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Remember: sociology is a science
We use the scientific method
What does that include?
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Durkheim’s “The Rules of Sociological
Method” established a set of parameters
for research on society
› 1. It must have a specific object of study.
In other words: it’s intentional, not accidental
› 2. It must use a scientific method, avoiding
subjectivism and prejudice.In other words: it’s data-driven, not intuitive
• Avoid biases and fallacies
• Ensure that our findings are valid, believable
• Demonstrate that we’ve used appropriate data, thatit’s been collected and analyzed appropriately, andthat our interpretations make sense
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Data
• Qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
Analysis
• Statistical or content-oriented; alwaysabout search for patterns
Interpretation
• What have we learned about how lifechances vary for different groups indifferent circumstances?
T H E O R Y
•What patterns exist in the ways that peopleact and think?
•How common are these patterns?
•How do these patterns [STRUCTURES] affectthe life chances of different groups?
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1. Be describable
2. Be organized
3. Be documented
4. Be purposeful
5. Be understandable
6. Be focused on society
7. Be connected to theory (for sociology)
8. Be ethical
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Question
Methods
Levels ofAnalysis
Data
AnalysisApproach
Interpretationof Findings
THEORY
• What pattern do we observe in ways that peopleact and think?
• How common is this pattern?
• How does a specific SOCIAL or CULTURALSTRUCTURES affect the life chances of differentgroups?
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Question
Methods
Levels ofAnalysis
Data
AnalysisApproach
Interpretationof Findings
THEORY
Quantitative
Methods
Ideal for dynamics we want tocount or enumerate
Broad but specific understanding
Lots of cases, few variables
Emphasizes causality
Qualitative
Methods
Ideal for dynamics we want todescribe
Deep understanding
Small # of cases, many variables
Emphasizes changes, processes,meaning-making
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Ethnography;Interviews;Part. Obsv.;
CBPR
Surveys;Experiments
Historical-Comp;
DiscourseAnalysis
Secondarydata analysis
(census,World ValuesSurvey, etc)
I m
p e r s o n a l / I n t e r p e r s o n a l
Qualitative / Quantitative
What’s a question or research topic that
would be well-served by developing aquantitative approach? Why?
What’s a question or research topic that
would be well-served by developing aqualitative approach? Why?
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It’s been suggested that it’s harder to
remain neutral when using qualitative
methods (relative to using quantitativemethods).
› Why would this be the case?
› Do you agree or disagree?
THEORY
HYPOTHESIS
DATA
FINDINGS
Top-down, theory
driven
Starts from
hypothesis about the
relationship between
variables
Data collected and
analyzed to test
whether the
hypothesis is true
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Starts from a
collection of data
points or facts
Explanation for the
relationship between
them is built
Data and findings
suggest theoretical
claims
DATA
EXPLANATION
THEORETICALCONNECTION
FINDINGS
What would adeductiveapproach be toinquiring into theexperience ofpeople with
biracialbackgrounds whoare detained bythe police?
What would aninductiveapproach be toinquiring into theexperience ofpeople with
biracialbackgrounds whoare detained bythe police?
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Question
Methods
Levels ofAnalysis
Data
AnalysisApproach
Interpretationof Findings
THEORY
MACRO
meso
micro
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MACRO: broad
social dynamics like
class, gender, race,
democracy
Meso: often
institutions, like
schools, churches, or
neighborhoods
Micro: individual,inter-personal
MACRO
meso
micro
Imagine you areconsidering a researchproject on high schoolgraduation rates in SanDiego County.
Identify two or threesocial or culturalstructures that could beincluded at each level
of analysis.
They can beindependent ordependent variables.
MACRO
meso
micro
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Question
Methods
Levels ofAnalysis
Data
AnalysisApproach
Interpretationof Findings
THEORY
Universe
Popu-lation
Sample
• The entire set of individualsin the broadest categoryyou’re working with
Universe
• Everyone who fits all of thecriteria
Population
• The individuals who areactually included in thestudy
Sample
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DEPENDENT
independent
independent
independent
What relationship do youpredict between your
independent & dependentvariables?
Check the causal directionof your hypotheses!
What is the magnitude ofthe relationship, what
interactions might there be
between IV’s, are theyfrom appropriate levels of
analysis, etc…
Question
Methods
Levels ofAnalysis
Data
AnalysisApproach
Interpretationof Findings
THEORY
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Quantitative(statistical)
•DescriptiveStatistics
•InferentialStatistics
Qualitative(coding text)
•Descriptive
•Explanatory
•Interpretive
What do we now know about theoryand/or the life chances of particulargroups that we didn’t know before?
› What’s new?
› What’s important?
Where should this research be repeatedand why?
What are its limitations?
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• Origin stories of broad socialphenomena; Verstehn, Historical-Comparative, Ideal types
Weber,Simmel
• start talking to people beingstudied/described
ChicagoSchool
• start living with people beingstudied/described, originally highlyinterpretive
Ethno-graphy
• incorporate study of material objects,inner lives; “look but don’t touch;”concepts from Freud, psychology
FrankfurtSchool
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• Increased emphasis on reflexivity
• Increased interest in interactions, intersectionality
• Increased acceptance of grounded theory,inductive models of research
• Decreased acceptance of interpretive approaches – who are we to say what the “truth” is?
The field’s move towards reflexivity, and
honoring subjectivity of experiencesaligns with an ever increasing desire to
be minimally intrusive.
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Paradigm-changing studies
› Tuskegee syphilis study (1930’s – 1970’s)
› Nuremberg war crime trials (1940’s)
› Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments atYale (ca. 1960), Philip Zimbardo and the StanfordPrison Experiments (ca. 1970)
Incorporation of human rights, humansubjects protections into research protocols
National Commission for the Protectionof Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioral Research
Belmont Report (1979)
Respect forPersons
Bene-ficence
Justice
HEW report
on TuskegeeSyphilis Study
(1973)
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To protect research subjects
To maintain honesty andopenness
To achieve valid results
To encourage appropriateapplication
•Avoid harming research participants
•Obtain informed consent
•Avoid deception in research (except in
limited circumstances)
•Maintain privacy and confidentiality
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Obligations vis a visscientific community:
Keep peers inthe loop
about studies
Be willing todisclose
details about
methods
Publishfindings
Research is justified
Appropriate methods used
Findings reported appropriately
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What use are the findingsgoing to be put to?
Internal Review Boards (IRB)
IRB approval process
Signed consent vs. verbal consent
Professional organizations’ protections
Opportunities to file complaints
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S o c i a l S c i e n c e
R
e s e a r c h
Descriptiveapproaches
Data, findingsare neutralabout any
change/recommendations
AcademicPublications
Prescriptiveapproaches
Data, findingsare in theservice ofchange
Social JusticePub. PolicyEvaluation
Weber
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There’s no such thing as a truly unbiased
study
› Activity: take the Implicit Bias Test at
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/takeates
t.html
Our goal is to manage, mitigate, orminimize our biases.
• Inclusion of inconvenient facts
• Openness to findings we don’t like or don’t expect
Pursuit of falsifiability
• Reflexivity
• Documentation of methods and processes
• Appropriate data collection techniques
Transparency
• Remain open minded
• Question everything
• Beware of paralysis
Enlightened Skepticism