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Reminders
1. Both “empty” and “full” slides are now available at the course website.
2. Individual paper proposals may be submitted at any time, but the sooner the better.
3. Sending you a mid-term advisory this week or week-end.
4. New course announcement!
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Managing Across Cultures BUSI 197 (1.5 credits – Mod IV)
* Prerequisites BUSI 100 and BUSI 150 with grades of C or better
Announcing a new mod-length course being offered for the first time during Mod IV that provides hands-on understanding of the opportunities and challenges involved in working across geographic and cultural boundaries
• Highlights include:– Investigation of current cross-cultural
management research and theory
– Interaction with students from universities around the world, working with you in virtual teams
– In-class sessions that build upon virtual team interactions using a variety of case studies & interactive exercises
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Information Technologyand Control
BA 152
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Characteristics of Organizations:BA 152 Perspective
GOALSSTRATEGIESSTRUCTURES
TECHNOLOGIESSYSTEMS
PeopleFIT!Cultures
Environment
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Direction of InformationSystemEvolution1. Operations
• Transaction processing systems• Data warehousing
2. Business Resource• Management Information systems• Decision Support Systems• Executive information systems• Management control systems• Balanced Scorecard
3. Strategic Weapon
• Intranets• ERP• Knowledge Management
INTERNAL• Extranets, EDI• IntegratedEnterprise•E-Business
EXTERNAL
LOW SYSTEM COMPLEXITY HIGH
MANAGEMENTLEVEL
TOP(strategy, plans,
non-programmed)
LOWER LEVEL
Evolution of Organizational Applications of Information Technology
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Data, Information, & Control
• Data - Input from any communication channel
• Information - Data that alters or reinforces understanding
• Control - Evaluation of information that provides the basis for future actions
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Information and DataIn
form
atio
n
DataLow
High
High
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Information and Control
Information
Co
ntr
ol
High
Low High
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Control Systems:The Key Pieces
PerformanceStandards
BudgetsJob Descriptions
Quality LevelsProduction Goals
PerformanceMeasures
Cash-on-handPerformance Appraisals
Process InspectionsProduct Counts
Comparison
Actions (if necessary)
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Major Control Approaches
• Market Control - control by prices, competition, markets, and exchanges
• Bureaucratic Control - control by rules, standards, hierarchy, and authority
• Clan Control - control by culture, values, tradition, and trust
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Control Systems:What gets controlled and how?
QualityAppraisalsPricesOutput
NormsPoliciesMaterial Costs
Process
Selection
Criteria
BudgetsStarting Salaries
Input
ClanBureaucracyMarketHow
What
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Supervisory Control Strategies
Input Control - control by virtue of selection criteria and training
Behavior Control - control by observation of employee actions
Output Control - control by the amount of work completed
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Supervisory Control Strategies What works best when?
Are Tasks Structured?YES NO
YES
Are OutcomesMeasurable?
NO
Use behaviorand/or
output control
Use input and/or output
control
Use behavioralcontrol
Use input,clan, and/orself-control
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Developing Effective Control Systems
1. Involve employees in the process, as appropriate
2. Focus on results, not simply on measurement
3. Keep the system as simple as possible
4. Insure timely information to and from the system
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5. Make sure the system fits with the firm’s culture, strategy, and structure
6. Anticipate second-, third, and fourth-order effects
Developing Effective Control Systems
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Effective Control Systems:Keep the following in mind
1. What gets measured is what will get done!
2. System costs must be considered.
3. Too much information can be as bad as too little.
4. You can’t make just one decision.
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Control Systems
The Balancing Act
ControlControl AutonomyAutonomy
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Knowledge Management
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• Consider two different types of knowledge important to organizations.– Explicit Knowledge– Implicit Knowledge
Types of Knowledge
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• Explicit Knowledge– Knowledge that is formal and systematic.– Knowledge that can be formally taught to
someone.– Knowledge that can be communicated and
shared.– Examples?
Types of Knowledge
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• Tacit (implicit) Knowledge– Knowledge that is highly personal.– Knowledge that is acquired as a
function of experience and practice.– Knowledge that is hard to formalize.– Knowledge that is difficult to
communicate, because “We often know more than we can tell.”
– Examples?
Types of Knowledge
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Sharing Knowledge:The knowledge spiral
SOCIALIZATION
ARTICULATION
MetaphorAnalogyModel
INTERNALIZATION INSTRUCTION/COMBINATION/
INNOVATIONRedundancyExperienceQuestioning
FROM
Tacit
Explicit
TO ExplicitTacit
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Two Approaches to Knowledge Management
For Explicit KnowledgeProvide high-quality, reliable, and fast
information systems for access of codified, reusable knowledge
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Two Approaches to Knowledge Management
Mechanisms
Technology
KnowledgeManagement
Strategy
People-to-documentsDevelop an electronic document system that codifies, stores, disseminates, and allows reuse of knowledge.
Invest heavily in information technology, with a goal of connecting people with reusable codified knowledge.
Data warehousingKnowledge mappingElectronic librariesIntranets, networks
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For Tacit KnowledgeChannel individual expertise to provide creative advice
on strategic problems
Two Approaches to Knowledge Management
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Person-to-person
Develop networks for linking people so that tacit knowledge can be shared
Invest moderately in information technology, with a goal of facilitating conversations and the exchange of tacit knowledge
DialogueLearning histories and storytellingCommunities of practice
Mechanisms
Technology
KnowledgeManagement
Strategy
Two Approaches to Knowledge Management
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Communities of Practice
• Collections of individuals– Bound together by informal relationships– Sharing similar work roles– Sharing common work context– Not constrained by geographical, business unit,
or functional boundaries
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Communities of Practice
• “Practice” suggests how individuals actually do their jobs as opposed to their formal job descriptions from their firm.
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Collective Comparisons
As long as people need to
connect
Mutual needsFriends & business contacts
To collect & pass on
information
Informal network
Until project is completed
Milestones and project
goals
Assigned by senior manager
To complete a specific
task
Project team
Until the next reorganization
Job demands and common
goals
Those reporting to
manager
To deliver a product or
service
Formal work group
As long as there is interest
Passion, commitment, identification
Members select
themselves
To build & exchange knowledge
Community
of practice
How long does it last?
What holds it together?
Who belongs?
Purpose?
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• Why should we allow/encourage but not attempt to formally “manage” COPs?
1. They can help drive strategy.
2. They can start new lines of business.
3. They can solve problems quickly.
4. They are able to transfer best practices.
5. They develop professional skills.
6. They can help companies recruit and retain talent.
Communities of Practice
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Next Time
Organizational Size, Life Cycles, and Decline