Table of Contents
Preface ◆ xvii
1 MUSIC IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY ◆ 1Music in the Life and Philosophy of Ancient Greece ◆ 1
Music and the Doctrine of Ethos ◆ 3Characteristics of Music ◆ 4
Greek Music Theory ◆ 5Music in Ancient Rome ◆ 8
2 THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 12The Growth of the Christian Church and Its Music ◆ 12The Jewish Heritage ◆ 13The Diversification of Practice ◆ 17
The Eastern Influence ◆ 17Local European Practices ◆ 19
3 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A CATHOLIC TRADITION ◆ 21The Political-Cultural Situation at the Beginning
of the Ninth Century ◆ 21The Roman Liturgy ◆ 24
The Divine Office ◆ 25Mass ◆ 27
Aesthetic Considerations Regarding the Chant ◆ 29The Musical Style of the Chant ◆ 31The Music Theory of the Chant ◆ 33Later Developments in the Liturgical Chant ◆ 41
The Trope ◆ 41Liturgical Drama ◆ 43
4 SECULAR SONG AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC TO 1300 ◆ 46Secular Music Before the Eleventh Century ◆ 46Latin Songs ◆ 47
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Epics and Minstrels ◆ 48Troubadours and Trouvères ◆ 49German Court Music ◆ 53Monophonic Songs in Other Regions ◆ 54
Italy ◆ 54Spain and Portugal ◆ 54Britain ◆ 55
Instruments ◆ 55String Instruments ◆ 56Wind Instruments ◆ 57Percussion Instruments ◆ 57Organs ◆ 57
The Use of Instruments ◆ 58
5 THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYPHONY ◆ 62The Significance of Polyphony ◆ 62Carolingian Polyphony ◆ 63Romanesque Developments ◆ 64
Free Organum ◆ 64Rhythmic Independence ◆ 65Florid Organum and Discant ◆ 66
Gothic Thinking and Style ◆ 67Notre Dame Polyphony ◆ 69
Rhythmic Order in Organum: Léonin ◆ 69Pérotin ◆ 72Cadences ◆ 74
The Motet ◆ 75Late Thirteenth-Century Developments ◆ 76
New Developments in Rhythmic Notation ◆ 77Hocket ◆ 78
Symbolic Values in Thirteenth-Century Polyphony ◆ 78
6 MUSIC IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY ◆ 82The Increasing Secularization of Culture ◆ 82Ars Nova ◆ 85Isorhythm ◆ 87The Roman de Fauvel ◆ 88Form in Secular Song ◆ 90Guillaume de Machaut ◆ 90
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Ars Subtilior ◆ 92The Italian Trecento ◆ 92Cadence Patterns in the Fourteenth Century ◆ 94English Polyphony ◆ 96
Gymel and English Discant ◆ 96Secular Music: Rota ◆ 98
7 HUMANISM AND MUSIC ◆ 99The Rise of a Humanist Worldview ◆ 99The Hundred Years’ War and English Music on the Continent ◆ 102
John Dunstaple ◆ 103The New Style on the Continent ◆ 104
Guillaume Du Fay ◆ 105Gilles Binchois ◆ 108Polyphonic Cadences ◆ 108
The Idea of a New Music ◆ 110
8 THE SPREAD OF NEW MUSICAL IDEAS AND PRACTICESTO 1600 ◆ 112
The Growth of the New Styles in the North ◆ 112Johannes Ockeghem ◆ 112The Next Generation of Franco-Netherlands Composers ◆ 114Josquin des Prez ◆ 115
The Ascendancy of the Northern Style ◆ 117Music for Social Use ◆ 120Regional Variants of the Cosmopolitan Style in Secular Music ◆ 123
The French Chanson ◆ 123English Music ◆ 123German Music ◆ 124Spanish Repertoires ◆ 125The Italian Frottola and Madrigal ◆ 126
The Poetic Model for Musical Expression ◆ 129
9 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN THESIXTEENTH CENTURY ◆ 132
The Place of Instruments ◆ 132Instruments and Their Combinations ◆ 132
Consorts ◆ 133Broken Consorts ◆ 135
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Plucked Instruments ◆ 135Keyboard Instruments ◆ 135
Tablature ◆ 135Instruments and Vocal Music ◆ 137Instrumental Adaptations of Vocal Music and Genres ◆ 137Instrumental Genres ◆ 139
Dances ◆ 139Variations ◆ 140Instrumental Pieces in the Style of Improvisations ◆ 140
10 THE REFORMATION AND MUSIC ◆ 142The Background of the Reformation ◆ 142The Music of the Lutheran Reformation ◆ 143The Calvinist Reformation ◆ 146The Reformation in England ◆ 148The Counter-Reformation ◆ 149
Palestrina ◆ 149Tomás Luis de Victoria and Orlande de Lassus ◆ 150
Faith, Music, and the Power of Words ◆ 150
11 THE CLOSE OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY ◆ 153Italian Music at the End of the Sixteenth Century ◆ 153Mannerism ◆ 155The Italian Style in England ◆ 157France ◆ 159The Venetian Style ◆ 159The Significance of Late Humanist Styles ◆ 162
12 RATIONALISM AND ITS IMPACT ON MUSIC ◆ 163An Age of Reason ◆ 163Aesthetic Considerations ◆ 164The Doctrine of Affections ◆ 166The Florentine Camerata ◆ 168Monody and the Basso Continuo ◆ 171Concertato ◆ 174Seconda Pratica ◆ 174Expression of New Ideas in New Styles ◆ 176
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13 NEW GENRES AND STYLES IN THE AGEOF RATIONALISM ◆ 178
Three Styles ◆ 178The Creation of Opera ◆ 178
First Experiments in Opera ◆ 179Orfeo ◆ 180
Developments in Italian Opera ◆ 182Stylistic Trends ◆ 183
Vocal Chamber Music ◆ 185Texture and Form ◆ 186
Sacred Music ◆ 189Sacred Concerto ◆ 189Oratorio ◆ 190
Seventeenth-Century Instrumental Music ◆ 191The Fantasia ◆ 191The Sonata ◆ 192Sets of Variations ◆ 192Dance Music ◆ 194Improvisatory Instrumental Music ◆ 194
14 THE LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ◆ 197French Opera in the Seventeenth Century ◆ 197
Historical Context ◆ 197The Beginnings of French Opera ◆ 199French Operatic Style ◆ 201
English Music in the Seventeenth Century ◆ 201The First Stuarts ◆ 201The Commonwealth ◆ 202The Restoration ◆ 202
Italian Opera ◆ 203The Cantata and Other Vocal Chamber Music ◆ 205German Musical Genres ◆ 206
Keyboard Music ◆ 207Musical Drama ◆ 209
The Development of Instrumental Forms and Idioms ◆ 209Style Developments in Instrumental Music ◆ 209Fugue ◆ 210The Suite ◆ 211
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The Ensemble Sonata ◆ 213Concerto ◆ 215
15 THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ◆ 220The Late Rationalist Period ◆ 220Opera Seria—Handel and Others ◆ 221The Intermezzo ◆ 224Opera in France ◆ 225Handel and the Oratorio ◆ 225Germany ◆ 228Johann Sebastian Bach ◆ 229
Bach’s Early Career ◆ 230The Court of Weimar ◆ 230The Court of Cöthen ◆ 232The City of Leipzig ◆ 233Bach’s Culmination of Stylistic Tradition ◆ 235
16 NEW CURRENTS IN THE EARLYEIGHTEENTH CENTURY ◆ 239
New Directions in Thinking and Style ◆ 239The Development of the Tonal System ◆ 240The Idea of the Galant ◆ 241
In France ◆ 241Outside of France ◆ 242
French and Italian Operatic Comedy ◆ 243La Guerre des Bouffons ◆ 244
The Empfindsamer Stil ◆ 245Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach ◆ 246Keyboard Instruments ◆ 247Song ◆ 248
Structure in Early Eighteenth-Century Instrumental Music ◆ 249Developments in Instrumental Music ◆ 250
17 THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE CLASSIC STYLE ◆ 255The Enlightenment ◆ 255The Classic Outlook ◆ 256Musicians in Late Eighteenth-Century Society ◆ 260
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Contrasting Careers for Musicians: Haydn and Mozart ◆ 262Franz Joseph Haydn ◆ 262Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ◆ 264
Comic Opera in the Early Enlightenment ◆ 266Opera Seria and Opera Reform ◆ 266Instrumental Genres and the Sonata Plan ◆ 269
The Symphony ◆ 269The String Quartet ◆ 270The Keyboard Sonata ◆ 272The Concerto ◆ 272The Divertimento ◆ 273
The Sonata Form and Its Variants ◆ 273Harmonic Plan ◆ 273Thematic Plan ◆ 274Outline of Sonata Form ◆ 274Some Terminological Clarification ◆ 275Applications of the Sonata Procedure ◆ 275
Expression and Function ◆ 277
18 THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ◆ 281The Position of Haydn and Mozart ◆ 281Chamber Music ◆ 283Symphony ◆ 285Concerto ◆ 286Mozart’s Mature Operas ◆ 287
Opera Seria ◆ 287Singspiel ◆ 288Collaboration with Lorenzo Da Ponte ◆ 288A Finale in the Popular Theater ◆ 291
A New Model for Expression ◆ 291The Enlightenment Beethoven ◆ 293
Beethoven’s Early Years in Bonn ◆ 293Beethoven’s First Decade in Vienna ◆ 294The Music of Beethoven’s First Vienna Period ◆ 295
The American Colonies and the Early United States ◆ 297
19 THE RISE OF THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT ◆ 302Philosophical Roots of Romantic Thought ◆ 302
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Politics, Economics, and Social Change ◆ 303The Concept of Organic Unity ◆ 304
Romantic Art ◆ 304Themes in Romantic Art ◆ 306Techniques of Romantic Art ◆ 307
The Romantic Movement in the History of Musical Style ◆ 309Beethoven from 1802 ◆ 309
Beethoven and the Artist as Hero ◆ 310Beethoven’s Heroic Style ◆ 312Beethoven’s Sketchbooks ◆ 315Beethoven’s Personal Life in His Middle Period ◆ 315
Beethoven’s Last Period ◆ 315Beethoven’s Influence on Nineteenth-Century Music ◆ 318
The Romantic Lied ◆ 318Franz Schubert ◆ 320
Early Nineteenth-Century Italian Opera ◆ 323Gioacchino Rossini ◆ 324
Opera in France ◆ 325German Romantic Opera ◆ 326The Social Context for Music in the Nineteenth Century ◆ 327
20 DEVELOPMENTS IN ROMANTICISM TO 1850 ◆ 331The Context for Romanticism to the Middle of the
Nineteenth Century ◆ 331Composers’ Lifestyles ◆ 332Composers’ Literary and Artistic Activities ◆ 332
Romantic Lyricism in Italian Opera ◆ 334Style ◆ 335Performance Practice ◆ 336Giuseppe Verdi ◆ 336
French Grand Opera ◆ 339The Cult of Virtuosity ◆ 340Some “Serious” Performers ◆ 341Lyricism and Virtuosity—Chopin ◆ 342Salons and Drawing Rooms ◆ 344Instrumental Genres in Romantic Music ◆ 345
Piano Music ◆ 345Orchestral Music ◆ 346
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Romantic Musical Style ◆ 349Expansion of Sound Vocabulary ◆ 349Romantic Harmony ◆ 350
Form in Romantic Music ◆ 350Recognition of the Musical Heritage ◆ 352The Midpoint of the Nineteenth Century ◆ 353
21 THE SECOND HALF OF THENINETEENTH CENTURY ◆ 356
The New German School ◆ 356The Artwork of the Future ◆ 358
Wagner’s Music Dramas ◆ 360Wagner’s Librettos ◆ 362Wagner’s Musical Style ◆ 363Wagner in Social and Political History ◆ 366
Late Romanticism ◆ 367Austria ◆ 367France ◆ 369Italy ◆ 370
Influences of the New German Style ◆ 371Progressives in Vienna ◆ 371Richard Strauss ◆ 373Alexander Skryabin ◆ 373
Realism in Late Nineteenth-Century Opera ◆ 373Exoticism ◆ 375Late Nineteenth-Century National Styles ◆ 376
Bohemia ◆ 376Russia ◆ 377
Nationalism in Other Countries ◆ 379The Situation at the End of the Nineteenth Century ◆ 381
22 THE ARRIVAL OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ◆ 384A Turning Point in Artistic Ideas and Styles ◆ 384Impressionism ◆ 384
Claude Debussy ◆ 386Diffusion and Limits of Impressionism ◆ 388
The Aesthetics of Ugliness ◆ 389
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Primitivism ◆ 391Expressionism ◆ 393
Arnold Schoenberg ◆ 394Alban Berg ◆ 395Advantages and Problems in Atonal Expressionism ◆ 396
An American Original: Charles Ives ◆ 396
23 MODERNISM AND THE PERIOD BETWEENTHE WORLD WARS ◆ 401
Modernism ◆ 401A Period of Readjustment ◆ 402The Twelve-Tone Method of Composition ◆ 403
Schoenberg After 1920 ◆ 406Adaptations of the Twelve-Tone Method ◆ 406
Toward Serialism ◆ 408Artistic Objectivity ◆ 410Neoclassicism ◆ 411
France ◆ 411Stravinsky’s Neoclassic Music and Thought ◆ 412Germany ◆ 414
New Tonal Theory ◆ 415The Influence of Regional Musics ◆ 416The Music of Socialist Realism in the Soviet Union ◆ 419The United States ◆ 421
Jazz ◆ 422Incorporating Jazz into Traditional Genres ◆ 424
The Avant-Garde ◆ 424American Experimentalists ◆ 426
24 IN THE SECOND HALF OF THETWENTIETH CENTURY ◆ 429
History and Contemporary Music ◆ 429Composers in Late Twentieth-Century Society ◆ 430Total Control ◆ 431The Exploration of New Timbres: Extended Techniques ◆ 432Electronic Music ◆ 436
Computers ◆ 437The Performer ◆ 437
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Indeterminacy ◆ 439Indeterminacy, Performers, and Computers ◆ 439
Aesthetic Issues ◆ 440Postmodernism ◆ 441Postmodernism in Music ◆ 442
Postmodern Composer and Listener ◆ 442Diversity in Styles Based on the Western Tradition ◆ 443Juxtapositions and Fusions with Non-Western Musics ◆ 444Minimalism ◆ 444Mixed-Media and Performance-Oriented Music ◆ 446
Jazz and Popular Music ◆ 448Jazz ◆ 449Rock Music ◆ 450
The Situation at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century ◆ 453
Appendix: Timeline ◆ 456Index ◆ 467
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