Study Unit
Standard Operating andMaintenance ProceduresReviewed By
William Scannella
All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or servicemarks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should notbe regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
About the Reviewer
William Scannella has more than 25 years of experience in the PC
and information technology industry. He has worked as a help-desk
analyst, desktop support technician, software tester, and systems
analyst. Mr. Scanella has developed print and online documentation
and training for in-house developed and off-the-shelf systems. He
has a master’s degree in technical writing from Miami University
of Ohio.
Copyright © 2011 by Penn Foster, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright maybe reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any informationstorage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copy-right owner.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton,Pennsylvania 18515.
Printed in the United States of America
iii
Pr
ev
ie
wP
re
vi
ew
Whether you’re a single user who
takes care of just your own comput-
er or a PC support technician who’s
responsible for many computers used
in a business, it’s important for you
to be able to maintain these devices
to provide efficient and error-free
operation.
In this study unit, you’ll learn about two types of maintenance
procedures associated with computer systems and peripherals.
Operating maintenance procedures help you keep a computer
running at peak efficiency, while hardware maintenance
procedures refer to the proper handling, cleaning, and phys-
ical upkeep of the PC and its attached devices.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to • Describe the organization of files, directories, and subdirectories
in a well-designed file structure
• List the types of files and directories commonly associatedwith each major operating system
• Explain how to locate and delete unneeded files from eachtype of operating system
• Describe disk fragmentation and discuss the process fordefragmenting the hard disk
• Describe the types of backups and how backups areaccomplished on each operating system
• List the guidelines and concerns involved with the installationof new application software
• Describe the purpose of virtual memory, how virtual memory is used, and how it’s controlled in the various operating systems
• Explain the benefits and procedures for installing operatingsystem updates and patches
v
FILE SYSTEM MAINTENANCE 1
Finding and Deleting Files 5Maintaining Removable Media 8Practical Exercise 1 11
DISK MAINTENANCE 13
Maintaining System Disks 13Making Backups 20Hard-Drive Care 23CD and DVD Drive Care 23Practical Exercise 2 25
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE 27
Optimizing Software Installation 27Tuning the Stand-Alone and Network Operating
Systems 28Testing Network Connectivity 31Maintaining System Control 32Testing Software and Components 33Troubleshooting Logs 34Maintaining System Documentation 34Practical Exercise 3 36
ANSWERS 39
Co
nt
en
ts
Co
nt
en
ts
1
FILE SYSTEM MAINTENANCELet’s begin by examining the two key elements of a well-
designed file structure, which are good organization and
minimal size. As a PC repair technician, you’ll need to know
how to properly maintain a file system to achieve both ele-
ments. You’ll begin by learning how a file system should be
structured and the advantages gained from this structure.
Next, you’ll see how to identify unnecessary files that are
routinely created from Internet browsers and other programs
running on the PC and how to delete them. These files are
often temporary files that can take up a large amount of
disk space.
Here are some of the basics of a good file structure:
• Limit the root directory to a manageable number of
directories.
• Keep operating-system files out of the root directory and
in default directories suggested by the software supplier.
• Separate different versions of software into different
directories.
• Separate data files into different directories according to
their function.
• Assign different home directories for each user in an
organization.
• Group files with the same security needs together in the
same directory.
Standard Operating and MaintenanceProcedures
It’s easy to let the number of directories contained in the root
directory get out of hand. Software applications sometimes
install software in the root directory by default. Over time,
this can cause confusion. Therefore, it’s better for you to
create directories, within the root directory, specifically for
these files.
Different operating systems use different file structures and
types of files. Figure 1 shows an example of the file structure
for the Windows operating system.
Figure 2 shows the typical file structure for a UNIX operating
system.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures2
Main Volume
Applications AccountingMathCAD
AutoCAD
CorelQuattroWordperfect
PresentationCentral
Program Files Net MeetingWeb PublishWindows Messaging
Microsoft OfficeCommon Files
Windows
Utilities
FIGURE 1—Windows File Structure
BIN LIB USR VAR TMP DEV
Root
MNT ETC SBIN HOME PROC
FIGURE 2—UNIX File Structure
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 3
The explanation for the directories in Figure 2 is as follows:
• bin—For user programs and utilities (binary files)
• lib—For libraries
• usr—For user files and programs
• var—For files in which the content often varies or for
temporary files
• tmp—For temporary files
• dev—For devices
• mnt—For floppy drives and removable media
• etc—For system and configuration files
• sbin—For user programs and utilities (system binary
files)
• home—For user’s home directories
• proc—For system resource tracking
Mac OS X systems use the following folders:
• Applications—For software applications
• Documents—For storing documents
• System—For system files
• Users—For user accounts
• Library—For library files
Normally, operating-system default directories are located
in the root directory. Subdirectories are then created under
each default directory as required. Table 1 shows the location
of default directories for different operating systems.
Leaving the operating system files in the default directories
is a good idea because it’s easier for support personnel to
find the files when they’re troubleshooting a system, because
many software applications expect them to be in a specific
location, and because the program works better when the
files are located where the software expects them.
Most Windows operating systems use a registry to keep track
of installed software. The registry contains configuration infor-
mation and the individual components of the application. This
makes it easier to uninstall or upgrade the software. Table 2 lists
examples of Windows-based software components.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures4
1elbaT
SEIROTCERIDTLUAFEDMETSYS-GNITAREPO
metsySgnitarepO tooRehtmorfseirotceriDroyrotceriDmetsyS
SOcaM redloFmetsyS
eraWteN metsyS
XINU nibsdna,cte,nib
x3swodniW swodniW
b59/59swodniW swodniW
ES89/89swodniW swodniW
eMswodniW swodniW
TNswodniW tnniW
dnarevreS0002swodniWlanoisseforP
tnniW
dnaemoHPXswodniWlanoisseforP
swodniW
atsiVswodniW swodniW
7swodniW swodniW
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 5
Finding and Deleting FilesFiles that are unnecessary or unneeded should be deleted
from the computer. These files can accumulate and take up a
large amount of space on your hard drive. These files can be
the temporary files that are created when you install new soft-
ware or the temporary files that are created by applications as
backups. These files aren’t always deleted after installation
is complete or when an application is closed improperly.
XP, Vista, and Windows 7
The Disk Cleanup Utility is accessed in XP, Vista, and
Windows 7 by this series of steps:
1. Click on Start. (In Vista and Windows 7, the Start menu
is now a globe icon in the lower-right portion of the
screen.)
2. Click on All Programs.
3. Click on Accessories.
2elbaT
STNENOPMOCERAWTFOSNOITACILPPADESAB-SWODNIW
epyTeliF noisnetxEeliF epyTeliF noisnetxEeliF
noitacilppA exe. noitazilaitinI ini.
lortnoCXevitcA xco. noitallatsnI fni.
pukcaB kab. noitacilppASOD-SM moc.
egamIpamtiB pmb. elosnoCnommoCtfosorciMtnemucoD
scm.
noisnetxElenaPlortnoC lpc. lortnoCnommoCELO xco.
noitarugifnoC gfc. noitamrofnIputeSdelipmocerP fnp.
ataD tad. revaSneercS rcs.
revirDeciveD vrd. txeT txt.
yrarbiLkniLcimanyD lld. tnoFepyTeurT ftt.
pleH plh. revirDeciveDlautriV dxv.
txetnoCpleH tnc. noitacilppAcisaBlausiV xbv.
4. Click on System Tools.
5. Click on Disk Cleanup (Figure 3).
6. When you’ve made your selections, click the OK button
to proceed. The selected files will be removed from the
hard drive.
UNIX
Using the ls command and one or more options allows you to
view selected files. Options you can use include
• -a—Lists all files
• -C—Formats the listing in columns for easy reading
• -d—Lists directories
• -f—Displays files in an unsorted list
• -F—Identifies the directory contents on the basis of
directory, executable files, and symbolic links
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures6
FIGURE 3—The DiskCleanup Utility in Vista andWindows 7 shows you (1)the maximum amount ofspace to be reclaimed, (2) a list of data categories withfiles that can be deleted[with the amount of filespace taken up by each cat-egory on the right], (3) thetotal amount of file space to be gained from the datafiles selected, (4) an optionfor cleaning system filesonly, and (5) an option forviewing the files selected in (2).
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 7
• -i—Displays the inode number for each file
• -l—Presents a detailed information listing including
permissions and file size
• -n—Displays UIDs and GIDs of those who have access to
files
• -r—Sorts files in reverse alphabetical order
• -s—Displays the size of files (in kilobytes)
• -t—Displays files on the basis of the date they were last
modified
• -u—Displays files on the basis of the time they were last
modified
Files are deleted in UNIX by using the remove (rm) command.
Files can be found by using the Find command. Options used
with the Find command include
• -atime—For the last accessed time
• -ctime—For the last changed time
• -mtime—For the last modified time
• -name—For the filename
• -print—To print the results of the find
• -size—For the size
• -user—To delete files by ownership
Macintosh OS X
As with any operating system, Macintosh users should delete
unwanted files from the hard drive to assure that it doesn’t
run out of storage space. The current amount of free space is
shown at the bottom of every folder window. You can also see
a complete profile by selecting the hard drive icon and choos-
ing “Get info from the File menu.” The resulting panel shows
several data points, including capacity, usage, and available
space (Figure 4).
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures8
To clean up files on a Mac, simply select the desired
file icons with your mouse and drag them to the
Trash folder. You can also delete by highlighting a
file and pressing the Command and Delete keys
simultaneously. To empty the Trash, click on the
Finder menu and select Empty Trash . . . or
Secure Empty Trash. This last option performs
several erasures of the files to remove all traces.
Maintaining Removable MediaAs time passes, every computer user acquires a col-
lection of CDs, DVDs, and other removable storage
media. This collection can include data files such as
text or spreadsheet information, working backups
and archive files, as well as the original disks con-
taining software. These items should be organized
and maintained using some of the same principles
that we’ve discussed for hard drives. Now let’s look
at organizing and safeguarding your removable media.
Tips for Organizing Your Removable Media
In the same manner that you learned to organize
and create a logical hard-drive directory structure,
you should do the same with your removable media.
Good organization is especially important for remov-
able media because, in most cases, it may be a long
time before it’s needed. As time passes, the chances
that you’ll remember where you stored a particular
file will be somewhere from slim to none.
The first step in organizing your library of removable media
is to make a master list. The master list should itemize each
CD, describe its content, and tell where it’s located. The eas-
iest way to create a list is on your computer. This also makes
it easier for you to update the list and print a copy for use
later on.
FiGURE 4—Macintosh OS X Hard DriveInfo Panel
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 9
Another step you may want to consider is to arrange your
media by type and category when you store them. This might
be especially useful if you’re responsible for maintaining a
large volume of removable media in a business environment.
In this instance you might store backup files in one section,
utilities in another, application software in a third, and so on.
Although this involves more effort than putting disks into a
box, it’ll pay off by saving you and your clients a great deal of
time when looking for a specific CD.
If you’re storing information on disks or other removable
media, follow these steps to ensure good organization:
1. Store one type of information only or related information
on a CD.
2. Organize the information on each disk in a logical man-
ner using directories and subdirectories as applicable.
3. Label each disk clearly to include a brief description of
its content and the date it was created or last updated.
4. Print the content of each disk to show the files it
contains and store that printout with the disk.
Safeguarding Your Removable Media
While we’re on the subject of maintaining your data and
application software on removable media, we should also
discuss protecting removable media from physical damage.
Whereas your hard drive is somewhat protected by being
located inside the computer chassis, removable media is at
your mercy for proper handling and storage. By following a
few simple do’s and don’ts, you can be confident that your
stored data will be accessible when you need it.
The first rule to protecting your removable storage media
is to prevent it from being exposed to strong, direct sunlight.
Also avoid placing media near other sources of heat such as
on top of the monitor or near heaters. Remember to keep
disks away from magnets or sources of magnetic energy.
One easy and cost-effective way to protect removable media
from damage is to store the media in its original packaging. If
you’re responsible for storing large amounts of data such as
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures
backups, you may want to consider any of a number of com-
mercially available storage systems, including lockable office
file drawers or cabinets. For storage of disks or other media
that you need to access frequently, you may want to obtain
a simple storage box and locate it conveniently near your
computer.
CDs and DVDs
Although the CD is much more reliable and durable than the
standard floppy disk, proper care must be taken in handling
and storage. Dirt, dust, and scratches on the disk surface
can cause the CD to become unreadable.
Dirt or dust on the surface of the CD is the most common
cause of failure. You can clean a dirty CD using a clean, dry,
lint-free cloth. Using a straight motion, wipe the disk surface
from the center outward (Figure 5). Complete this motion all
around the surface of the disk.
Scratches on the surface of a CD can often be removed by buff-
ing or polishing. For deep scratches, use a commercial plastic
cleaner such as one designed for cleaning plastic lenses. Lighter
scratches can be removed using a plastic polish, which has a
milder abrasive. However, if the CD works with the scratch, it
may be best just to ignore it rather than take any chance of
causing a problem. If you do attempt to remove a scratch, be
sure to wipe in a straight motion as previously described to
remove dirt and dust.
10
Wrong Right
FIGURE 5—Always clean a CD using a straightmotion (from the centeroutward) to ensure thattracks don’t trap any foreign matter.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 11
Practical Exercise 1AUse the Disk Cleanup tool in XP, Vista, or Windows 7 to
delete temporary Internet files and temporary files created
by applications.
1. Close all active windows and programs.
2. Click Start (globe icon) and select in this order: All
Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk Cleanup.
3. Confirm that you’re clicked on the correct drive (listed
at the top of Disk Cleanup panel).
4. In the scrolling window under “Files to delete,” click on
Temporary Internet Files and Temporary Files.
5. Click the OK button.
6. Answer the question “Are you sure you want to perma-
nently delete these files?” by clicking on Delete Files.
Practical Exercise 1BFind and delete your temporary files in XP, Vista, or
Windows 7, then empty the Recycle Bin.
1. Close all active windows and programs.
2. Click Start (globe icon) and type *.tmp in the “Search
Programs and Files” field. The resulting list will be dis-
played in the panel above the Search field.
3. Click the file category title to display the individual files.
4. Highlight individual files or type Ctrl + A to select all of
the files.
5. Press the Delete key to move all selected files to the
Recycle Bin.
6. Locate the Recycle Bin on the desktop. Click to highlight
and then right-click.
7. Choose Empty Recycle Bin.
8. A box will appear with the question, “Are you sure you
want to permanently delete these items?” Click Yes.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures12
Self-Check 1
At the end of each section of Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures, you’ll be askedto pause and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-Check”exercise. Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far. Pleasecomplete Self-Check 1 now.
1. What utility can be used in XP, Vista, or Windows 7 to find and delete temporary files createdby programs?
__________________________________________________________________________
2. The file extension .pnf is used for which file type?
a. Configuration c. OLE Common Controlb. Microsoft Common Console Document d. Precompiled Setup Information
3. True or False? In most directory structures, the directory that contains the operating systemis hidden in a remote subdirectory for security.
4. You use the Internet frequently. What simple step should you perform on a regular basis tomaintain your computer?
a. Configure your Internet browser to automatically delete all cookies.b. Reset the protocol binding order in the Internet browser to give IPX/IPX communications
priority, because accessing multiple sites can change the binding order.c. Check to make sure that your Internet browser speed is always maintained between 128
Kbps and 20 Mbps.d. Use your Internet browser to delete temporary files.
5. In the UNIX operating system, the _______ directory is used for system and configurationfiles.
Check your answers with those on page 39.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 13
DISK MAINTENANCENow that we’ve looked at the fundamentals associated with
file system management, we’ll explain the procedures you
need to perform to keep a hard drive operating at peak
efficiency.
Maintaining System DisksThere are several other disk maintenance techniques that are
used to maintain a file structure and enhance disk perform-
ance. They include the following:
• Defragmenting disks
• Moving files to spread the load between multiple disks
• Using disk utilities to repair damaged files
• Using RAID techniques to extend the life of disks and
provide disk backup
Defragmenting Disks
When a computer is new, files are written on the hard drive
in contiguous order; that is, they’re placed next to each other
on the disk, with little wasted space between them (Figure 6).
Unused disk spaceFiles arranged contiguously
Hard Disk
FIGURE 6—The files represented here are written contiguously tothe disk (shadowed areasrepresents stored data,white space indicatesempty space).
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures14
As a computer is used, files are created and deleted, causing
empty spaces to appear between the files (Figure 7). The empty
spaces cause the disk to become fragmented.
There are two problems that can arise from a fragmented
hard drive. They are:
1. An increase in time needed to find and access files on
the hard drive
2. A greater possibility of a disk failure
Defragmenting a hard disk will reorganize the files and data
on the disk and eliminate the wasted empty spaces between
individual files. There are two ways to defragment a hard drive.
The first involves making a backup of the drive’s contents and
then performing a full restore. The second way, which is easier
than doing a backup and full restore, is to use disk defragment-
ing utility software. Most operating systems come with a utility
that will defragment the hard drive. Hard drives in servers have
greater data fragmentation than that of an individual worksta-
tion, and because of this should have regularly scheduled
defragmentation routines run.
Unused spaceNew file orredistributed data
Hard disk
FIGURE 7—A FragmentedDisk
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 15
You may encounter trouble defragmenting (commonly called
defragging) if other programs are open during the process.
If you still have trouble completing a defrag after exiting all
other programs, try running your computer in Safe mode.
This is a mode specifically provided by Windows for trou-
bleshooting purposes. In Safe mode, no other programs are
running in the background but the OS and drivers. Thus,
there isn’t anything to interfere with cleanup procedures.
Putting your computer in Safe mode is relatively simple. Reboot,
and be ready to press the F8 key before the screen appears
that prompts you for your password. (If you’re not sure exactly
when to press F8, tapping the key continuously as the PC
boots should do the trick.) This will take you to the Startup
menu. On the Startup menu screen, use the arrow key to
select Safe mode. Once you’re in Safe mode, you’ll see the
system designating this in each corner of the screen. Defragging
while the PC is in Safe mode shouldn’t present any problems.
When your disk has been defragmented, reboot to bring the
system back to “Normal” mode.
You can access the Disk Defragmenter in the Windows
operating system (Figure 8). Click on Start, then select All
Programs, Accessories, System Tools, and then the Disk
Defragmenter. Next, select the drive you want to defragment
and click OK or Defragment Disk.
In Vista and Windows 7, the defragmenter utility is extensively
automated and designed to run in the background without the
full graphical interface found in XP and previous versions of
Windows.
Some versions of UNIX come with a defragmenting tool. But the
effectiveness of these tools is limited since they don’t rearrange
files. Third-party software is available with full defragmenting
utilities for UNIX.
The Mac OS is designed to limit fragmentation and has no
defragmenting utility included. Even so, third-party software
is available with full defragmenting utilities for the Mac OS.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures16
Relocating Files to Distribute the Load
Files can be distributed across several hard drives to extend
the life of individual drives. This would be especially true for
computers that have multiple users and high disk activity,
such as servers. System activity can be monitored in XP,
Vista, and Windows 7 by using the Computer Management
tool (Figure 9). Right-click My Computer or Computer,
then click Manage and Shared Folders under System Tools
to access the utility.
FIGURE 8—Disk Defragmenter
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 17
Using Disk Utilities to Repair Damaged Files
Some operating systems have utilities that allow you to
repair damaged files. Some examples of these tools are
• Disk Utility in Mac OS X
• chkdsk and p_chkdsk in UNIX
• chkdsk in XP, Vista, and Windows 7
The Mac OS X Disk Utility allows users to verify and repair
a disk or volume, repair and verify disk permission, and
restore from a disk image. It’s found in the Utilities folder
in the Applications directory.
The chkdsk utility in UNIX checks files for errors. If it finds any,
it gives you the option to fix it or ignore it. The p_chkdsk utility
in some UNIX versions will check two or more file systems
simultaneously instead of one at a time as chkdsk does.
FIGURE 9—Computer Management Tool
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures18
The chkdsk utility runs from within a Command prompt win-
dow in XP, Vista, and Windows 7. You’ll need to access the
prompt window as an administrator (Figure 10).
Chkdsk can find and attempt to repair
• Damage to the root directory or to another directory
• Problems with the directory structure that can cause
chkdsk to be unable to process the full tree
• Indexes
• Security descriptors
• Unallocated disk space
• Files that share the same allocation units
• A file pointer to an allocation unit that doesn’t exist
• Files assigned more allocation units than they require
• Directories without entries
• Damaged directories that can’t be repaired
FIGURE 10—Outputfrom Running Chkdsk
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 19
• A full root directory
• Unreadable disk sectors
• Damaged subdirectory entries
• File Allocation Table entry problems, or a damaged File
Allocation Table
• Allocation units that contain partial information, but
have no links to files
• Bad file attributes
Using RAID Techniques
Using a redundant array of inexpensive drives (RAID) is a
technique used by server operating systems for increasing
reliability, storage capacity, and speed. RAID can also be
used to extend the life of hard drives by a process called disk
striping. The load is spread evenly across a set of drives, which
means that each individual drive will experience the same
amount of use, rather than having one drive doing the major-
ity of the work. Table 3 shows the six basic levels of RAID.
There are two ways to employ RAID: hardware RAID and soft-
ware RAID. Hardware RAID is controlled by its own adapter
that has a chip with RAID software. Software RAID is controlled
by the server operating system and is slower than hardware
RAID.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures20
Making BackupsIt’s important to make backups of the files on your hard drive
on a regular basis. Hard drives can fail, files and data can be
lost or corrupted, and database files can lose synchronization.
It’s a good plan to have a strong backup strategy in place.
Automatic backup software is included with most operating
systems. The different types of backups available are listed
in Table 4.
3elbaT
SNOITPIRCSEDDNASLEVELDIAR
leveLDIAR noitpircseD
0 .sksideromroowtfoesuehtseriuqerdnaylnognipirtsksidsedivorplevelDIARsihT
1 ;revosekatenorehtoeht,sliafenofitahtosrehtonaenofosegamirorrimeratahtsksidowtsesU.sksidfoefilehtdnetxeotgnipirtsksidesut'nseodti,revewoh
2 .sliafenoesacniatadrevocerplehotnoitamrofniniatnocsksidlladnagnipirtsksidsedivorP
3 .ylnoksidenonosinoitamrofniyrevocerrorretub,2leveLDIARsaserutaefemasehT
4 s'tahtnoitamrofninoitacifirevmuskcehcsedulcnidna2leveLDIARnisagnipirtsksidsedivorP.yarraehtniksidenonoderots
5 sksidllanoderotssinoitamrofninoitacifirevmuskcehctahttpecxe,4leveLDIARsaemasehTgnittuhstuohtiwtidliuberdnaevirddeliafaecalperotytilibaehtsedulcni5leveLdna,yarraehtni
.revresroyarraevirdehtnwod
4elbaT
SEPYTPUKCAB
epyT noitpircseD
egamIyraniB gnihtyrevesedulcnitidna,mrofrepotelpmistignikam,tamrofyranibnitnetnocksidehtpuskcaBtsumerotserrofevirdksidtegratehT.seirotceridroseliflaudividnierotsert'nactub,ksidehtno
.lanigiroehtnahtregralrosaezisemasehteb
eliF-yb-eliFlluF otelbissoptignikam,seirotceriddnaseliflaudividnisapudekcaberastnetnocksidehtfollA.yrotceridroelifelgnisaerotser
laitnereffiD otsdeenelifehttahtsetacidnitahtetubirttaelifa(,etubirttaevihcranaevahtahtselifllapuskcaB.etubirttaehtevomert'nseodtub,)pudekcabeb
latnemercnI .pukcabehtretfaetubirttaehtsevomerneht,etubirttaevihcranaevahtahtselifllapuskcaB
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 21
Backups with XP, Vista, and Windows 7
These three versions of Windows have slightly different
approaches to the backup process. Yet all share the same
goal: keeping your data safe from user error, hardware fail-
ure, and other problems. Each version also allows you to
perform both full and partial backups as well as restore
backed-up information.
XP. Windows XP uses a Wizard-based approach to leading
users through the backup process.
1. Click Start and move the cursor over All Programs.
2. Go to Accessories > System Tools and then click
Backup on the All Programs menu.
3. Click the Advanced Mode link on the first screen of the
Backup and Restore Wizard.
4. In the Backup Utility dialog box, click the Automated
System Recovery Wizard button. The Wizard will lead
you through the process of creating a backup file
(backup.bkf).
Vista. Windows Vista introduced the Backup and Restore
Center, which allows you to manage all backup and restore
features in one place. Depending on your version of Windows
Vista, there are two approaches you can take to backing up
files: (1) automatic backup, which backs up only your files and
data, or (2) complete PC backup, which backs up everything on
your PC, including the operating system and applications.
Windows 7. Windows 7 expands on the Backup and Restore
Center approach by offering more control over the content of
the backup. This utility is reached through the Control Panel
(Figure 11).
1. Click the Start globe, select Control Panel, and then
click on Backup and Restore.
2. You then may need to set up your backup and configure
the external media that will contain the backed-up data.
3. Next, select what you wish to back up. You can let
Windows choose, or you can select individual folders
and drives yourself.
Windows 7 also allows you to set up scheduled backups.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures22
Backups with UNIX
The two utilities in UNIX for backing up data are volcopy and
dump. Volcopy places a binary copy that’s an exact copy of
the disk onto a backup medium. You have to provide specific
information about the length and density of the data to be
backed up. The dump utility is used for full or partial file-by-
file backups, called dumps, and can back up
• All files
• Files that have changed by date
• Files that have changed after the last backup
FIGURE 11—The Backup and Restore Utility
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 23
Hard-Drive CareMost of the following hard-drive precautions are related to the
way in which the hard drive operates. You may recall that
when the drive isn’t in use, the read/write heads are held
against the platters or disks in an area not used for data
storage. When the drive is operating, air pressure develops
below the heads and causes them to float as little as 3 to 5
microinches above the surface of the disks. With such a small
space between the heads and the disks, even bumping the PC
slightly can cause the head to contact the disk. Any contact
may, at the very least, result in a loss of data or, even worse,
permanently damage the disk, making that segment unusable.
Another point to remember is that although the hard drive
filters the air entering the drive, very small particles in the
air, such as cigarette smoke, can cause premature disk failure.
High humidity is also an enemy of hard drives. In humid areas
such as a basement, dampness will eventually enter the hard
drive and condense on the heads and disks. Humidity is espe-
cially a problem with laptops or portable systems, which may
be outside for periods of time, perhaps in the cold trunk of a
car. When they’re brought inside, the warmer surroundings
can cause condensation to form.
Remember that hard drives are sealed units that can’t be
cleaned or repaired. The length of time that they provide
trouble-free operation depends largely on their environment
and how they’re treated.
CD and DVD Drive CareCD and DVD drives are very reliable devices. Many of the
problems encountered with CD or DVD drives are usually the
result of a problem with the removable disk itself. If a prob-
lem occurs, you should try other disks in the drive. If other
disks work satisfactorily, the problem is with the first disk.
Inspect the disk and try cleaning it using the procedures
we’ve already discussed. If errors occur on several disks,
the read lens in the drive may need to be cleaned.
Try using a CD-
drive cleaning disk
or CD cleaning kit
to clear up the
problem (Figure 12).
Simply follow the
instructions that
come with the disk.
If errors still occur
after using the
cleaning disk, you
may need to manu-
ally clean the read
lens by removing
the CD drive from
the PC.
Although the design may vary slightly from drive to drive, use
the following general steps to clean the read lens:
1. Remove the drive’s case by either removing four to six
screws or bending out the metal retaining tabs. If tabs
are used, take care when bending out the tabs as they’re
very brittle and may snap off.
2. Locate the read lens, which is directly located under the
caddy that the CD rests in while installed in the drive.
3. Give the lens a few blasts of canned air to remove any
dirt and dust.
4. Reassemble the drive and install it back into the
computer.
5. Test the drive to see if the problem has been resolved. If
the problem still exists, replace the drive.
DVD drives operate on the same principles as a CD. Use the
same general cleaning procedures discussed above to clean a
DVD drive.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures24
FIGURE 12—CD cleaningkits/washers like this oneare relatively inexpensiveand often very effective inkeeping disks clean.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 25
Practical Exercise 2ATo start Disk Fragmenter in Windows XP:
1. Click on Start > All Programs > Accessories > System
Tools > Disk Defragmenter.
2. Click on the icon for drive C:.
3. Click on the Analyze button. The window will show the
progress of your analysis.
4. When the analysis is complete, click the Defragment
button.
5. Observe the progress of the routine, noting the stages of
analysis, defragmentation, and consolidation.
To start Disk Defragmenter in Vista or Windows 7:
1. Click on the Start globe, then All Programs > Access-
ories > System Tools > Disk Defragmenter.
2. Select drive C: in the Select Drive dialog box, then click
on Yes.
3. Click on Start.
4. Click on Show details to see the step-by-step sequence
of defragmentation.
5. Click on the Legend button to see an interpretation of
the color-coded activities.
6. Click on Yes to exit when the process is complete.
Practical Exercise 2BPerform a ScanDisk-type repair in Vista and Windows 7. Note:
These versions don’t have the same ScanDisk interface as in
previous Windows versions.
1. Click on the Start globe and select Computer from the
list on the right.
2. Right-click on the icon for drive C:.
3. Select Properties from the drop-down box.
4. Click on the Tools tab.
5. Click on the Check Now button under “Error Checking.”
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures
6. Click the box for Automatically fix file system errors.
7. Click Start. A message box displays saying that Windows
can’t check the disk while it’s in use and gives you the
option to schedule a Disk Check the next time the com-
puter starts.
9. Click the button to Schedule Disk Check.
10. Restart your computer.
11. Disk Check will run.
26
Self-Check 2
1. Performing a complete backup and then fully restoring a disk is one way to eliminate _______.
2. True or False? Since UNIX has no built-in tools to repair corrupted files and directories, youmust perform a complete system installation in these situations.
3. List three backup options for Windows XP.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. An XP workstation hard drive seems to be laboring to find files, possibly because you addedor deleted hundreds of files without performing any special disk maintenance. To improvethe system’s performance you should
a. do a virus scan. c. defragment the hard drive.b. back up the hard drive. d. clean the hard drive.
5. True or False? A binary image backup enables you to quickly restore selected files from anentire backup.
Check your answers with those on page 39.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 27
SYSTEM MAINTENANCELet’s continue by learning about techniques you can use to
enhance the performance of your computer system.
Optimizing Software InstallationAs we discussed earlier, one aspect of software installation is
to plan and set up a well-organized directory structure. The
following are additional guidelines for software installation.
1. Ensure the software is compatible with the operating
system.
2. Check the system requirements of the software to make
sure the computer is capable of running the software.
3. Check to see if there are different installation options,
such as one with or without tutorials, to help you learn
the software.
4. Determine if there are programs that attempt to directly
manage hardware and peripherals.
5. Use the utility provided by the operating system to install
software.
6. Check the vendor’s “bug list” to make sure there aren’t
any known problems that will impact the way you’ll use
the software.
7. Make sure the software is well documented and supported
by the vendor.
8. Determine if running the program requires adjustments
to page or swap files used by the operating system.
9. With Windows-based software, always install the latest
versions of components, including .dll, ocx, .ini, .inf, and
.drv files.
10. Never mix .inf and .drv files between different versions of
Windows. Doing so may negatively impact other software
on the computer and make it inoperable.
11. Always keep service patches up-to-date for all software.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures
Installing software on a network requires some additional
considerations:
• Make sure there are enough licenses to match the number
of users or that you have software that limits the number
of users to the number of licenses.
• Determine the network load created by software.
• Consider purchasing management software that can auto-
matically update system-wide software when there’s a new
release.
• Determine if the software will be loaded from the server
each time it’s used, or if it will be installed permanently
on the workstations.
• For operating systems that support two or more file sys-
tems, make sure the software is compatible with the file
system used by the operating system.
Tuning the Stand-Alone and NetworkOperating SystemsOnce you’ve installed the operating system, you may find
that it’s not performing as well as you thought it would. Or,
after you use it for a while, you might notice a drop-off in its
performance. Tuning the operating systems of workstations
and servers is an efficient and cost-effective way to improve
system performance. Some of the ways to tune operating sys-
tems are tuning virtual memory, installing operating system
updates and patches, and tuning for optimum network com-
munications.
Tuning Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is disk storage space that’s used when there
isn’t enough RAM for a particular operation or series of oper-
ations. When a computer needs more physical memory than
it has installed, it can take low-priority data from RAM and
place it in virtual memory on the hard drive, thereby freeing
up space in RAM. Low-priority data is swapped back to RAM
28
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 29
when it’s needed. Data that moves back and forth between
virtual memory and RAM is called paging or a swap file.
Paged memory is used to extend the real physical memory of
the machine by copying blocks of data from the memory to a
drive. That way, you can run many programs simultaneously
even if they consume more physical memory than your com-
puter has. When a program requires an access of data that is
“paged to disk,” the operating system will read this data into
memory.
Some operating systems allow you to control the swap file by
adjusting its size, resulting in better performance. Macintosh
OS X automatically adjusts virtual memory on your hard drive
based on available installed RAM and the requirements of
running applications. In UNIX, you can use the vmstat utility
to monitor paging or swap files.
In Windows XP, it’s possible to set a mini-
mum and a maximum size for a swap file.
When sizing the swap file, the rule of thumb
is to set the minimum amount equal to the
amount of RAM installed, plus 12 mega-
bytes. The maximum size should allow for
adequate growth to handle times of high
activity. You can monitor RAM and the swap
file size through Windows’ Task Manager or
System Monitor. Under the Performance tab,
click the Change button to access this feature.
In Vista and Windows 7, Windows sets the
initial size of the virtual memory paging file.
The minimum is equal to the amount of
installed RAM, and the maximum is three
times the amount of RAM. These versions of
Windows can automatically manage virtual
memory, but you have the option to increase
the size manually (Figure 13). Here are the
steps:
1. Click the Start globe > Control Panel >
System Settings.
2. In the left pane, click Advanced System Settings.
3. In the Advanced tab under “Performance,” click Settings.
FIGURE 13—You can let Vista or Windows 7 auto-matically mange the paging file or set a custom size.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures30
4. Click the Advanced tab, and then, under Virtual Memory,
click Change.
5. Uncheck the Automatically manage paging file size for
all drives check box.
6. Under Drive [Volume Label], click the drive that contains
the paging file you want to change.
7. Click the Custom size radio button, type a new size in
megabytes in the Initial size (MB) or Maximum size (MB)
box, click Set, and then click OK.
Installing Operating System Updates and Patches
Often, operating system problems aren’t discovered until
after the product has been released and actually used by
people. As a result, vendors create updates and patches
to solve these problems. Some software products, such as
Microsoft’s XP, Vista, and Windows 7 include tools to down-
load these updates and patches. You can also contact the
software vendor by phone or visit their Web site to obtain
their latest updates and patches.
Be aware that some updates and patches can cause problems
after they’re installed. When this occurs, you can use the
System Restore feature in XP, Vista, and Windows 7 to set
the system back to its pre-update or pre-patch condition.
Tuning Network Communications
For networked computers, it’s important to ensure that their
connection to the network is tuned and optimized. Check to
make sure the cables and connectors that form the connection
are in good working condition. Make sure the connector to the
Network Interface Card (NIC) is tight and that the card is
plugged into the fastest expansion slot, such as the PCI slot,
in an Intel-based computer. Make sure you download and
install the latest updates and patches for the NIC.
If your network seems to be running very slowly, consider
changing the order of network protocol bindings. Windows
attempts to communicate with services by using network
protocols in the order specified in Network Connections. To
make network communications faster, you can reorder the
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 31
protocols in this list from “most used” to “least used.” Usually,
TCP/IP will be the most used protocol. (If you’re using only
the TCP/IP protocol, you don’t need to make any changes.)
You must be logged on as an administrator to perform these
steps:
1. Open Network Connections by clicking the Start globe >
Control Panel > Network and Internet > Network and
Sharing Center > Manage network connections.
2. Press the ALT key, click the
Advanced menu, and then
click Advanced Settings.
If you’re prompted for an
administrator password or
confirmation, type the infor-
mation accordingly.
3. Click the Adapters and
Bindings tab, and then
under “Connections:,” click
on the connection you wish
to modify (Figure 14).
4. Under “Bindings for <connec-
tion name>,” select the protocol
that you wish to move up or
down in the list. Then click
the up or down arrow button,
and click OK.
Testing NetworkConnectivityThere are times when it may be necessary to check the network
to see if it’s working correctly. TCP/IP-based networks have a
protocol called Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to do
this. With this protocol, you can poll another network device
with something called the ping utility, to see if it’s working.
Ping can tell if there are network problems or if one network
isn’t communicating with another. All versions of Windows
support ping. It’s also available in UNIX and the Mac OS X.
At the command line, enter the ping command plus the IP
FIGURE 14—Vista and Windows 7 Binding Order Panel
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures
address of the device you want to poll. If you receive an
answer showing the device’s address along with other infor-
mation, it indicates your computer’s connection is working
properly (Figure 15).
Maintaining System ControlIf you’re responsible for maintaining multiple PCs, such as
those in a business environment, it’s important for you to
prevent any unauthorized use of hardware and software.
Otherwise, when you’re called in to fix a problem, you’ll find
it much more difficult if you’re unaware of any software
changes or hardware modifications that have been made.
As users become more competent and familiar with their
systems, there’s a tendency for them to explore new program
features and hardware settings. Unless you’re a glutton for
punishment, you should discourage users from such explo-
ration. One user making a small change can have far-reaching
consequences, especially when his or her computer connects
to a network environment.
Some of the more common experiments users like to perform
on hardware and software are
• Changing printer settings
• Changing fonts
• Compressing files
32
FIGURE 15—ScreenShowing Ping Command and Results IndicatingConnectivity
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 33
• Running performance-enhancing utilities
• Changing display attributes
• Changing communication settings
• Changing application default settings
In light of this, however, users must be allowed to make rea-
sonable changes to their computer systems. It’s up to you to
communicate with users what types of changes they may make
and what areas are off limits. When you’re called to fix a prob-
lem, it’s a good idea to always ask users if any changes were
made recently or any activity performed that’s not a normal
part of their day-to-day routine. Obtaining this information
before attempting to fix what you might consider a routine
problem may save you a lot of time.
Testing Software and ComponentsAt the beginning of each day, you should operate all of the
components in the system to test them. One benefit of this is
that it keeps all moving parts lubricated in the mechanical
devices such as printers and scanners. However, and more
importantly, it lets you know if a problem has developed before
you actually need a particular device or system component for
a critical function. In a networked environment, the failure
of one device or component can affect many users.
Another time that you should test equipment is after you’ve
installed new hardware or software, or made any system modi-
fications. Sometimes, installing even the most straightforward
upgrade can cause hardware/software conflicts. For example,
the new version of a program could contain new device drivers.
Therefore, the best rule to follow is that whenever you upgrade,
modify, or install new hardware or software, always test the
system thoroughly. In some cases, you may find that you
need to make some adjustments or configuration changes
before the system operates correctly.
Troubleshooting LogsIf you’re involved in a situation where you’re responsible for
maintaining many computers, you should consider using
troubleshooting logs. Whenever you work on any piece of
equipment, whether it’s a computer or a printer, you should
originate a troubleshooting log for that device. Logs like the
one shown in Table 5 allow you to easily see all of the main-
tenance activity performed on the device. This can help you
with recurring or intermittent problems by showing you what
has already been tried to resolve the problem. In a large busi-
ness where more than one person is apt to work on a PC,
troubleshooting logs are essential to provide effective trou-
bleshooting and to eliminate duplication of effort.
Maintaining System DocumentationWe’ve made reference to the importance of saving your docu-
mentation for all components of your PC, both hardware and
software. Documentation should be stored in a safe place and
organized for quick reference. If you’re maintaining documenta-
tion for a large number of PCs, components, and systems, the
job of organizing the documentation becomes more difficult,
and at the same time, more important.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures34
5elbaT
GOLGNITOOHSELBUORT
CP:eciveD 576350D.oNlaireS
etaD melborP nekaTnoitcA
11/81/01 sseccaatadwolS evirddetnemgarfeD
11/52/11 pugnikcolerawtfoS erawtfosdellatsnieR
11/11/21 pugnikcolllitserawtfoS metsysgnitarepodellatsnieR
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 35
Read Me Files
One component of documentation that’s often overlooked
is the Read Me file that often comes with new hardware and
software. The Read Me file is a file that contains updated or
corrected installation and operating information about the
product that’s usually not contained in the printed manual.
It’s imperative that you read this information. If you choose
to ignore the information in the Read Me file, you’re opening
yourself up to problems in installing or using the hardware
or software.
Never delete a Read Me file, even though it doesn’t contain
any information of immediate importance. There’s always the
possibility that you’ll need it in the future. For example, if
you upgrade your system, or in some other way change the
configuration, the Read Me file may help you to resolve any
problems that may result. A good practice is to print a copy
of the Read Me file and keep it with the appropriate docu-
mentation. You might also use the hard copy to highlight
any significant information about your particular setup or
to add important notes or reminders.
Inventory List
Another type of information that can be very useful, particularly
with many pieces of equipment to keep track of, is an inventory
list. On the list, you should record
• Each hardware and software component
• The registration or identification number
• The date the item was purchased
• Any warranty information
• The manufacturer’s help line telephone number
Whenever you discover a problem with a component, such
as an adapter card or a graphic program, you won’t have to
locate and search the documentation for information. You
can simply refer to the list to get the help line telephone
number and other information required for authorization
and access to the technical support you need.
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures
Practical Exercise 3ASearch your hard drive and/or disks that came with hardware
or software products for Read Me files. Open a few of the files
to see what type of information they contain.
Practical Exercise 3BView the virtual memory information in XP, Vista, and
Windows 7.
1. Right-click on the Taskbar.
2. Click Start Task Manager.
3. Click the Performance tab in Windows Task Manager.
4. Note the graphic display of CPU usage and memory.
5. In the lower-left corner under Kernel Memory (MB),
note the amount of memory that’s paged (virtual)
and the amount of memory that’s nonpaged.
36
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures 37
Self-Check 3
1. What is the purpose of the ping utility?
__________________________________________________________________________
2. True or False? Mac OS X automatically adjusts virtual memory based on available RAM andprogram requirements.
3. A computer uses _______ memory when there’s insufficient RAM for an operation.
4. What is the other name used for paging?
__________________________________________________________________________
5. True or False? In Windows XP, you can optimize the network binding order as a way toimprove network performance.
Check your answers with those on page 39.
NOTES
Standard Operating and Maintenance Procedures38
39
An
sw
er
sA
ns
we
rs
Self-Check 1
1. Disk Cleanup
2. d
3. False
4. d
5. etc
Self-Check 2
1. fragmentation
2. False
3. Normal, Incremental, and Daily
4. c
5. False
Self-Check 3
1. The ping utility is used to test network connectivity.
2. True
3. virtual
4. The other name for paging is a swap file.
5. True