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TH
E
AD
ULT
LEA
RN
ERSI
XT
H E
DIT
ION
-
TH
E
AD
ULT
LE
AR
NER
The
Def
initi
ve C
lass
ic i
n
Adul
t Ed
ucat
ion
and
Hum
an R
esou
rce
Dev
elop
men
t
MAL
COLM
S. K
NOW
LES
ELW
OOD
F. HO
LTON
III
RICH
ARD
A. SW
ANSO
N
SIX
TH
ED
ITIO
N
Am
ster
dam
B
osto
n
Hei
delb
erg
L
ondo
n
New
Yor
k
Oxf
ord
Pa
ris
Sa
n D
iego
S
an F
ranc
isco
S
inga
pore
S
ydne
y
Toky
o
Els
evie
r30
Cor
pora
te D
rive
, 4th
Flo
orB
urlin
gton
, MA
018
03, U
SA52
5 B
Str
eet,
Sui
te 1
900,
San
Die
go, C
alif
orni
a 92
101-
4495
, USA
84 T
heob
ald
s R
oad,
Lon
don
WC
1X 8
RR
, UK
Thi
s bo
ok is
pri
nted
on
acid
-fre
e pa
per.
Cop
yrig
ht
200
5, E
lsev
ier
Inc.
All
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
Pre
viou
s ed
itio
ns C
opyr
ight
1
973,
1978
, 198
4, 1
990,
199
8 by
But
terw
orth
-Hei
nem
ann.
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licat
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irec
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evie
rs
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nce
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echn
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ight
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ort
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rary
of
Con
gres
s C
atal
ogin
g-in
-Pub
licat
ion
Dat
aK
now
les,
Mal
colm
She
pher
d, 1
913-
The
adu
lt le
arne
r : t
he d
efin
itive
cla
ssic
in a
dult
educ
atio
n an
d hu
man
res
ourc
e de
velo
pmen
t/
Mal
colm
S. K
now
les,
Elw
ood
F. H
olto
n II
I, a
nd R
icha
rd A
. Sw
anso
n.
6th
ed.
p.cm
.In
clud
es b
iblio
grap
hica
l ref
eren
ces
and
inde
x.IS
BN
0-7
506-
7837
-2 (
alk.
pap
er)
1.A
dult
lear
ning
. 2.
Adu
lt e
duca
tion
. 3.
Tra
inin
g.I.
Hol
ton,
Ed,
195
7-II
. Sw
anso
n,R
icha
rd A
., 19
42-
III.
Tit
le.
LC
5225
.L42
K56
200
537
4dc
2220
0402
4356
Bri
tish
Lib
rary
Cat
alog
uing
in P
ublic
atio
n D
ata
A c
atal
ogue
rec
ord
for
this
boo
k is
ava
ilabl
e fr
om t
he B
riti
sh L
ibra
ry
ISB
N: 0
-750
6-78
37-2
Prin
ted
in t
he U
nite
d St
ates
of
Am
eric
a04
0506
0708
099
87
65
43
21
-
DE
DIC
AT
ION
Mal
colm
S.
Kno
wle
s, t
he F
athe
r of
And
rago
gy i
n th
e U
nite
dSt
ates
, die
d on
Nov
embe
r 27
, 199
7.
Mal
colm
was
one
of
the
wor
lds
lea
ding
sch
olar
pra
ctit
ione
rs o
fad
ult
lear
ning
. H
e w
as a
mem
ber
of a
gen
erat
ion
that
exp
erie
nced
the
fulle
st r
ange
of
char
acte
r-bu
ildin
g ph
ases
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es h
askn
own:
a m
assi
ve i
nflu
x of
im
mig
rant
s, s
ever
al w
ars,
an
econ
omic
depr
essi
on,
wav
es o
f te
chno
logi
cal
adva
nces
, th
e ci
vil
righ
ts m
ove-
men
t, t
he d
omin
ance
of
the
know
ledg
e w
orke
r, an
d an
opt
imis
mab
out
the
hum
an s
piri
t. W
hile
Mal
colm
par
tici
pate
d in
all
this
, he
was
one
of
the
thin
kers
and
doe
rs r
isin
g ab
ove
the
mili
eu a
nd p
oint
-in
g th
e w
ay f
or a
dyn
amic
dem
ocra
cy. E
quiv
alen
t le
ader
s of
his
gen
-er
atio
n, i
n su
ch a
reas
as
econ
omic
s, q
ualit
y im
prov
emen
t, r
elig
ion,
and
psyc
holo
gy, h
ave
fini
shed
the
ir w
ork
and
thei
r le
gacy
live
s on
inth
e ne
xt g
ener
atio
n. M
alco
lms
ear
ly u
nder
stan
ding
of
the
impo
r-ta
nce
of a
dult
lea
rnin
g ha
s pr
ovid
ed i
nsig
ht t
hat
will
gui
de t
he p
ro-
fess
ions
ded
icat
ed t
o ad
ult
lear
ning
into
the
nex
t m
illen
nium
.
Thi
s re
vise
d si
xth
edit
ion
of M
alco
lms
197
3 bo
ok i
s a
test
imon
yto
his
ow
n le
arni
ng j
ourn
ey a
nd h
is p
erso
nal
conf
iden
ce i
n th
e in
di-
vidu
al l
earn
er.
In h
onor
of
Mal
colm
S.
Kno
wle
s, t
he A
cade
my
ofH
uman
Res
ourc
e D
evel
opm
ent
has
nam
ed i
ts d
octo
ral-
diss
erta
tion
-of
-the
-yea
r aw
ard
in h
is n
ame.
Tho
se w
ishi
ng t
o m
ake
a do
nati
on t
oth
is s
tude
nt-a
war
d en
dow
men
t sh
ould
con
tact
the
Aca
dem
y.
Elw
ood
F. H
olto
n II
I,E
d.D
, is
the
Jon
es S
. D
avis
Dis
ting
uish
edPr
ofes
sor
of H
uman
Res
ourc
e D
evel
opm
ent
and
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
at
Lou
isia
na S
tate
Uni
vers
ity,
whe
re h
e co
ordi
nate
s th
e B
.S.,
M.S
., an
dPh
.D.
degr
ee p
rogr
ams
in H
RD
/AE
. H
e is
the
aut
hor
and
edit
or o
fnu
mer
ous
book
s an
d ar
ticl
es o
n le
arni
ng a
nd h
uman
res
ourc
e de
vel-
opm
ent
as w
ell
as t
he f
ound
ing
edit
or o
f H
uman
Res
ourc
e D
evel
op-
men
t R
evie
w.
Dr.
Hol
ton
is a
lso
a Pa
st-P
resi
dent
of
the
Aca
dem
y of
Hum
an R
esou
rce
Dev
elop
men
t. H
e is
an
expe
rt o
n ad
ult
lear
ning
appl
icat
ions
in
publ
ic a
nd p
riva
te s
etti
ngs
and
cons
ults
ext
ensi
vely
wit
h or
gani
zati
ons
in b
oth
sect
ors.
Ric
hard
A.
Swan
son,
Ed.
D.,
is P
rofe
ssor
of
Hum
an R
esou
rce
Dev
elop
men
t an
d A
dult
Edu
cati
on a
t th
e U
nive
rsit
y of
Min
neso
ta.
He
has
wid
e-ra
ngin
g te
achi
ng a
nd c
onsu
ltin
g ex
peri
ence
and
has
publ
ishe
d ex
tens
ivel
y in
the
are
as o
f le
arni
ng a
nd h
uman
res
ourc
ede
velo
pmen
t. H
e re
ceiv
ed t
he D
isti
ngui
shed
Alu
mni
Aw
ard
from
the
Uni
vers
ity
of I
llino
is C
olle
ge o
f E
duca
tion
and
has
bee
n in
duct
edin
to b
oth
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Adu
lt a
nd C
onti
nuin
g E
duca
tion
Hal
l of
Fam
e an
d th
e H
uman
Res
ourc
e D
evel
opm
ent
Scho
lar
Hal
l of
Fam
e.D
r. Sw
anso
n is
a l
eadi
ng a
utho
rity
on
how
to
deve
lop
and
unle
ash
hum
an p
oten
tial
in o
rgan
izat
ions
.
-
Co
nte
nts
Pre
face
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.xi
ch
ap
te
r1
Intr
oduc
tion
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
1
Part
1: T
he R
oots
of
And
rago
gy6
Ch
ap
te
r
2
Exp
lori
ng t
he W
orld
of
Lea
rnin
g T
heor
y .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.7
Ch
ap
te
r
3
The
orie
s of
Lea
rnin
g .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.18
Ch
ap
te
r
4
A T
heor
y of
Adu
lt L
earn
ing:
And
rago
gy .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.35
Ch
ap
te
r
5
The
orie
s of
Tea
chin
g .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.73
Ch
ap
te
r
6
An
And
rago
gica
l P
roce
ss M
odel
for
Lea
rnin
g .
. .
. .
. .
115
Part
2: A
dvan
cem
ents
in A
dult
Lea
rnin
g13
9
Ch
ap
te
r
7
And
rago
gy i
n P
ract
ice
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.140
Ch
ap
te
r
8
Adu
lt L
earn
ing
wit
hin
Hum
an R
esou
rce
Dev
elop
men
t .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
165
Ch
ap
te
r
9
New
Per
spec
tive
s on
And
rago
gy .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
183
Ch
ap
te
r
10
Bey
ond
And
rago
gy .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
204
Ch
ap
te
r
11
The
Fut
ure
of A
ndra
gogy
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
231
Part
3: P
ract
ice
in A
dult
Lea
rnin
g23
9
Ch
ap
te
r
12
Who
le-P
art-
Who
le L
earn
ing
Mod
el .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
240
Ch
ap
te
r
13
From
Tea
cher
to
Faci
litat
or o
f L
earn
ing
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.25
1
Ch
ap
te
r
14
Mak
ing
Thi
ngs
Hap
pen
by R
elea
sing
the
E
nerg
y of
Oth
ers
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
255
Ch
ap
te
r
15
Som
e G
uide
lines
for
the
Use
of
Lea
rnin
g C
ontr
acts
. .
.26
5
Ch
ap
te
r
16
Cor
e C
ompe
tenc
y D
iagn
osti
c an
d P
lann
ing
Gui
de .
. .
.27
2
Ch
ap
te
r
17
Per
sona
l A
dult
Lea
rnin
g St
yle
Inve
ntor
y .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
282
Ch
ap
te
r
18
Tra
inin
g D
eliv
ery
Pro
blem
s an
d So
luti
ons
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
296
Ch
ap
te
r
19
A M
odel
for
Dev
elop
ing
Em
ploy
ee W
ork
Eff
ecti
vene
ss i
n N
ew R
oles
and
Env
iron
men
ts .
. .
. .
. .
308
-
Ref
eren
ces
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.32
1
Aut
hor
Inde
x .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
361
Subj
ect
Inde
x .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
366
Pre
face
Wel
com
e to
the
new
est
edit
ion
of T
he A
dult
Lea
rner
. It
is a
n ho
nor
for
us to
join
wit
h M
alco
lm K
now
les
in th
is u
pdat
ed a
nd r
evis
ed s
ixth
edit
ion.
The
Adu
lt L
earn
erha
s st
ood
as a
cor
e w
ork
on a
dult
lear
ning
for
over
thir
ty y
ears
. Our
goa
l has
bee
n fo
r it
to r
emai
n a
clas
sic
in th
efi
eld
of a
dult
lear
ning
and
hum
an r
esou
rce
deve
lopm
ent.
We
appr
oach
ed t
he t
ask
of c
onti
nuin
g to
upd
ate
this
cla
ssic
boo
kw
ith
care
and
tho
ught
fuln
ess.
In
shap
ing
this
rev
isio
n, w
e th
ink
it is
still
impo
rtan
t to
pre
serv
e M
alco
lms
wor
ks a
nd t
houg
hts
as c
lose
to
thei
r or
igin
al f
orm
as
poss
ible
. T
hus,
jus
t as
in
the
5th
edit
ion,
you
will
fin
d th
at P
art
1 of
thi
s ed
itio
n (C
hapt
ers
2-6)
, en
titl
ed
The
Roo
ts o
f A
ndra
gogy
, a
re n
earl
y id
enti
cal t
o C
hapt
ers
1-5
of t
he 4
th
edit
ion
of T
he A
dult
Lea
rner
. W
e ha
ve d
one
only
min
or c
opy
edit
-in
g an
d fo
rmat
ting
to
pres
erve
Mal
colm
s o
rigi
nal t
hink
ing.
Cha
pter
1 an
d Pa
rt 2
(C
hapt
ers
7-11
), e
ntit
led
Adv
ance
men
ts i
n A
dult
Lea
rnin
g,
are
our
new
con
trib
utio
ns to
the
book
. In
addi
tion
, Par
t 3,
Pra
ctic
e in
Adu
lt L
earn
ing
has
bee
n up
date
d an
d ex
pand
ed.
Hig
hlig
hts
of t
he s
ixth
edi
tion
incl
ude
brin
ging
bac
k m
ater
ial
from
Kno
wle
s p
revi
ous
wor
k co
veri
ng h
is p
roce
ss m
odel
for
pro
gram
pla
n-ni
ng;
a co
mpl
etel
y ne
w c
hapt
er o
n th
e A
ndra
gogy
in
Prac
tice
mod
elfir
st i
ntro
duce
d in
the
5th
editi
on;
a ne
w c
hapt
er o
n th
e Fu
ture
of
And
rago
gy; t
he a
dditi
on o
f the
Per
sona
l Adu
lt L
earn
ing
Styl
e In
vent
ory
deve
lope
d by
Mal
colm
and
pre
viou
sly
sold
by
HR
D P
ress
; and
add
ing
refle
ctio
n qu
estio
ns t
o th
e en
d of
eac
h ch
apte
r. W
e ho
pe y
ou w
ill a
gree
that
we
have
onl
y im
prov
ed u
pon
the
very
suc
cess
ful 5
thed
ition
.
Eac
h of
the
thr
ee p
arts
of
The
Adu
lt L
earn
erha
ve t
heir
ow
nst
yle.
Whi
le t
he v
oice
s ar
e va
ried
, the
mes
sage
s ar
e ha
rmon
ious
. The
-
mes
sage
s of
lif
elon
g le
arni
ng,
fait
h in
the
hum
an s
piri
t, a
nd t
he r
ole
that
adu
lt l
earn
ing
prof
essi
onal
s pl
ay i
n th
e ad
ult
lear
ning
pro
cess
com
e th
roug
h ch
apte
r by
cha
pter
.
Our
hop
e is
tha
t th
is n
ew e
diti
on o
f T
he A
dult
Lea
rner
, an
d it
spo
tent
ial
to a
dvan
ce a
dult
lea
rnin
g w
here
ver
it i
s pr
acti
ced,
is
real
-iz
ed a
nd t
hat
Mal
colm
Kno
wle
s v
isio
n co
ntin
ues
to t
hriv
e in
thi
sne
w c
entu
ry.
We
wou
ld li
ke t
o th
ank
seve
ral c
olle
ague
s fo
r th
eir
help
at
vari
ous
poin
ts in
thi
s ef
fort
. Sha
ron
Naq
uin
prov
ided
man
y ho
urs
of c
aref
ulcr
itiq
ue a
nd r
esea
rch
that
wer
e in
valu
able
. W
e al
so a
ppre
ciat
e th
ead
vice
fro
m o
ur c
olle
ague
s R
eid
A.
Bat
es,
Har
old
Stub
blef
ield
,R
icha
rd J
.To
rrac
o, a
nd A
lber
t K
. W
isw
ell
for
crit
iqui
ng t
he m
anu-
scri
pt.
Fina
lly,
than
ks t
o ou
r fa
mili
es w
ho c
onti
nue
to b
elie
ve t
hat
our
wor
k is
impo
rtan
t an
d w
orth
the
sac
rifi
ces. E
lwoo
d F.
Hol
ton
III
Lou
isia
na S
tate
Uni
vers
ity
Ric
hard
A.
Swan
son
Uni
vers
ity
of M
inne
sota
xii
CH
AP
TE
R
1
Intr
od
uct
ion
In t
he e
arly
197
0s w
hen
andr
agog
y an
d th
e co
ncep
t th
at a
dult
san
d ch
ildre
n le
arn
diff
eren
tly
was
fir
st i
ntro
duce
d in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es
by
Mal
colm
K
now
les,
th
e id
ea
was
gr
ound
brea
king
an
dsp
arke
d m
uch
subs
eque
nt r
esea
rch
and
cont
rove
rsy.
Sin
ce t
he e
arli-
est
days
, ad
ult
educ
ator
s ha
ve d
ebat
ed w
hat
andr
agog
y re
ally
is.
Spur
red
in l
arge
par
t by
the
nee
d fo
r a
defi
ning
the
ory
wit
hin
the
fiel
d of
adu
lt e
duca
tion
, an
drag
ogy
has
been
ext
ensi
vely
ana
lyze
dan
d cr
itiq
ued.
It
has
been
alt
erna
tely
des
crib
ed a
s a
set
of g
uide
lines
(Mer
riam
, 19
93),
a p
hilo
soph
y (P
ratt
, 19
93),
a s
et o
f as
sum
ptio
ns(B
rook
fiel
d, 1
986)
, an
d a
theo
ry (
Kno
wle
s, 1
989)
. T
he d
ispa
rity
of
thes
e po
siti
ons
is i
ndic
ativ
e of
the
per
plex
ing
natu
re o
f th
e fi
eld
ofad
ult
lear
ning
; bu
t re
gard
less
of
wha
t it
is
calle
d,
it i
s an
hon
est
atte
mpt
to fo
cus
on th
e le
arne
r. In
this
sen
se, i
t doe
s pr
ovid
e an
alt
er-
nati
ve to
the
met
hodo
logy
-cen
tere
d in
stru
ctio
nal d
esig
n pe
rspe
ctiv
e(F
eur
and
Ger
ber,
1988
). M
erri
am, i
n ex
plai
ning
the
com
plex
ity
and
pres
ent
cond
itio
n of
adu
lt le
arni
ng t
heor
y, o
ffer
s th
e fo
llow
ing:
It i
s do
ubtf
ul t
hat
a ph
enom
enon
as
com
plex
as
adul
t le
arni
ngw
ill e
ver
be e
xpla
ined
by
a si
ngle
the
ory,
mod
el o
r se
t of
pri
nci-
ples
. In
stea
d, w
e ha
ve a
cas
e of
the
pro
verb
ial
elep
hant
bei
ngde
scri
bed
diff
eren
tly
depe
ndin
g on
who
is t
alki
ng a
nd o
n w
hich
part
of
the
anim
al i
s ex
amin
ed.
In t
he f
irst
hal
f of
thi
s ce
ntur
y,ps
ycho
logi
sts
took
the
lead
in e
xpla
inin
g le
arni
ng b
ehav
ior;
from
the
1960
s on
war
d, a
dult
edu
cato
rs b
egan
for
mul
atin
g th
eir
own
idea
s ab
out
adul
t le
arni
ng a
nd, i
n pa
rtic
ular
, abo
ut h
ow it
mig
htdi
ffer
fro
m l
earn
ing
in c
hild
hood
. B
oth
of t
hese
app
roac
hes
are
still
ope
rati
ve. W
here
we
are
head
ed, i
t se
ems,
is t
owar
d a
mul
ti-
face
ted
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
adu
lt l
earn
ing,
ref
lect
ing
the
inhe
rent
rich
ness
and
com
plex
ity
of t
he p
heno
men
on.
1
-
Des
pite
yea
rs o
f cri
tiqu
e, d
ebat
e, a
nd c
halle
nge,
the
core
pri
ncip
les
of a
dult
lea
rnin
g ad
vanc
ed b
y an
drag
ogy
have
end
ured
(D
aven
port
and
Dav
enpo
rt,
1985
; H
artr
ee,
1984
; Pr
att,
198
8),
and
few
adu
ltle
arni
ng s
chol
ars
wou
ld d
isag
ree
wit
h th
e ob
serv
atio
n th
at K
now
les
idea
s sp
arke
d a
revo
luti
on in
adu
lt e
duca
tion
and
tra
inin
g (F
eur
and
Ger
ber,
1988
). B
rook
fiel
d (1
986)
, po
siti
ng a
sim
ilar
view
, as
sert
sth
at a
ndra
gogy
is t
he
sing
le m
ost
popu
lar
idea
in t
he e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
of
adul
ts.
Adu
lt e
duca
tors
, pa
rtic
ular
ly b
egin
ning
one
s,fi
nd t
hese
cor
e pr
inci
ples
inv
alua
ble
in s
hapi
ng t
he l
earn
ing
proc
ess
to b
e m
ore
cond
uciv
e to
adu
lts.
It i
s be
yond
the
sco
pe o
f th
is i
ntro
duct
ory
book
to
addr
ess
the
man
y di
men
sion
s of
the
the
oret
ical
deb
ate
rais
ed in
aca
dem
ic c
ircl
es.
Our
pos
itio
n is
that
and
rago
gy p
rese
nts
core
pri
ncip
les
of a
dult
lear
n-in
g th
at in
tur
n en
able
tho
se d
esig
ning
and
con
duct
ing
adul
t le
arni
ngto
bui
ld m
ore
effe
ctiv
e le
arni
ng p
roce
sses
for
adu
lts.
It
is a
tra
nsac
-ti
onal
mod
el i
n th
at i
t sp
eaks
to
the
char
acte
rist
ics
of t
he l
earn
ing
tran
sact
ion,
not
to
the
goal
s an
d ai
ms
of t
hat
tran
sact
ion.
As
such
,it
is
appl
icab
le t
o an
y ad
ult
lear
ning
tra
nsac
tion
, fr
om c
omm
unit
yed
ucat
ion
to h
uman
res
ourc
e de
velo
pmen
t in
org
aniz
atio
ns.
Car
e m
ust
be t
aken
to
avoi
d co
nfus
ing
core
pri
ncip
les
of t
he a
dult
lear
ning
tran
sact
ion
wit
h th
e go
als
and
purp
oses
for
whi
ch th
e le
arn-
ing
even
t is
bei
ng c
ondu
cted
. The
y ar
e co
ncep
tual
ly d
isti
nct,
tho
ugh
as a
pra
ctic
al m
atte
r m
ay o
verl
ap c
onsi
dera
bly.
Cri
tiqu
es o
f an
dra-
gogy
poi
nt to
mis
sing
ele
men
ts th
at k
eep
it fr
om b
eing
a d
efin
ing
the-
ory
of t
he d
isci
plin
e of
adu
lt e
duca
tion
(Dav
enpo
rt a
nd D
aven
port
,19
85; G
race
, 199
6; H
artr
ee, 1
984)
, not
of
adul
t le
arni
ng. G
race
, for
exam
ple,
cri
tici
zes
andr
agog
y fo
r fo
cusi
ng s
olel
y on
the
ind
ivid
ual
and
not
oper
atin
g fr
om a
cri
tica
l soc
ial a
gend
a or
deb
atin
g th
e re
la-
tion
ship
of a
dult
edu
cati
on to
soc
iety
. Thi
s cr
itic
ism
ref
lect
s th
e go
als
and
purp
oses
of
adul
t ed
ucat
ion.
Hum
an r
esou
rce
deve
lope
rs i
nor
gani
zati
ons
will
hav
e a
diff
eren
t se
t of
goa
ls a
nd p
urpo
ses,
whi
chan
drag
ogy
does
not
em
brac
e ei
ther
. C
omm
unit
y he
alth
edu
cato
rsm
ay
have
ye
t an
othe
r se
t of
go
als
and
purp
oses
th
at
are
not
embr
aced
.
The
rein
lie
s th
e st
reng
th o
f an
drag
ogy:
It
is a
set
of
core
adu
ltle
arni
ng p
rinc
iple
s th
at a
pply
to
all
adul
t le
arni
ng s
itua
tion
s. T
hego
als
and
purp
oses
for
whi
ch t
he l
earn
ing
is o
ffer
ed a
re a
sep
arat
eis
sue.
Adu
lt e
duca
tion
(A
E)
prof
essi
onal
s sh
ould
dev
elop
and
deb
ate
mod
els
of a
dult
lea
rnin
g se
para
tely
fro
m m
odel
s of
the
goa
ls a
nd
2IN
TR
OD
UC
TIO
N
purp
oses
of
thei
r re
spec
tive
fie
lds
that
use
adu
lt l
earn
ing.
Hum
anre
sour
ce d
evel
opm
ent
(HR
D),
for
exa
mpl
e, e
mbr
aces
org
aniz
atio
nal
perf
orm
ance
as
one
of i
ts c
ore
goal
s, w
here
as a
dult
edu
cati
on m
ayfo
cus
mor
e on
indi
vidu
al g
row
th.
Hav
ing
said
that
, the
se c
ore
prin
cipl
es a
re a
lso
inco
mpl
ete
in te
rms
of le
arni
ng d
ecis
ions
. Fig
ure
1-1
grap
hica
lly s
how
s th
at a
ndra
gogy
isa
core
set
of
adul
t le
arni
ng p
rinc
iple
s. T
he s
ix p
rinc
iple
s of
and
ra-
gogy
are
(1)
the
lea
rner
s n
eed
to k
now
, (2
) se
lf-c
once
pt o
f th
ele
arne
r, (3
) pr
ior
expe
rien
ce o
f th
e le
arne
r, (4
) re
adin
ess
to le
arn,
(5)
orie
ntat
ion
to le
arni
ng, a
nd (
6) m
otiv
atio
n to
lear
n. T
hese
pri
ncip
les
are
liste
d in
the
cen
ter
of t
he m
odel
. As
you
shal
l see
in t
his
and
sub-
sequ
ent
chap
ters
, the
re a
re a
var
iety
of
othe
r fa
ctor
s th
at a
ffec
t ad
ult
lear
ning
in
any
part
icul
ar s
itua
tion
and
may
cau
se a
dult
s to
beh
ave
mor
e or
les
s cl
osel
y to
the
cor
e pr
inci
ples
. T
hese
inc
lude
ind
ivid
ual
lear
ner
and,
situ
atio
nal
diff
eren
ces,
an
d go
als
and
purp
oses
of
lear
ning
, sh
own
in t
he t
wo
oute
r ri
ngs
of t
he m
odel
. A
ndra
gogy
wor
ks b
est
in p
ract
ice
whe
n it
is a
dapt
ed t
o fi
t th
e un
ique
ness
of
the
lear
ners
and
the
lear
ning
sit
uati
on. W
e se
e th
is n
ot a
s a
wea
knes
s of
the
prin
cipl
es,
but
as a
str
engt
h. T
heir
str
engt
h is
tha
t th
ese
core
prin
cipl
es a
pply
to
all
adul
t le
arni
ng s
itua
tion
s, a
s lo
ng t
hey
are
cons
ider
ed i
n co
ncer
t w
ith
othe
r fa
ctor
s th
at a
re p
rese
nt i
n th
esi
tuat
ion.
Thi
s si
xth
edit
ion
of T
he A
dult
Lea
rner
prov
ides
a j
ourn
ey f
rom
theo
ry t
o pr
acti
ce i
n ad
ult
lear
ning
. Fi
gure
1-1
pro
vide
s a
snap
shot
sum
mar
y of
the
jou
rney
in
disp
layi
ng t
he s
ix c
ore
adul
t le
arni
ngpr
inci
ples
sur
roun
ded
by t
he c
onte
xt o
f in
divi
dual
and
sit
uati
onal
diff
eren
ces,
and
the
goa
ls a
nd p
urpo
ses
of l
earn
ing.
The
fol
low
ing
chap
ters
will
rev
eal
the
subs
tanc
e an
d su
btle
ties
of
this
hol
isti
cm
odel
of
andr
agog
y in
pra
ctic
e.
PL
AN
FO
RT
HE
BO
OK
The
fi
rst
part
of
th
e bo
ok,
The
R
oots
of
A
ndra
gogy
(C
hapt
ers
26)
, pre
sent
s th
e co
re p
rinc
iple
s of
adu
lt le
arni
ng: a
ndra
-go
gy. I
t tr
aces
the
dev
elop
men
t of
the
the
ory
and
focu
ses
on t
he c
ore
uniq
ue c
hara
cter
isti
cs o
f ad
ults
as
lear
ners
.Pa
rt 2
, A
dvan
ces
in A
dult
Lea
rnin
g,
(Cha
pter
s 7
11)
addr
esse
sth
e tw
o ou
ter
ring
s. C
hapt
er 7
dis
cuss
es i
n de
tail
the
And
rago
gy i
nPr
acti
ce m
odel
intr
oduc
ed in
this
cha
pter
and
dis
cuss
es h
ow to
app
ly
PL
AN
FO
RT
HE
BO
OK
3
-
it in
dif
fere
nt s
etti
ngs.
Cha
pter
8 d
iscu
sses
adu
lt le
arni
ng a
s pr
acti
ced
wit
hin
hum
an r
esou
rce
deve
lopm
ent.
Cha
pter
9 f
ocus
es o
n ne
wth
inki
ng a
bout
and
rago
gy a
nd e
labo
rate
s on
app
lyin
g th
e co
re p
rin-
cipl
es t
o di
ffer
ent
lear
ners
. C
hapt
er 1
0 di
scus
ses
new
adv
ance
men
tsin
the
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
adu
lt le
arni
ng th
at e
nabl
e fa
cilit
ator
s to
furt
her
4IN
TR
OD
UC
TIO
N
AN
DR
AG
OG
Y IN
PR
AC
TIC
E(K
nowl
es, H
olton
& S
wans
on, 1
998)
Go
als
and
Pu
rpo
ses
for
Lea
rnin
g
Ind
ivid
ual
an
d S
itu
atio
nal
Dif
fere
nce
s
An
dra
go
gy:
Co
re A
du
lt L
earn
ing
Pri
nci
ple
s
1 Le
arne
rs N
eed
to K
now
-w
hy-w
hat
-ho
w2
Self-
Conc
ept o
f the
Lea
rner
-auto
nom
ous
-se
lf-di
rect
ing
3 Pr
ior E
xper
ienc
e of
the
Lear
ner
-re
sourc
e-m
enta
l mod
els
4 R
eadi
ness
to L
earn
- life
rela
ted
- de
velo
pmen
tal t
ask
5 O
rient
atio
n to
Lea
rnin
g- pr
oble
m c
ente
red
- co
nte
xtua
l
6 M
otiva
tion
to L
earn
- in
trins
ic v
alue
- pe
rson
al p
ayof
f
Indi
vidu
al L
earn
er D
iffer
ence
s
Indi
vidu
al G
row
th
Institutional Growth
Subject Matter Differences
Situational Differences
Societal Growth
Figu
re 1
-1.
And
rago
gy in
pra
ctic
e (K
now
les,
Hol
ton,
and
Sw
anso
n,19
98).
adap
t ap
plic
atio
n of
the
cor
e pr
inci
ples
. C
hapt
er 1
1 su
mm
ariz
esth
ese
two
sect
ions
by
look
ing
at t
he f
utur
e of
and
rago
gy in
the
are
asof
res
earc
h an
d pr
acti
ce.
Part
3,
Pra
ctic
e in
Adu
lt L
earn
ing
(C
hapt
ers
12-1
9),
pres
ents
sele
cted
rea
ding
s th
at e
labo
rate
on
spec
ific
asp
ects
of
andr
agog
y in
prac
tice
. The
se in
clud
e st
rate
gies
to im
plem
ent t
he c
ore
assu
mpt
ions
,to
tai
lor
lear
ning
to
indi
vidu
al d
iffe
renc
es,
and
to i
mpl
emen
t ad
ult
lear
ning
in o
rgan
izat
ions
. Of
spec
ial i
nter
est
are
two
self
-ass
essm
ent
inst
rum
ents
, th
e C
ore
Com
pete
ncy
Dia
gnos
tic
and
Plan
ning
Gui
de(C
hapt
er
16)
and
the
Pers
onal
A
dult
L
earn
ing
Styl
e In
vent
ory
(Cha
pter
17)
, tha
t ena
ble
the
read
er to
beg
in a
per
sona
l dev
elop
men
tjo
urne
y in
adu
lt le
arni
ng.
RE
FL
EC
TIO
NQ
UE
ST
ION
S
1.1
Wha
t ar
e yo
ur g
ener
al t
houg
hts
on h
ow h
uman
s le
arn?
1.2
Bas
ed o
n pe
rson
al e
xper
ienc
e, w
hat
key
fact
ors
are
rela
ted
toad
ult
lear
ning
?
1.3
If y
ou u
nder
stoo
d m
ore
abou
t ho
w a
dult
s le
arn,
how
wou
ldyo
u us
e th
is in
form
atio
n?
RE
FL
EC
TIO
NQ
UE
ST
ION
S5
-
PA
RT
1
Th
e R
oo
ts o
fA
nd
rag
og
yH
isto
ry a
nd
Pri
nci
ple
s o
f C
lass
icA
nd
rag
og
ica
l A
du
lt L
earn
ing
Th
eory
CH
AP
TE
R
2
Ex
plo
rin
g t
he
Wo
rld
of
Lea
rnin
g T
heo
ry
WH
YE
XP
LO
RE
LE
AR
NIN
GT
HE
OR
Y?
Thi
s is
a g
ood
ques
tion
. Pe
rhap
s yo
u sh
ould
nt.
If
you
have
no
ques
tion
s ab
out
the
qual
ity
of l
earn
ing
in y
our
orga
niza
tion
, if
you
are
sure
its
the
bes
t it
can
be,
we
sugg
est
that
you
can
cel y
our
orde
rfo
r th
is b
ook
and
get
a re
fund
. H
owev
er,
if y
our
e a
polic
y-le
vel
lead
er,
a ch
ange
age
nt,
a le
arni
ng s
peci
alis
t, o
r a
cons
ulta
nt,
you
shou
ld s
erio
usly
con
side
r ex
plor
ing
lear
ning
the
ory.
Doi
ng s
o w
illin
crea
se y
our
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
var
ious
theo
ries
and
you
r ch
ance
s fo
rac
hiev
ing
your
des
ired
res
ults
.
Polic
y-le
vel
lead
er m
ay h
ave
such
que
stio
ns a
s: A
re o
ur H
RD
inte
rven
tion
s ba
sed
on a
ssum
ptio
ns a
bout
hum
an n
atur
e an
d or
gan-
izat
iona
l lif
e th
at a
re c
ongr
uent
wit
h th
e as
sum
ptio
ns o
n w
hich
our
man
agem
ent
polic
ies
are
base
d? I
s ou
r H
RD
pro
gram
con
trib
utin
gto
long
-run
gai
ns in
our
hum
an c
apit
al, o
r on
ly s
hort
-run
cos
t re
duc-
tion
? W
hy d
o ou
r H
RD
per
sonn
el m
ake
the
deci
sion
s th
ey d
o co
n-ce
rnin
g pr
iori
ties
, act
ivit
ies,
met
hods
and
tec
hniq
ues,
mat
eria
ls, a
ndth
e us
e of
out
side
res
ourc
es (
cons
ulta
nts,
pac
kage
pro
gram
s, h
ard-
war
e, s
oftw
are,
and
uni
vers
ity
cour
ses)
? A
re th
ese
the
best
dec
isio
ns?
How
can
I a
sses
s w
heth
er o
r no
t, o
r to
wha
t de
gree
, th
e pr
ogra
m i
spr
oduc
ing
the
resu
lts
I w
ant?
Man
ager
s m
ay h
ave
all
of t
hese
que
stio
ns p
lus
othe
rs,
such
as:
Whi
ch l
earn
ing
theo
ry i
s m
ost
appr
opri
ate
for
whi
ch k
ind
of l
earn
-in
g, o
r sh
ould
our
ent
ire
prog
ram
be
fait
hful
to
a si
ngle
lear
ning
the
-or
y? H
ow d
o I
find
out
wha
t le
arni
ng t
heor
ies
are
bein
g fo
llow
ed b
y
7
-
8E
XP
LO
RIN
GT
HE
WO
RL
DO
FL
EA
RN
ING
TH
EO
RY
the
vari
ous
cons
ulta
nts,
pa
ckag
e pr
ogra
ms,
an
d ot
her
outs
ide
reso
urce
s av
aila
ble
to u
s? W
hat
diff
eren
ce m
ight
the
ir t
heor
etic
alor
ient
atio
n m
ake
in o
ur p
rogr
am?
Wha
t ar
e th
e im
plic
atio
ns o
f th
eva
riou
s le
arni
ng t
heor
ies
for
our
prog
ram
dev
elop
men
t, s
elec
tion
and
trai
ning
of
inst
ruct
iona
l pe
rson
nel,
adm
inis
trat
ive
polic
ies
and
prac
tice
s, f
acili
ties
, and
pro
gram
eva
luat
ion?
Lea
rnin
g sp
ecia
lists
(in
stru
ctor
s, c
urri
culu
m b
uild
ers,
and
met
h-od
s, m
ater
ials
, and
med
ia d
evel
oper
s) m
ay h
ave
som
e of
tho
se q
ues-
tion
s in
add
itio
n to
the
follo
win
g: H
ow c
an I
incr
ease
my
effe
ctiv
enes
sas
a l
earn
ing
spec
ialis
t? W
hich
tec
hniq
ues
will
be
mos
t ef
fect
ive
for
part
icul
ar s
itua
tion
s? W
hich
lea
rnin
g th
eori
es a
re m
ost
cong
ruen
tw
ith
my
own
view
of
hum
an n
atur
e an
d th
e pu
rpos
e of
edu
cati
on?
Wha
t ar
e th
e im
plic
atio
ns o
f th
e va
riou
s le
arni
ng t
heor
ies
for
my
own
role
and
per
form
ance
?
Con
sult
ants
(ch
ange
age
nts,
exp
erts
, an
d ad
voca
tes)
may
hav
eso
me
of t
hese
que
stio
ns p
lus
othe
rs,
such
as:
Whi
ch l
earn
ing
theo
rysh
ould
I a
dvoc
ate
unde
r w
hat
circ
umst
ance
s? H
ow s
hall
I ex
plai
nth
e na
ture
and
con
sequ
ence
s of
the
var
ious
lea
rnin
g th
eori
es t
o m
ycl
ient
s? W
hat a
re th
e im
plic
atio
ns o
f the
var
ious
lear
ning
theo
ries
for
tota
l or
gani
zati
onal
dev
elop
men
t? W
hich
lea
rnin
g th
eory
is
mos
tco
nsis
tent
wit
h m
y co
ncep
tion
of
the
role
of
cons
ulta
nt?
A g
ood
theo
ry s
houl
d pr
ovid
e ex
plan
atio
ns o
f ph
enom
ena
as w
ell
as g
uide
lines
for
act
ion.
But
the
orie
s ab
out
hum
an b
ehav
ior
also
carr
y w
ith
them
ass
umpt
ions
abo
ut h
uman
nat
ure,
the
pur
pose
of
educ
atio
n, a
nd d
esir
able
val
ues.
Und
erst
anda
bly,
then
, a b
ette
r un
der-
stan
ding
of
the
vari
ous
lear
ning
the
orie
s w
ill r
esul
t in
bet
ter
deci
sion
sre
gard
ing
lear
ning
exp
erie
nces
and
mor
e de
sira
ble
outc
omes
.
WH
AT
ISA
TH
EO
RY?
It s
eem
s th
at m
ost
wri
ters
in
this
fie
ld d
ont
expr
essl
y de
fine
the
term
theo
ry, b
ut e
xpec
t th
eir
read
ers
to d
eriv
e it
s m
eani
ng f
rom
the
irus
e of
the
ter
m.
Torr
aco
(199
7) i
nfor
ms
us t
hat
a t
heor
y si
mpl
yex
plai
ns w
hat
a ph
enom
enon
is a
nd h
ow it
wor
ks
(p. 1
15).
Web
ster
s S
even
th N
ew I
nter
colle
giat
e D
icti
onar
ygi
ves
five
def
ini-
tion
s: (
1) t
he a
naly
sis
of a
set
of
fact
s in
the
ir r
elat
ion
to o
ne a
noth
er;
(2)
the
gene
ral
or a
bstr
act
prin
cipl
es o
f a
body
of
fact
, a
scie
nce,
or
an a
rt;
(3)
a pl
ausi
ble
or s
cien
tifi
cally
acc
epta
ble
gene
ral
prin
cipl
e
or b
ody
of p
rinc
iple
s of
fere
d to
exp
lain
phe
nom
ena;
(4)
a h
ypot
hesi
sas
sum
ed f
or t
he s
ake
of a
rgum
ent
or i
nves
tiga
tion
; (5
) ab
stra
ctth
ough
t. L
earn
ing
theo
rist
s us
e al
l fiv
e of
thes
e de
fini
tion
s in
one
way
or a
noth
er, b
ut w
ith
wid
e va
riat
ions
in t
heir
usa
ge:
Her
e, f
or e
xam
ple,
are
som
e de
fini
tion
s by
usa
ge in
con
text
.
The
res
earc
h w
orke
r ne
eds
a se
t of a
ssum
ptio
ns a
s a
star
ting
poin
tto
gui
de w
hat
he/s
he d
oes,
to
be t
este
d by
exp
erim
ent,
or t
o se
rve
as a
che
ck o
n ob
serv
atio
ns a
nd i
nsig
hts.
With
out
any
theo
ry,
rese
arch
er a
ctiv
ities
may
be
as a
imle
ss a
nd a
s w
aste
ful a
s th
e ea
rly
wan
deri
ngs
of t
he e
xplo
rers
in N
orth
Am
eric
a . .
. kn
owle
dge
ofth
eory
alw
ays
aids
pra
ctic
e. (
Kid
d, 1
959,
pp.
134
135)
A s
cien
tist
, w
ith
the
desi
re t
o sa
tisf
y hi
s/he
r cu
rios
ity
abou
t th
efa
cts
of n
atur
e, h
as a
pre
dile
ctio
n fo
r or
deri
ng h
is/h
er f
acts
int
osy
stem
s of
law
s an
d th
eori
es. H
e/sh
e is
inte
rest
ed n
ot o
nly
in v
er-
ifie
d fa
cts
and
rela
tion
ship
s, b
ut in
nea
t an
d pa
rsim
onio
us w
ays
of s
umm
ariz
ing
thes
e fa
cts.
(H
ilgar
d an
d B
ower
, 196
6, p
p.1
2)
Eve
ry m
anag
eria
l ac
t re
sts
on a
ssum
ptio
ns,
gene
raliz
atio
ns,
and
hypo
thes
es
that
is t
o sa
y, o
n th
eory
. (M
cGre
gor,
1960
, p.6
)
Few
peo
ple,
oth
er t
han
theo
rist
s, e
ver
get
exci
ted
abou
t th
eori
es.
The
orie
s, l
ike
vege
tabl
es a
nd t
elev
ised
gol
f to
urna
men
ts,
don
ttr
igge
r pr
ovoc
ativ
e re
acti
ons
from
peo
ple.
Mos
t th
eori
es, e
xcep
tth
ose
that
are
tru
ly r
evol
utio
nary
, su
ch a
s th
e co
ntri
butio
ns o
fN
ewto
n, E
inst
ein,
and
Dar
win
, ju
st d
o th
eir
jobs
qui
etly
beh
ind
the
scen
es. T
hey
may
incr
ease
our
und
erst
andi
ng o
f a
real
-wor
ldev
ent
or b
ehav
ior
or t
hey
may
hel
p us
pre
dict
wha
t w
ill h
appe
nin
a g
iven
situ
atio
n. B
ut t
hey
do s
o w
ithou
t a
lot
of f
anfa
re.
(Tor
raco
, 199
7, p
.114
)
From
the
se e
xcer
pts
and
pers
pect
ives
we
can
see
that
a t
heor
y ca
nbe
a g
uidi
ng s
et o
f as
sum
ptio
ns (
Kid
d),
an o
rder
ing
syst
em t
hat
neat
ly s
umm
ariz
es t
he f
acts
(H
ilgar
d an
d B
ower
), a
nd/o
r as
sum
p-ti
ons,
gen
eral
izat
ions
, an
d hy
poth
eses
(M
cGre
gor)
. A
nd,
as T
orra
copo
ints
out
, th
eori
es c
an b
e ta
cit.
Yet
, w
e m
ust
exam
ine
anot
her
impo
rtan
t pe
rspe
ctiv
e: t
he f
act
that
the
re a
re s
ome
psyc
holo
gist
sw
ho d
ont
belie
ve i
n th
eori
es a
t al
l. Fo
r ex
ampl
e, S
kinn
er o
bjec
ts t
oth
eori
es o
n th
e sc
ore
that
the
hyp
othe
sis-
form
ulat
ion-
and-
test
ing
WH
AT
ISA
TH
EO
RY?
9
-
proc
edur
es t
hey
gene
rate
are
was
tefu
l and
mis
lead
ing.
T
hey
usua
llyse
nd t
he i
nves
tiga
tor
dow
n th
e w
rong
pat
hs,
and
even
if
the
scie
n-ti
fic
logi
c m
akes
the
m s
elf-
corr
ecti
ng, t
he p
aths
bac
k ar
e st
rew
n w
ith
disc
arde
d th
eori
es
(Hilg
ard
and
Bow
er,
1966
, p.
143)
. Sk
inne
rbe
lieve
s th
at t
he e
nd r
esul
t of
sci
enti
fic
inve
stig
atio
n is
a
desc
ribe
dfu
ncti
onal
rel
atio
nshi
p de
mon
stra
ted
in t
he d
ata.
A
fter
rev
iew
ing
the
clas
sica
l the
orie
s, h
e co
mes
to
the
conc
lusi
on t
hat
suc
h th
eori
esar
e no
w o
f hi
stor
ical
int
eres
t on
ly,
and
unfo
rtun
atel
y, m
uch
of t
hew
ork
whi
ch w
as d
one
to s
uppo
rt t
hem
is a
lso
of li
ttle
cur
rent
val
ue.
We
may
tur
n in
stea
d to
a m
ore
adeq
uate
ana
lysi
s of
the
cha
nges
whi
ch t
ake
plac
e as
a s
tude
nt le
arns
(S
kinn
er, 1
968,
p.8
).
Sim
ilarl
y, G
agne
(19
65)
wri
tes,
I
do n
ot t
hink
lea
rnin
g is
a p
he-
nom
enon
whi
ch c
an b
e ex
plai
ned
by s
impl
e th
eori
es,
desp
ite
the
adm
itte
d in
telle
ctua
l app
eal t
hat
such
the
orie
s ha
ve
(p. v
). H
e go
eson
to
expl
ain,
how
ever
, th
at a
num
ber
of u
sefu
l ge
nera
lizat
ions
can
be m
ade
abou
t cl
asse
s of
per
form
ance
cha
nge,
whi
ch h
e de
scri
bes
asco
ndit
ions
of
lear
ning
.
Whe
re d
oes
all
this
lea
ve u
s in
ans
wer
ing
the
ques
tion
, W
hat
is a
theo
ry?
Perh
aps
the
only
rea
listi
c an
swer
is
that
a t
heor
y is
wha
t a
give
n au
thor
say
s it
is. I
f yo
u w
ant
to u
nder
stan
d hi
s or
her
thi
nkin
gyo
u ha
ve t
o go
alo
ng w
ith
his
or h
er d
efin
itio
ns. S
o he
re is
our
def
i-ni
tion
:A t
heor
y is
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
, coh
eren
t, a
nd in
tern
ally
con
sis-
tent
sys
tem
of
idea
s ab
out
a se
t of
phe
nom
ena.
WH
AT
ISL
EA
RN
IN
G?
Any
dis
cuss
ion
of a
def
init
ion
of l
earn
ing
mus
t be
pre
face
d w
ith
an i
mpo
rtan
t an
d fr
eque
ntly
mad
e di
stin
ctio
nth
e on
e be
twee
ned
ucat
ion
and
lear
ning
.
Edu
cati
onis
an
acti
vity
und
erta
ken
or i
niti
ated
by
one
or m
ore
agen
ts t
hat
is d
esig
ned
to e
ffec
t ch
ange
s in
the
kno
wle
dge,
ski
ll,
and
atti
tude
s of
ind
ivid
uals
, gr
oups
, or
com
mun
itie
s. T
he t
erm
emph
asiz
es t
he e
duca
tor,
the
age
nt o
f ch
ange
who
pre
sent
s st
im-
uli
and
rein
forc
emen
t fo
r le
arni
ng a
nd d
esig
ns a
ctiv
itie
s to
ind
uce
chan
ge.
The
ter
m l
earn
ing,
by
cont
rast
, em
phas
izes
the
per
son
in w
hom
the
chan
ge o
ccur
s or
is
expe
cted
to
occu
r. L
earn
ing
is t
he a
ct o
rpr
oces
s by
whi
ch b
ehav
iora
l cha
nge,
kno
wle
dge,
ski
lls, a
nd a
ttit
udes
are
acqu
ired
(B
oyd,
App
s, e
tal
., pp
.100
101
).
10E
XP
LO
RIN
GT
HE
WO
RL
DO
FL
EA
RN
ING
TH
EO
RY
Hav
ing
mad
e th
is d
isti
ncti
on, w
e ca
n pr
ocee
d w
ith
our
defi
niti
on o
fle
arni
ng.
How
ever
, de
fini
ng l
earn
ing,
lik
e de
fini
ng t
heor
y, c
an p
rove
com
plic
ated
. So
me
lear
ning
the
oris
ts a
sser
t th
at d
efin
ing
lear
ning
is
diff
icul
t, w
hile
sti
ll ot
hers
mai
ntai
n th
at th
ere
is n
o ba
sic
disa
gree
men
tab
out
the
defi
niti
on o
f le
arni
ng b
etw
een
the
theo
ries
. Sm
ith
(198
2)su
mm
ariz
es t
he d
iffi
cult
y of
def
inin
g le
arni
ng in
the
se w
ords
:
It h
as b
een
sugg
este
d th
at t
he t
erm
lear
ning
def
ies
prec
ise
defi
ni-
tion
bec
ause
it is
put
to m
ulti
ple
uses
. Lea
rnin
g is
use
d to
ref
er to
(1)
the
acqu
isit
ion
and
mas
tery
of
wha
t is
alr
eady
kno
wn
abou
tso
met
hing
, (2)
the
exte
nsio
n an
d cl
arif
icat
ion
of m
eani
ng o
f one
sex
peri
ence
, or
(3)
an
orga
nize
d, i
nten
tion
al p
roce
ss o
f te
stin
gid
eas
rele
vant
to
prob
lem
s. I
n ot
her
wor
ds, i
t is
use
d to
des
crib
ea
prod
uct,
a p
roce
ss, o
r a
func
tion
. (p.
34)
In c
ontr
ast,
Ern
est
Hilg
ard,
one
of
our
mos
t di
stin
guis
hed
con-
tem
pora
ry i
nter
pret
ers
of l
earn
ing
theo
ry,
conc
lude
s th
at t
he d
ebat
ece
nter
s on
inte
rpre
tati
on a
nd n
ot d
efin
itio
n.
Whi
le i
t is
ext
rem
ely
diff
icul
t to
for
mul
ate
a sa
tisf
acto
ry d
efin
i-ti
on o
f le
arni
ng s
o as
to
incl
ude
all
the
acti
viti
es a
nd p
roce
sses
whi
ch w
e w
ish
to in
clud
e an
d el
imin
ate
all t
hose
whi
ch w
e w
ish
to e
xclu
de,
the
diff
icul
ty d
oes
not
prov
e to
be
emba
rras
sing
beca
use
it is
not
a s
ourc
e of
con
trov
ersy
as
betw
een
theo
ries
. The
cont
rove
rsy
is o
ver
fact
and
int
erpr
etat
ion,
not
ove
r de
fini
tion
.(H
ilgar
d an
d B
ower
, 196
6, p
.6)
Thi
s ge
nera
lizat
ion
appe
ars
to h
old
wit
h re
gard
to
thos
e le
arni
ngth
eori
sts
who
dom
inat
ed t
he f
ield
unt
il re
cent
ly,
alth
ough
the
re a
rest
riki
ng v
aria
tion
s in
the
deg
ree
of p
reci
sion
am
ong
them
. Let
s s
tart
wit
h th
ree
defi
niti
ons
by d
iffe
rent
aut
hors
as
pres
ente
d in
Rea
ding
sin
Hum
an L
earn
ing.
Lea
rnin
g in
volv
es c
hang
e. It
is c
once
rned
wit
h th
e ac
quis
itio
n of
habi
ts,
know
ledg
e, a
nd a
ttit
udes
. It
ena
bles
the
ind
ivid
ual
tom
ake
both
per
sona
l and
soc
ial a
djus
tmen
ts. S
ince
the
conc
ept o
fch
ange
is
inhe
rent
in
the
conc
ept
of l
earn
ing,
any
cha
nge
inbe
havi
or im
plie
s th
at le
arni
ng is
tak
ing
plac
e or
has
tak
en p
lace
.L
earn
ing
that
oc
curs
du
ring
th
e pr
oces
s of
ch
ange
ca
n be
refe
rred
to
as t
he le
arni
ng p
roce
ss. (
Cro
w a
nd C
row
, 196
3, p
.1)
WH
AT
ISL
EA
RN
ING
?11
-
Lea
rnin
g is
a c
hang
e in
the
ind
ivid
ual,
due
to t
he i
nter
acti
on o
fth
at i
ndiv
idua
l, an
d hi
s en
viro
nmen
t, w
hich
fill
s a
need
and
mak
es h
im m
ore
capa
ble
of d
ealin
g ad
equa
tely
wit
h hi
s en
viro
n-m
ent.
(B
urto
n, 1
963,
p.7
)
The
re is
a r
emar
kabl
e ag
reem
ent
upon
the
def
init
ion
of le
arni
ngas
bei
ng r
efle
cted
in a
cha
nge
in b
ehav
ior
as t
he r
esul
t of
exp
eri-
ence
. (H
agga
rd, 1
963,
p.2
0)
The
last
not
ion
impl
ies
that
we
don
t di
rect
ly k
now
wha
t le
arni
ngis
, but
can
onl
y in
fer
wha
t it
is. T
his
idea
is s
uppo
rted
by
Cro
nbac
h(1
963)
, w
ho s
tate
d,
Lea
rnin
g is
sho
wn
by a
cha
nge
in b
ehav
ior
asa
resu
lt o
f ex
peri
ence
(p
. 71
). H
arri
s an
d Sc
hwah
n (1
961)
go
back
to,
Lea
rnin
g is
ess
enti
ally
cha
nge
due
to e
xper
ienc
e,
but
then
go
on t
o di
stin
guis
h am
ong
lear
ning
as
prod
uct,
whi
ch e
mph
asiz
es t
heen
d re
sult
or
outc
ome
of th
e le
arni
ng e
xper
ienc
e, le
arni
ng a
s pr
oces
s,w
hich
em
phas
izes
wha
t ha
ppen
s du
ring
the
cou
rse
of a
lea
rnin
gex
peri
ence
in
atta
inin
g a
give
n le
arni
ng p
rodu
ct o
r ou
tcom
e, a
ndle
arni
ng a
s fu
ncti
on,
whi
ch e
mph
asiz
es c
erta
in c
riti
cal
aspe
cts
ofle
arni
ng, s
uch
as m
otiv
atio
n, r
eten
tion
, and
tra
nsfe
r, w
hich
pre
sum
-ab
ly m
ake
beha
vior
al c
hang
es in
hum
an le
arni
ng p
ossi
ble
(pp.
12
).
Oth
ers
take
car
e to
dis
ting
uish
bet
wee
n pl
anne
d le
arni
ng a
nd n
at-
ural
gro
wth
.
Lea
rnin
g is
a c
hang
e in
hum
an d
ispo
siti
on o
r ca
pabi
lity,
whi
chca
n be
ret
aine
d, a
nd w
hich
is n
ot s
impl
y as
crib
able
to th
e pr
oces
sof
gro
wth
. (G
agne
, 196
5, p
.5)
Lea
rnin
g is
the
pro
cess
by
whi
ch a
n ac
tivi
ty o
rigi
nate
s or
is
chan
ged
thro
ugh
reac
ting
to
an e
ncou
nter
ed s
itua
tion
, pr
ovid
edth
at
the
char
acte
rist
ics
of
the
chan
ge
in
acti
vity
ca
nnot
be
expl
aine
d on
the
basi
s of
nat
ive
resp
onse
tend
enci
es, m
atur
atio
n,or
tem
pora
ry s
tate
s of
the
org
anis
m (
e.g.
, fa
tigu
e, d
rugs
, et
c.).
(Hilg
ard
and
Bow
er, 1
966,
p.2
)
The
con
cept
s of
con
trol
and
sha
ping
lie
at
the
hear
t of
Ski
nner
s(1
968)
tr
eatm
ent
of
lear
ning
: (1
) R
ecen
t im
prov
emen
ts
in
the
cond
itio
ns w
hich
con
trol
beh
avio
r in
the
fie
ld o
f le
arni
ng a
re o
f tw
opr
inci
pal s
orts
. The
Law
of
Eff
ect
has
been
tak
en s
erio
usly
; we
have
mad
e su
re t
hat
effe
cts
do o
ccur
und
er c
ondi
tion
s w
hich
are
opt
imal
12E
XP
LO
RIN
GT
HE
WO
RL
DO
FL
EA
RN
ING
TH
EO
RY
for
prod
ucin
g ch
ange
s ca
lled
lear
ning
[c
ontr
ol]
and
(2)
Onc
e w
eha
ve a
rran
ged
the
part
icul
ar t
ype
of c
onse
quen
ce c
alle
d a
rein
forc
e-m
ent,
our
tec
hniq
ues
perm
it u
s to
sha
pe t
he b
ehav
ior
of a
n or
gani
smal
mos
t at
will
(p.
10).
Cle
arly
, the
se le
arni
ng t
heor
ists
(an
d m
ost
of t
heir
pre
curs
ors
and
man
y of
the
ir c
onte
mpo
rari
es)
see
lear
ning
as
a pr
oces
s by
whi
chbe
havi
or is
cha
nged
, sha
ped,
or
cont
rolle
d. O
ther
the
oris
ts p
refe
r to
defi
ne l
earn
ing
in t
erm
s of
gro
wth
, de
velo
pmen
t of
com
pete
ncie
s,an
d fu
lfill
men
t of
pot
enti
al.
Jero
me
Bru
ner
(196
6),
for
exam
ple,
obse
rves
, I
t is
eas
y en
ough
to
use
one
s ch
osen
the
ory
for
expl
ain-
ing
mod
ific
atio
ns
in
beha
vior
as
an
in
stru
men
t fo
r de
scri
bing
grow
th; t
here
are
so
man
y as
pect
s of
gro
wth
that
any
theo
ry c
an fi
ndso
met
hing
tha
t it
can
exp
lain
wel
l. H
e th
en l
ists
the
fol
low
ing
ben
chm
arks
abo
ut t
he n
atur
e of
int
elle
ctua
l gr
owth
aga
inst
whi
chto
mea
sure
one
s e
ffor
ts a
t ex
plan
atio
n:
1.G
row
th
is
char
acte
rize
d by
in
crea
sing
in
depe
nden
ce
ofre
spon
se f
rom
the
imm
edia
te n
atur
e of
the
sti
mul
us.
2.G
row
th d
epen
ds u
pon
inte
rnal
izin
g ev
ents
into
a
stor
age
sys-
tem
th
at c
orre
spon
ds t
o th
e en
viro
nmen
t.
3.In
telle
ctua
l gr
owth
inv
olve
s an
inc
reas
ing
capa
city
to
say
toon
esel
f an
d ot
hers
, by
mea
ns o
f w
ords
or
sym
bols
, w
hat
one
has
done
or
wha
t on
e w
ill d
o.
4.In
telle
ctua
l de
velo
pmen
t de
pend
s up
on a
sys
tem
atic
and
con
-ti
ngen
t in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n a
tuto
r an
d a
lear
ner.
5.Te
achi
ng is
vas
tly
faci
litat
ed b
y th
e m
ediu
m o
f la
ngua
ge, w
hich
ends
by
bein
g no
t onl
y th
e m
ediu
m fo
r ex
chan
ge b
ut th
e in
stru
-m
ent
that
the
lea
rner
can
the
n us