec este de 20-50μm
cresterea suplimentara a adancimii ar duce la cresterea timpului de tranzit◦ w=20μm -> Ttr 0.2ns
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se bazeaza pe jonctiunea metal semiconductor
vitezele de lucru sunt mult mai mari, metalulfiind un bun conductor realizeaza evacuareamult mai rapida a purtatorilor din jonctiune
permite utilizarea unor materiale cu eficientamai mare dar care nu pot fi dopate simultan p si n pentru utilizare in PIN
modulatie cu 100GHzposibila
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se utilizeaza tipic◦ InGaAsP pe substrat InP
◦ GaAlAsSb pe substrat GaSb
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daca viteza purtatorilor este suficient de mare genereaza noi perechi electron/gol prinionizare de impact
amplificarea are loc in acelasi timp cu detectia
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campuri electrice de ordinul minim: 3x105
V/m, tipic: 106 V/m sunt necesare
aceste campuri sunt generate de tensiuniinverse de polarizare de ordinul 50-300V
structura este modificata pentru concentrareacampului in zona de accelerare
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factorul de multiplicare caracterizeazaamplificarea fotocurentului generat
Responzivitatea
I
IM M
Mhc
e
P
IR
o
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tensiuni inverse de polarizare mari cresccomplexitatea circuitului
diodele cu multiplicare in avalansa suntintrinsec mai zgomotoase (curentul de zgomot este amplificat de asemenea)
factorul de multiplicitate are o componentaaleatorie (zgomot suplimentar)
viteza mai redusa (timp de generare al avalansei)
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Fotodiodele genereaza un curent proportional cu puterea optica receptionata
Primul pas necesar este conversia acestuicurent la o tensiune
Amplificatoarele transimpedanta suntamplificatoarele atacate in curent si care ofera la iesire o tensiune proportionala cu acesta
Amplificarea este masurata in Ω (kΩ)
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Cel mai simplu amplificator transimpedantaeste un rezistor
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Trebuie realizat un compromis intre◦ zgomot
◦ castig
◦ viteza
De obicei sunt realizate cu reactie
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LED◦ este considerat o sursa lipsita de zgomot
◦ nu contamineaza semnalul cu zgomot suplimentar
Dioda LASER◦ fluctuatii de faza, determina o largire a spectrului
emis
◦ fluctuatii de intensitate, determina zgomotul de intensitate introdus de dioda
◦ RIN – Relative Intensity Noise
BWP
PHzRIN
n
2
2
]/1[
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reprezinta o densitate spectrala de zgomot◦ puterea de zgomot depinde de RIN si de banda
semnalului
Depinde de puterea semnalului◦ P-3 la puteri mici, P-1 la puteri mari
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oscilatii de relaxare – x GHz
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Equivalent Input Noise◦ Ri – rezistenta de intrare in circuitul de modulatie a
diodei
◦ Variatiile de putere (zgomot) echivalente unorvariatii de curent (zgomot) prin dioda
22
nn IrP
2][ ni IRWEIN 1 Hz banda
ith RIIRINHzWEIN 2
0]/[
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NEP◦ Noise Equivalent Power
◦ r – responzivitatea diodei
◦ r depinde de λ, implica NEP depinde de λ
◦ In cataloage apare de obicei densitatea spectrala
r
dfiWNEP
n
2
][
PD
n
BW
NEP
r
iHzWNEP
2
]/[
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NEP◦ cea mai mica putere detectabila
PDdarkSPDn BWIIeBWIei 222
PDdark
n
BWIerr
iP 2
1min
2
min
darkIer
HzWNEP 21
]/[
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Bit Error Rate
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01
01
iIIiQ DD
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