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Attitude Measurement and Scaling
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Attitude
Attitude is defined as a predisposition to respond to
an idea or object. Attitudes are composed of beliefs
about the object of concern, such as its strength or
economy, emotional feelings about the object, such aslike dislike and a readiness of the individual to
respond behaviorally to the object.
An attitude is learned, stable predisposition to
respond to oneself, other persons objects or issues in
a consistently favorable or unfavorable way.
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Measurement
Measurement means assigning numbers or other
symbols to characteristics of objects according to
certain pre-specified rules.
One-to-one correspondence between the
numbers and the characteristics being measured.
The rules for assigning numbers should bestandardized and applied uniformly.
Rules must not change over objects or time.
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Scaling
Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which
measured objects are located.
Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100.
Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100,
with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely
Favorable. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a
continuum with respect to their attitude.
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Primary Scales of Measurement
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Nominal Scale
The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying
and classifying objects.
When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-
one correspondence between the numbers and the
objects. The numbers do not reflect the amount of the
characteristic possessed by the objects.
The only permissible operation on the numbers in a
nominal scale is counting.
Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are
based on frequency counts, are permissible, e.g.,
percentages, and mode.
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Ordinal Scale
A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned toobjects to indicate the relative extent to which theobjects possess some characteristic.
Can determine whether an object has more or less of acharacteristic than some other object, but not howmuch more or less.
In addition to the counting operation allowable for
nominal scale data, ordinal scales permit the use ofstatistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile,median.
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Interval Scale
Numerically equal distances on the scale representequal values in the characteristic being measured.
It permits comparison of the differences betweenobjects.
The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both thezero point and the units of measurement arearbitrary.
Statistical techniques that may be used include all of
those that can be applied to nominal and ordinaldata, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standarddeviation, and other statistics commonly used inmarketing research.
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Ratio Scale
Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal,
and interval scales.
It has an absolute zero point.
It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.
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A Comparison of Scaling
Techniques
Comparative scalesinvolve the direct comparison of
stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be
interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or
rank order properties.
In Noncomparative scales, each object is scaled
independently of the others in the stimulus set. Theresulting data are generally assumed to be interval or
ratio scaled.
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A Classification of Scaling Techniques
LikertSemantic
Differential Stapel
Scaling Techniques
Noncomparative
ScalesComparative
Scales
Paired
Comparison
Rank
Order
Constant
Sum
Continuous
Rating Scales
Itemized
Rating Scales
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Comparative Scaling Techniques
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Paired Comparison Scaling
A respondent is presented with two objects and
asked to select one according to some criterion.
The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
Paired comparison scaling is the most widely usedcomparative scaling technique.
With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are
required Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to
convert paired comparison data to a rank order.
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Rank Order Scaling
Respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them
according to some criterion.
It is possible that the respondent may dislike thebrand ranked 1 in an absolute sense.
Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in
ordinal data.
Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank
order scaling.
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Brand Rank Order
1. Dabur _________
2. Colgate _________
3. Meswak _________
4. Pepsodent _________
5. Close Up _________
Preference for Toothpaste Brands
Using Rank Order Scaling
Form
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Constant Sum Scaling
Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such
as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect
their importance.
If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assignsit zero points.
If an attribute is twice as important as some other
attribute, it receives twice as many points.
The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of
the scale.
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Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes
Using a Constant Sum Scale
Instructions
On the next slide, there are eight attributes of bathing
soaps. Please allocate 100 points among the attributes
so that your allocation reflects the relative importanceyou attach to each attribute.
The more points an attribute receives, the more
important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at allimportant, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice
as important as some other attribute, it should receive
twice as many points.
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FormAverage Responses of Three Segments
Attribute Segment I Segment II Segment III
1. Mildness
2. Lather3. Shrinkage
4. Price
5. Fragrance
6. Packaging7. Moisturizing
8. Cleaning PowerSum
8 2 4
2 4 173 9 7
53 17 9
9 0 19
7 5 9
5 3 20
13 60 15
100 100 100
Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes
Using a Constant Sum Scale
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Non- Comparative Scaling
Techniques
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Continuous Rating Scale
Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one
extreme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may varyconsiderably.
How would you rate Spencers as a department store?
Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Version 3Very bad Neither good Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
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Itemized Rating Scales
The respondents are provided with a scale that has anumber or brief description associated with each
category.
The categories are ordered in terms of scale position,
and the respondents are required to select the
specified category that best describes the object
being rated.
The commonly used itemized rating scales are the
Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.
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Likert Scale
The Likert scalerequires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or
disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly
disagree agree nor agree
disagree
1. Spencers sells high quality merchandise. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Spencers has poor in-store service. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I like to shop at Spencers. 1 2 3 4 5
The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total(summated) score can be calculated.
When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements bythe respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.
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Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differentialis a seven-point rating scale with end points associated
with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
SPENCERS IS:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned
The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of thescale and sometimes at the right.
This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very
positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides withoutreading the labels.
Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to+3 or a 1 to 7 scale.
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Stapel Scale
The Stapel scaleis a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5
to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.
SPENCERS
+5 +5
+4 +4+3 +3
+2 +2
+1 +1
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
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Scale BasicCharacteristics
Examples Advantages Disadvantages
ContinuousRating
Scale
Place a mark on acontinuous line
Reaction toTVcommercials
Easy to construct Scoring can becumbersomeunlesscomputerized
Itemized Rating
Scales
Likert Scale Degrees ofagreement on a 1(strongly disagree)to 5 (strongly agree)scale
Measurementof attitudes
Easy to construct,administer, andunderstand
Moretime - consuming
Semantic
Differential
Seven - point scalewith bipolar labels
Brand,product, andcompany
images
Versatile Controversy asto whether thedata are interval
Stapel
Scale
Unipolar ten - pointscale, - 5 to +5,without a neutralpoint (zero)
Measurementof attitudesand images
Easy to construct,administer overtelephone
Confusing anddifficult to apply
Basic Noncomparative Scales
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Differential Scales (Thurstone type Scales):
This scale is developed by using consensus
approach. It is a seven-point rating scale with end
points associated with bipolar labels.
It has been widely used in comparing brand,
product and company images, developing
advertising and promotion strategies and in newproduct development studies.
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Procedure for Thurstone Scale
1) The researcher gathers a large number of
statements, twenty or more that express the
viewpoint.
2) These statements are then submitted to a panel
of judges, each of whom arranges them in 11
groups ranging from one extreme to another.
Generally in the first pile most unfavorable issue
is placed.
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Observation Method
It is one of the methods for data collection. Itcan be used to get both past and current
information. In marketing research we can
check the display positions of various productsin stores, to find out how frequently the
product is out of stock etc.
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Advantages of Observation Method
It enables to record the behaviour as it occurs.
It can be used regardless of respondents
willingness to report or not.
It can be used for those who are unable to
respond like infants, animals etc.
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Methods of observation
Structured - Unstructured observation
Structured Observation is used when the researchproblem has been formulated precisely and theobservers have been told specifically what is to beobserved. Unstructured observation implies thatobservers are free to observe whatever they thinkis relevant and important.
Disguised- Undisguised observation In Disguised observation, the subjects do not know
that they are being observed. In Undisguisedobservation subject know about the observation.
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Direct- Indirect Observation
In direct observation, the event or the behavior ofa person is observed as it occurs. In Indirectobservation some record of past behavior isobserved, even rather the behavior itself, itseffects are observed.
Human- Mechanical Observation
In human observation trained observers are
required to observe and faithfully record theirobservations. In Mechanical observationmechanical devices such as eye camera andaudiometers are used.
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Observation under natural setting- laboratory
setting
Observations in field studies are in their natural
settings and are therefore in realistic conditions
Whereas in laboratory settings, enables the
observer to control variables which influence thebehavior of people.
Participant and Non-Participant Observation
P j ti T h i
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Projective Techniques
An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that
encourages respondents to project their underlyingmotivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding theissues of concern.
In projective techniques, respondents are asked to
interpret the behavior of others.
In interpreting the behavior of others, respondentsindirectly project their own motivations, beliefs,attitudes, or feelings into the situation.
Psychological technique to get answers without asking adirect question
Participants project their unconscious beliefs into otherpeople or objects
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Important Projective Techniques
Word association tests Sentence completion tests
Story completion tests
Verbal projection tests
Play techniques
Pictorial Techniques:Thematic Apperception test (T.A.T)
Rosenzweig test
Rorschach test
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Word Association Test
In word association, respondents are presented with a list ofwords, one at a time and asked to respond to each with the firstword that comes to mind. The words of interest, called testwords, are interspersed throughout the list which also containssome neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study.Responses are analyzed by calculating:
(1) the frequency with which any word is given as a response;
(2) the amount of time that elapses before a response is given;
and
(3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all to atest word within a reasonable period of time.
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Sentence Completion TestIn Sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they areasked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.
A person who shops at Spencers is ______________________
Big Bazaar is most liked by _________________________
When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________
A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, inwhich the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with thestimulus phrase.
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Story Completion Test
In story completion, respondents are given
part of a story enough to direct attention to
a particular topic but not to hint at the ending.
They are required to give the conclusion intheir own words.
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Verbal projection tests
Respondent is asked to comment on or to
explain what other people do.
Example: Why do people drink?
C i T h i
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Construction TechniquesWith a picture response (Thematic Appreciation Test)
(T.A.T)the respondents are asked to describe a series of pictures
of ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent'sinterpretation of the pictures gives indications of that
individual's personality.
In cartoon tests (Rosenzweig Test), cartoon charactersare shown in a specific situation related to the problem.
The respondents are asked to indicate what one cartooncharacter might say in response to the comments ofanother character. Cartoon tests are simpler toadminister and analyze than picture response
techniques.
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Expressive Techniques
In expressive techniques, respondents are presentedwith a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate thefeelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role orassume the behavior of someone else.
Third-person technique The respondent is presented
with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent isasked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third personrather than directly expressing personal beliefs andattitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor,
colleague, or a
typicalperson.
Ad t f P j ti
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Advantages of Projective
Techniques They may elicit responses that subjects would be
unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purposeof the study.
Helpful when the issues to be addressed arepersonal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms.
Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, andattitudes are operating at a subconscious level.
i d f j i
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Disadvantages of Projective
Techniques
Suffer from many of the disadvantages of
unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater
extent.
Require highly trained interviewers. Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the
responses.
There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
They tend to be expensive.
May require respondents to engage in unusual
behavior.