1
Reconstructing4Q208–4Q209asanAstronomicalArtefact
HelenR.Jacobus
DepartmentofHebrewandJewishStudies
UniversityCollegeLondon
UpdatedJuly2018(original,June2015;corrected2017)
NowhereintheancientMesopotamianandMediterraneanworldshaveasmanyvariant
anddifferentcalendarsbeenfoundasatQumran.Thediversitywithinthe364-dayHebrew
calendarcorpusisacontinuingsubjectofresearch.Here,thefocusisontwoproposed
Aramaiczodiaccalendars:4Q318(4QZodiacCalendarand4QBrontologion,registeredas
4QZodiologyandBrontology)and4Q208–4Q209(4QAstronomicalEnocha-b).Itisargued
thatthesetextsarerelatedandthatbyadoptingthismodelitshouldbepossibletoplace
someofthehithertounplacedfragmentsfrom4Q208–4Q209.
ExpansionofHelenR.Jacobus,ZodiacCalendarsintheDeadSeaScrollsandTheirReception:AncientAstronomyandAstrologyinEarlyJudaism(Leiden:Brill,2014),pp.305–311
1. Background
TheproposedAramaiccalendarconcernedthatarguablyiscloselyrelatedto4Q208–4Q209
is4Q318whichiscomposedofazodiaccalendar,or“selenodromion”thatsituatesthe
moon’spositioninthezodiacforeachdayoftheyearineachmonth.Ithasaconnected
“brontologion,”azodiacalthunderomentextthatyieldsaMesopotamian-styleprediction
thatisbasedonthezodiacsignofthemoononthedayofthemonthwhenthunderoccurs.
Thetitleof4Q318isregisteredas4QZodiologyandBrontology(criticaledition:Greenfield
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andSokoloff1995,reproducedwithrevisionsin2000).Thetextsareallfragmentary(see
alsoWise,1994;Albani,1993,1994,1999;Jacobus2010,2011,2014a).
FollowingGezaVermeswhogave4Q318thetitle“AZodiacalCalendarwitha
Brontologion”(1997,361),Isuggestthat4QZodiacCalendarand4QBrontologionisamore
usefuldesignationbecausescholarsneedtobeabletodiscusseitherunitseparatelyina
clearway.Thisessayconcerns4QZodiacCalendarwithoutthebrontologioninrelationto
theextremelyfragmentaryAramaictexts4Q208–4Q209(4QAstronomicalEnocha-b)(critical
editions:Milik,1976;TigchelaarandGarcíaMartínez,2000;Drawnel,2011).
4Q208–4Q209compriseformulaicallywrittentextsthatarepartoftheso-called
AramaicAstronomicalBookofEnochfromQumran.Thefragmentsof4Q209
(4QAstronomicalEnochb)and4Q208(4QAstronomicalEnocha)asfarasisknowndonot
appearintheclassicalEthiopicGe’ezversionof1Enoch,althoughnotallofthemany
Ethiopicmanuscriptshavebeenexamined(fortheGe’ezmanuscripthistoryof1Enochsee
Knibb,1978,1–46;VanderKam,2012,335–352;ErhoandStuckenbruck,2013).
Neither4Q318nor4Q208–4Q209wereknownbeforethediscoveryoftheDeadSea
Scrolls.Ihavesuggestedthatinordertoreconstruct4Q208–4Q209bothmathematically
andmaterially(asfarasisreasonablypossible)thetextsshouldbeconsideredasbranches
fromthesamesourceas4QZodiacCalendar(Jacobus2011,2014a,andforthcoming).
2. 4Q318.4QZodiacCalendar
Thecalendarof4Q318statesthemoon’sschematicpositioninthezodiaconanydayofthe
yearaccordingtoacalendarof360dayyears,thatis,ayearcomposedof12months
consistingof30dayseach.Thisisawell-knownyear-lengthinMesopotamiandivinatory
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literature(Brown,2000,113-122;Heeßel2010;Oppenheim,1974;Williams,2002)andasan
ideal,administrativecalendarinthethirdmillenniumBCEinMesopotamia(Brack-Bernsen
2007;Steele,2011).
Ihavearguedthatitisaworkingluni-solarcalendar(Jacobus,2010;Jacobus,2011;
2014a);insuchacalendar,anextralunarmonthisadded(intercalated)atfixedintervals
becausethelunaryearof354daysfallsbehindthesolaryearof365¼daysby11¼days.A
30-daylunarmonth,a13thlunarmonth,isaddedontothestandardlunaryearof354days
—consistingof12months—atrepeatedtwoandthreeyearfrequencies(seeRochberg,
1995).Therefore,tohaveacalendarwithalunardatethatrecursinthesameseasonaleap
monthmustberegularlyintercalatedinafixedcycle.
Inaschematic360-daycalendara30-daylunarmonthcouldhavebeenaddedevery
sixyears,asitwouldfallbehindthesolaryearby5¼dayseachyear,accordingto(Brack-
Bernsen,2007,89),althoughscholarsaredividedastohowthe360-daycalendarmayhave
beeninstitutedinpractice.Brittonstatesthatthe360-daycalendarwas“devoidof
intercalations”(2007,117).
Themoonin4QZodiacCalendarchangeszodiacsignsinafixedsequenceoftwo
days,twodays,andthenthreedaysinarecurringarrangement.Itpassesthroughall12
signsplustheonethatitstartedoutfrom(so,13signsinall)in30daysineachofits12
months(schematicsynodicmonths).Themonth-namesaretheAramaictranslationsofthe
Babylonianmonthsusedinthelatebiblicalbooks,andhaveremainedso-namedinthe
Jewishcalendar.
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Itisprobablethat4QZodiacCalendarmaybeaJewish-Aramaicdescendantofsimilar
lateBabylonianzodiacalcalendartextswithwhichitbearsclosestructuralsimilarities.
Thesecuneiformtextssubstitutemonthsandzodiacsignsforcorrespondingconsecutive
numbers;forexample,number1representstheMonthI,andthefirstzodiacsign,Aries
(Brack-BernsenandSteele,2004;Steele2015;188,209,210).Sincethemonth-namesin
4QZodiacCalendarareAramaicversionsoftheBabylonianmonths-namesitishighlylikely
thatthecalendariscloselyrelatedtoitsMesopotamiancousins.
3. 4Q208-4Q209asasecondAramaiczodiaccalendarintheDeadSeaScrollsa. Inrelationto1Enoch
Ihavealsoarguedthat4Q208–4Q209(4QAstronomicalEnocha-b)followsasimilarpattern
to4Q318:thatitisbasicallyaluni-solarcalendarwiththemajormodificationthatthe
cosmological‘gates’numbered1to6inthetextshouldbeidentifiedasthezodiacsigns.
Thisissimilartothesystemofnumber-month-signsubstitutioninlateBabylonian
astrologicaltexts(seeBrack-BernsenandSteele,2004;Jacobus,2011,2014a,2014b;Steele,
2015,opcit).
Thishypothesisisbasedondirectlyrelatingtheordinalnumbersoftheheavenly
gatesin1Enoch,Chapter72,thefirstchapteroftheEthiopicBookofLuminaries(1En.72–
82),notonlyasmonthsbuttocorrespondingzodiacsigns(athesisthatwasoriginally
suggestedbyLaurence,1821).1En.72isconcernedwiththedaylightlengthsoftwo“solar”
monthsoppositeeachotherina364-daycalendarbeginningwiththespringequinox.One
‘gate’representstwomonthsand,itisargued,thetwozodiacsignswithwhichtheyare
cognate.SeeTable1forthedescriptionofthesun’sjourneythroughouttheyearin1En.72
withthenumberedgates,themonthstowhichtheycorrespond,andthezodiacsignsthat
correspondwiththemonths.
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Table1.Abasicrepresentationjourneyofthesunin1En.72beginningwithsunriseatthe
SpringEquinoxinGate4,Month1,Aries(the1stsignofthezodiac);Gate4alsorepresents
theMonth6,Virgo(the6thsignofthezodiac)
Neugebauerdefinedtheheavenlygatesin1En.72asthesun’srisingandsetting
pointsonthehorizonduringtheyear:thesunrisesinGate4atthespringandautumn
equinoxes(Month1andMonth6),andsoon(Neugebauer1964,1981).Herejectedthe
interpretationsoftheearliertranslatorsandcommentatorsof1Enochthatthe‘gate’
numbersrepresentedsignsofthezodiaccorrespondingtothemonths(Neugebauer,1979,
156–161.ForthescholarlyhistoryofthezodiachypothesisintheBookofLuminariesin1
En,seeVanderKam,2012,371–373;Jacobus,2014a,263–268).Recentresearchinthe
developmentofMesopotamianzodiacalastronomyhasledtoaresurgenceofinterestin
thesubject(Ratzon,2015).
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3b.4Q208-4Q209asacalendar
MilikdescribedtheastronomicalschemeintheseAramaicfragmentsasa“synchronistic
calendar,”maintainingthatthematerialrelatedtothesunandthemooninthetextwere
relatedtoasingleyearoftheluni-solarcalendarofathree-yearcycle,atriennialcycle(Milik
1976,274–275).1
Hecontendedthatthesynchronisticcalendarof4Q208–4Q209wastheequivalent
mathematicallyto364daysofthree(‘solar’)yearsequallingthreelunaryearsof354days,
eachconsistingofalternate29and30daymonths,withtheadditionofanintercalarylunar
monthof30days(364daysx3=354daysx3+30days).
Milikreasonedthatthemanuscriptof4Q209consistedofone354-daylunaryearof
thiscyclethatwas10daysshorterthantheschematic‘solar’year.(Theterm‘solaryear’for
the364-dayyearismisleadingsincethesolaryearisabout365.24daysbutitisusedto
distinguishitfromthelunaryear).
Somelaterscholarshavearguedthatthesynchronisedschematic‘solar’yearwould
be360days,asitisinthezodiaccalendarof4Q318andintheMesopotamianbackground
oftheBookofLuminaries(Albani1993,27–35;1994,82–83;seealsoJacobus2014a,334–
340).Others,thatalthoughthesynchronisedyearof360dayshadbeenexpandedto364
daysatanunspecifiedveryearlystageinitsredaction(BenDov,2008,37,282),4Q209
cannotsupportatriennialcyclemathematically(BenDov2008,129–132).Unlikethe
calendarintheBookofJubilees,thecalendarof4Q208–4Q209doesnotmentionSabbaths,
daysoftheweek,orfestivalsasdosomeofthe364-dayHebrewcalendarsofthepriestly
coursesatQumran.
DrawnelrejectsMilik’smodeloftheluni-solarsynchronisticcalendar,proposing
insteadthat4Q208–4Q209isalunartabledenotingthevaryingtimeperiodsoflunar
visibilityduringthedayandnight(Drawnel,2011,237-259).Hearguesthatthesun’s
presenceinthetextconstitutesscribalinsertionsthatrefertothesun’smovementsduring1Milik’stheoryisfollowedbyEshbalRatzon(2107),whoarguesthatfragmentsof4Q209comefromthetriennialcycleratherthanfromasingleyearofit,asMilikhadcontended.MycounterargumenttoRatzonisforthcoming.
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thenight,ratherthantoacalendricalcomponent(Drawnel2011,297–300).Milik’sdata
havebeenacceptedbyTigchelaarandGarcíaMartínez(2000);DukeandGoffhave
suggestedmodificationstothesynchronisticcalendarschemetoincorporateDrawnel’s
thesis(2014).
4Q208–4Q209containthedayofthelunarmonthandproportionsofthemoon’s
“shining”and“darkness”and“concealment”andothertermstodescribethemoon’sdaily
phasesinincrementalfractionsofhalf-seventhsinthetext.Therearealsodifferentverbs
thatdescribeitswaxingandwaningday-by-day(Drawnel2011,237–301).Drawnel’s
reconstructionofthefractionsofthemoon’slightinallthefragments,asfaraspossible,
andhiscontextualisingthisinformationwithina29-dayor30-daymonthscheme,often
fromextremelyscantytext,isavaluableassistancetoscholars.
Theleft-handcolumnofthelargestfragment(4Q209,frg7columniiiinthecritical
editions,renumberedasFragment1intheLeonLevyDeadSeaScrollsDigitalLibrary
website)isakeytextualunit.Itarguablysupportstheinterpretationthatthenumbered
‘gates’intheformulaicstructureoftheAramaictextthroughwhichthesunandmoonrise
andsetcorrespondtothezodiacsigns.
Thedatain4Q209fragment7,columniiibeginwiththesun’smovementsinGate1,
coincidingwithNights8-9ofalunarmonth.Milikcalculatedfromthefractionsinthetext
thatthemonthwasMonthXandhereferredtothedateasthe8thdayofthe10thlunar
month,as“the8thTebeth”usingtheAramaicmonthnameforthe10thmonthintheluni-
solar-triennialcycle,whichhearguedexistedinthetext,isnotrelevanttotheBabylonian
calendarwhichusesa19-yearluni-solarcycle(Neugebauer,1975;Rochberg,1992)].
ThewaxingmoonrisesinGate5forthefirsttimeduringday9ofthelunarmonth
(4Q209,frg7col.iii,lines7-8)andsetsinGate5onNight10(aftersunset,lines8-9),see
Figure1.2
2ThetextforNight9isinterruptedbythepassageofthesun.Themoonappearstosettwice:onceimmediatelybeforetheentryofthesunwithoutagivengatenumber(line5)andthenimmediatelyaftertheentryofthesun,whenitstatesthatthemoonsetsinGate5(line6).Thisseemstobeaduplicationofthepositioninthetextualformulaforthemoonset.Comparetheformulain4Q2093:themoonshines,setsandrisesinGate3onNightandDay4(lines6-8)andwillsetinGate3forthefirsttimeafterithasriseninGate3,onNight5(line8,recon,Drawnel,2011,150-151).MyreconstructioninFigure1andTables2and3,isbasedonasunset-to-sunsetcalendarandassignsthemoon’sgatenumbertothegateinwhichitfirstrose.In4Q208frg24coli.thegatenumberinwhichthemoonrisesisnoted,butnotthegatenumberinwhichitsets(textandtranslation:Drawnel2011,118-120).
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Figure1:Basicdiagramtoillustratemoon’sdata(reconstructed)in4Q209frg7columniii:
showingdaysofthemonth,‘gates,’correspondingzodiacsigns,lunarphasesandlunar
fractionsinhalf-sevenths
Convertingthegatenumbersintotheircognatezodiacsigns,andtakingintoaccountthe
lunarfractionsinhalf-seventhsinthetext(fromwhichonecanidentifythephaseofthe
moon,eitherintermsoftimerelations[Drawnel],orvisually,bylinearprogressionsoflight
anddarknessonthemoon’ssurface[Milik,1976;TigchelaarandGarcíaMartínez,2000])
wouldmean,accordingtothehypothesis,thatthesun,whichtakesamonthtotravel
throughonezodiacsign,movesfromSagittarius(Gate1)intoCapricorn(Gate1)thewinter
solstice.
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ThemoonsetsinGate5(Taurus)aftersunsetonNight9(however,themoonsetis
duplicatedinthetext,andtheformulaisproblematicatthispoint,asnotedabove),risingin
Gate5onthesamedayforthefirsttime.AsthemoonsetsonNight10,inasunset-to-
sunsetcalendarGate5isassignedtoNight10,notNight9inMonthX,(seeTable1for
correspondingmonthsandzodiacsigns).
UsingMilik’sillustrativeassignation,thefirstnightinquestion,“8thTevet”(4Q209,
fragment7columniii,line1)coincideswiththewintersolsticeinsomeyearsinthe
BabylonianhoroscopesintheMesopotamiancalendar(Rochberg1998,44,78;Jacobus
2011,100,194–200;2014a291–311).Accordingly,thecalendarof4Q208–4Q208maywell
followa19-yearluni-solarcycleknownfromlateBabyloniantexts(Rochberg,1998;Steele
2007)andfromtheGreekMetoniccycledatedto432BCE(PritchettandNeugebauer,1947,
1–14;Neugebauer,1975,622-624;Hannah,2005,55–58).
4. Findings
Itispossibletosubstitutetheexistingnumericaldataofthe‘gates’inthefragments
inthesynchronisticcalendarof4Q208–4Q209withtheircorrespondingzodiacsigns.Ifwe
alsofollowedaschematictwoandthree-dayarrangementofthemoon’sstayineachzodiac
signbasedonasimilararrangementin4QZodiacCalendarandtheincrementsofhalf-
seventhsofthemoon’swaxingandwaningfor29and30-daymonthsreconstructedby
Drawnel,wecouldtheoreticallyreproducethelunaryearin4Q208–4Q209fromthelarger
extantandreconstructedfragments,seeTable2.InTable3,thezodiacsignsandthegate
numbersareplacedtogetherusingtheexistingandrestoredtextinordertoillustratethe
reconstructionfully.Ascanbeseenfromthetables,thesuggestedmodelbeginsonDay1,
MonthI:moonriseinAries,Gate4,a30-daymonth,inacalendarinwhichthedaysbeginat
10
sunset.Thesignsofthezodiacfollowintheirconsecutiveorderaccordingtotheschematic
arrangementdescribed.Notwonightsintheyearcanhavethesamedata.
11
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 29 301 ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i .5 2 ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i 1 .53 _ ` a b c d e f g h i ^ 1.5 14 _ ` a b c d e f g h i ^ 2 1.55 ` a b c d e f g h i ^ _ 2.5 26 ` a b c d e f g h i ^ _ 3 2.57 a b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` 3.5 38 a b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` 4 3.59 a b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` 4.5 410 b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` a 5 4.511 b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` a 5.5 512 c d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b 6 5.513 c d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b 6.5 614 d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c (7) 6.515 d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c 6.5 (7)16 d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c 6 6.517 e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c d 5.5 618 e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c d 5 5.519 f g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e 4.5 520 f g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e 4 4.521 g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f 3.5 422 g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f 3 3.523 g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f 2.5 324 h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f g 2 2.525 h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f g 1.5 226 i ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h 1 1.527 i ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h .5 128 ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i .529 ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i 30 ^ ` b d f h
Table2:Reconstructionof4Q209lunaryearsubstitutinggatenumbersforzodiacsigns
Toprow:months;leftcolumn:daysofmonth.Themoon’sfractionsinhalf-seventhsofwaxingandwaningfor29and30-daymonthsareinthetwofar-righthandcolumns.Theshadedareasaretheexistingorreconstructedfragmentswith‘gate’numbersKey:Aries^:Gate4;Taurus_:Gate5;Gemini`:Gate6;Cancera:Gate6;Leob:Gate5;Virgoc:Gate4;Librad:Gate3;Scorpioe:Gate2;Sagittariusf:Gate1;Capricorng:Gate1;Aquariush:Gate2;Piscesi:Gate3
12
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 29 30
1 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i .5
2 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 1 .5
3 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 1.5 1
4 5_ ` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 33i 4^ 2 1.5
5 6` 4a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 2.5 2
6 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 3 2.5
7 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 3.5 3
8 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 4 3.5
9 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 4.5 4
10 6b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5 4.5
11 6b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5.5 5
12 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 6 5.5
13 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 6.5 6
14 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c (7) 6.5
15 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 6.5 (7)
16 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 6 6.5
17 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 5.5 6
18 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 5 5.5
19 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 4.5 5
20 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 4 4.5
21 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 3.5 4
22 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 3 3.5
23 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 2.5 3
24 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2 2.5
25 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 1.5 2
26 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 1 1.5
27 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h .5 1
28 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i .5
29 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i
30 4^ 6` 5b 3d 1f 2h
Table3.Reconstructionof4Q208-4Q209lunaryear,withzodiacsignscorrespondingto
the‘gate’numbers(extantgatenumbersinbold).
13
Theshadedareasdescribedbelowrepresentfragmentswithexistingorreconstructedgate
numbersbasedontextualdata.ThesemaybeidentifiedasdescribingdatesinMonth1,
Month9,Month10,andMonth12.Theselected,abbreviateddatafortheshadedareasare
asfollows(seeDrawnel2011forthefragmentnumberingtranscription,translation,and
restoration).
Month1,4Q209fragment16.Night25:themoonishiddenfor5/7ths;itshinesfor
2/7ths.Night26:themoonishiddenfor5.5/7ths(basedonthefractions,itisa30-day
month).ThemoonisinGate3(Pisces)(line2).
Month9,4Q209fragment7,columnii:Nights23[themoonsetsandentersGate3
(Libra)]toNight27,Gate2(Scorpio).ThemoonsetsinGate2onNight25,andriseson
Night26[inthemorning,sinceitisawaningmoon](lines8,10)(a30-daymonth).
Month10,4Q209fragment3:Night4,themoonis5/7thsdark,andonNight5[the
moonleavesAquarius]themoonsetsandentersGate3(Pisces)(line7);itislightfor
2.5/7thsanditrisesonthesameday[indaylight](line8,restored)(a29-daymonth).
Month10,4Q209fragment7,columniii:Nights8toDay10.ThesunrisesinGate1
(SagittariustoCapricorn);themoonsetsinanunnumberedgateonNight9(lines4-5)and
appearstosetagaininGate5onNight9(line6),risinginGate5onthesameday(lines6-8),
andsetsonDay10(lines8-9)(a29-daymonth).
Month12,4Q208fragment24,columni:Night2toDay6;Night3:themoonis
1.5/7thslightanddarkfor5.5/7ths.ThemoonrisesfromGate4(line3)forthefirsttime
duringDay2(lines1-4),andsetsduringNight3[inGate4](Aries)(lines4-5,reconstructed)
(a29-daymonth).
14
Usingthistheoreticalsystem,itmaybepossibleeventuallytoreconstructthe
calendricalcyclesoftheAramaiczodiacalcalendarsfromQumranwithmoreprecision.The
implicationofthisresearchisthatitislikelythatinSecondTempleJudaismgroupsusedthe
AramaicandHebrewcalendarsforseparatepurposes.Thereisnoevidencetosuggestthat
theAramaiccalendarswereoflessimportancethantheHebrew364-daycalendarsinthe
Qumrancorpus.Theymayhavebeentaughtwithinthepedagogicframeworkofangelic
mythologyknownfrom1Enoch,andassuchrepresentedanotherformofcalendrical
knowledgethathadbeenmodifiedfromitsMesopotamianrootsforusewithinthecomplex
cultureofearlyJudaism.
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