Download - The Decline of the Roman Republic DRAFT 2

Research Paper

Jeremy Olson

August 29, 2005

The Fall of the Roman Republic 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction 2

II. The Struggle of Orders 2

III. Expansion 2

A. The loss of “Civic Virtue” 2

b. The Roman soldier’s relationship with his state and his gen-eral 2

IV. Ambitious Politicians2

A. Tiberius Gracchus 2

B. Gaius Gracchus 2

C. Marius and Sulla 2

D. Gaius Julius Caesar 2

V. Conclusion 2


THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN REPUB-

LIC

I. IntroductionThe definition of a “republic” according to the Oxford American Dictio-

nary is “a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.”1

In 509 BC, the destiny of a little city on the coast of Italy, and indeed,

the history of the world, was altered forever. This is because in 509 BC the

Roman Republic was officially established. If this event did not take place,

the geographical borders of today’s modern nations would be dramatically

altered, and the world situation would be something entirely different than

what it is today. This is because Rome would not have become successful

had it allowed itself to be ruled by kings and potential tyrants such as Tar-

qinius Superbus: the last king of Rome. Under the Republic, Rome eventually

became the only superpower in the entire western world. Before the Roman

Republic was established, Rome was threatened by many rivals. Under the

rule of the Republic, those rivals became no more.

There was no one reason that the Roman Republic fell. Throughout the

Roman Republic’s history (approximately 509 BC to 27 BC2) there were nu-

merous events, personalities, and laws that can be considered as contribut-

ing factors to the decline of the Roman Republic. The first of these factors

was the struggle of the orders, in which the majority of the Roman people

known as plebeians, fought for their rights. The second factor was Rome’s

tremendous expansion in and around the year 146 BC3 and the issue of that

expansion. The third and last major factor is ambitious politicians who took

advantage of the previous factors to strengthen their cause and, ultimately,

1 “Republic,” Oxford American Dictionaries, 2005 ed.2 Erich Gruen, “Ancient Rome,” World Book Encyclopedia, 1997 ed.3 Richard Hooker, The Punic Wars, 1996, Washington State University, June 7, 2005<http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/Rome/Rome.HTM>.


contort the Roman Republic into a state in which neither the people, nor

their elected representatives, were the sovereign rulers, but rather a

supreme ruler or emperor, backed by his army, ruled Rome with unques-

tioned authority.


II. The Struggle of OrdersThroughout the history of the Roman Republic, there was an ongoing

struggle between the social classes of Rome. This struggle is widely known as the struggle of the orders1 and was one of the major factors that led to the fall of the Roman Republic.

The founding of Rome is shrouded in ancient legends and myths which

make it impossible to define any solid truth.2 The Romans credited a man

named Aeneas as the founder of the Roman people because his relative,

Reah Silvia, was the mother of Romulus, who was the supposed founder of

Rome.3 There is much mythology involved in the story of Romulus, but there

is no clear alternative. Consequently, the story of Romulus is generally used

to describe the founding of Rome.

According to Plutarch, Romulus opened his city to fugitives and travel-

ers from neigboring lands. Many came seeking a new life or the protection of

Rome’s walls. Once the city was adequately populated, Romulus appointed

100 senators to assist him in ruling Rome. These senators and their families

became the “Patres,” the fathers of Rome.4 The descendants of these 100

senators were called the patricians.5 Around 40 years after Rome was built,

Romulus disappeared in a storm and was never seen again6. He had ruled

from approximately 753 BC to 715 BC.

1 "ancient Rome." Encyclopædia Britannica, 2005, Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service 21 June 2005 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=26592>.2 Christopher Heaton, Founding of Rome, 2003, UNRV History, June 21, 2005 <http://www.unrv.com/empire/founding.php>.3 Titus Livius, History of Rome, Book 1: The Earliest Legends, 5 vols. (New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., 1905) 1.4 (Original text written somewhere be-tween 59 BC and 17 AD).4 Plutarch, The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, ed. Britannica Great Books, 1 vols. (Chicago, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1952) 19 (original text written in 75 AD).5 Titus Livius, 1.8.6 Titus Livius, 1.16.


After a year of turmoil, a new king was chosen, the second out of

seven. For the most part, the kings after Romulus ruled honorably and justly

though there is not much solid information about them.7 The sixth king,

Servius, created a law that allowed any man to hold positions of power if he

had gained a certain amount of wealth. This law enraged the noble patrician

class in which positions of power had previously been reserved. In 534 BC,

with the encouragement of the nobles, Servius’ son in law, Lucius Tarquinius,

cruelly murdered Servius and became king8. Though the Republic had not

yet been established, this is the first example of the patrician class forfeiting

their own rights through their jealousy.

Tarquinius ruled with cruelty and murdered many senators, disregard-

ing all counsel the senators provided. Tarquinius’ tyrannical rule caused the

Roman people to despise the absolute authority the kings had over Rome,

though they had not yet reached the breaking point of rebellion.

According to the Roman Historian Titus Livius, in 510 BC, the funda-

mental last straw took place when Tarquin’s son, forced Lucretia, a patrician

noblewoman, to commit adultery with him.9 When the patrician men came

back from war, Lucretia made them swear revenge and thrust a hidden dag-

ger into her own heart. Tarquin’s family was cast out of Rome in a revolt led

by Lucretia’s husband and his friend Brutus. The Senate then voted to never

again allow a king to rule over Rome, and in 509 BC, formed a republican

government.10 It is very possible that the rape of Lucretia is mere legend and

that there was no definitive event that led to the fall of monarchy in Rome,

but the story of Lucretia is the only account of events that is available.

In southern Italy, the cities chose one among them as an executive or

president. In place of a king, the Senate chose to have two executive admin-

istrators to avoid the unreliability of a single executive. The executives had

to be patrician (a descendant of the original 100 senators) and they were

called “consuls.”11 Each consul was given the right to veto any move by the

other consul, an attempt to keep balance in the Republic. The consuls would

7 Christopher Heaton, Kings of Rome, 2003, UNRV History, June 21, 2005 <http://www.unrv.com/empire/kings-of-rome.php>.8 Titus Livius, 1.48.9 Titus Livius, 1.57.10 Titus Livius, 2.1.


serve a one year term and then the people would vote for a pair of different

consuls. The consuls were essentially the leaders of the government along

with functioning as commanders of the military, governors of provinces, and

curators of public works.12

The Senate, composed of patrician citizens, served as the legislative

branch of government and as an advisory body (thus the name: senatus,

“counsel of elders”). Ex-consuls were required to serve in the Senate after

their term as consul was over, so the consuls were careful to cultivate their

relationship with the Senate throughout their consulship. According to

Richard Hooker, a Washington State University Professor, the result was that

“the consuls did not exercise much initiative or creativity, so Roman govern-

ment tended to be highly conservative and cautious.”13

The ultimate position of power in the Roman government was the dic-

tatorship, which was only relevant when Rome was in significant danger. A

dictator elected by the people had supreme authority over Rome and her

military in the case of an emergency. The dictators were elected for short pe-

riods of time, but in the last stages of the Republic, the ultimate goal of a Ro-

man politician was to be elected dictator for life.

The initial Republican constitution, one which was based merely on tra-

ditions and not a written document, was flawed in that all the governmental

power was put into the hands of a single group of citizens, the patricians.

These were the descendants of the first senators; the patricians were the

only citizens who had access to political offices in Rome. This led to oppres-

sion of the rest of the Roman citizens, the plebeians, who had no real repre-

sentatives in the government.14 The only influence the plebeians had on the

government was through the citizen assemblies, in which politicians would

11 Christopher Heaton, Struggle of the Orders, 2003, UNRV History, June 7, 2005<http://www.unrv.com/empire/struggle-of-the-orders.php>.12 Christopher Heaton, Roman consuls, 2003, UNRV History, June 7, 2005<http://www.unrv.com/government/consuls.php>.13 Richard Hooker, The Roman Republic, 1996, Washington State Univer-sity, June 7, 2005<http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/Rome/Rome.HTM>.14 Hooker, The Roman Republic.


http://www.unrv.com/government/consuls.php

bring legislation to the plebeians for voting. Because only the patricians were

allowed into positions of power, the citizen assemblies were very much ne-

glected15. The patricians abused their power by selling plebeian debtors as

slaves and giving patricians tremendous leniency in court cases, among

other things.16 This led to a very important stage of development in the Ro-

man Republic generally known as the struggle of orders, in which the ple-

beians fought for their rights.

The Romans were forced to use the plebeians as the backbone of the

Roman army, as the patricians were only trained to fight on horseback, and

there were simply not enough of them willing to fight.17 In 494 BC, as a large

foreign army was marching toward Rome, the majority of plebeian class citi-

zens threatened to leave Rome and form their own government. Because

Rome could not defend itself without the aid of the plebeians, the patricians

agreed to let the plebeians elect two representatives, called “tribunes,” ev-

ery year. The tribunes had absolute veto power over anything and anyone

for the good of the people, though they could not overule the authority of a

dictator. These tribunes could not be held accountable for their actions, nei-

ther could they be harmfully touched while performing their duty. The tri-

buneship had tremendous flaws which only needed the manipulating minds

of ambitious politicians to be expressed. The tribuneship, was created for the

benefit of the Roman people, but it played a large role in causing the fall of

the Roman Republic, which deprived the people of their place in the govern-

ment.

The Roman laws were kept secret from the plebeian class for a period

of time in which the plebeians could not avoid breaking the law. This allowed

the patrician class to manipulate the enforcement of these laws for their own

benefit.18

15 Heaton, Struggle of the Orders.16 "Conflict of the orders" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders>.17 Heaton, Struggle of the Orders.18 “Twelve Tables” Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger 15 January 2001 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Tables>.


In 451 BC the plebeians revolted once again, and gained another great

triumph with the appointment of the decemvirate, which resulted in the in-

crease of the number of tribunes from 2 to 10.19 This gave the plebeians

more representatives fighting for their interests in the government. Also, be-

cause of the decemvirate, the Laws of the Twelve Tables were established.

The Laws of the Twelve Tables were essentially twelve codes related to civic

matters, crimes, relationships, and land.20 In each table, there were a num-

ber of specific laws. Although the laws of the twelve tables were close to

what the patricians had been enforcing already, they prevented the patrician

class from manipulating the lack of written public laws and gave the ple-

beians the advantage of knowing where they stood in regards to the law.

In 445 BC, the Canuleian law legalized marriage between patricians

and plebeians, making it possible for wealthy plebeians to become patricians

through marriage and become eligible for patrician positions. The Canuleian

law also made it possible for patricians to become tribunes through marriage

with plebeians. The plebeians continually gained rights through the tribunes

until they gained the ultimate right of being elected consul. In 300 BC, the

plebeians were granted the right to be elected to the priesthood, making

them equal to the patricians in religion as well as politics.21

The aforementioned reforms initially granted the plebeians great

rights, but for the most part, these laws only applied to wealthy plebeians.

Acquiring a political position required not only an amount of political bril-

liance, but a considerable amount of funds to back it up. Because wealthy

plebeians were granted essentially the same rights as the patricians, and pa-

tricians and plebeians could go from one class to the other through marriage,

there was virtually no difference between the patricians and well to do ple-

beians except the matter of honor through birth. This formed an entirely new

class: the equestrians— any Roman citizen possessing a certain amount of

wealth.22 According to Matthias Gelzer, the “chief significance of these

achievements” (referring to the aforementioned new rights gained by the

19 Heaton, Struggle of the Orders.20 “The Laws of the Twelve Tables,” Constitution Society, 12 Sep. 1995 <http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps01_1.htm>.21 Heaton, Struggle of the Orders.22 Matthias Gelzer, Caesar Politician and Statesman, ed. Peter Needham Translation,(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003) 2.


plebeians) “was that powerful plebeians entered the ranks of the ruling fami-

lies.”23 This created two general classes in Roman society: the rich, and the

poor. Because of the distinct contrast between the two social classes, strug-

gles arose. These struggles appeared throughout the entire history of the Ro-

man Republic and would play a large role in its eventual fall.

23 Gelzer, 3.


III. ExpansionA. The loss of “Civic Virtue”

In 147 BC, a Roman army led by Scipio Aemilianus utterly destroyed the city

of Carthage.1 This marked the end of the Carthaginian empire and the begin-

ning of a new stage in Roman history. The Carthaginian empire had been the

last significant threat to the Romans. Carthage had been a significant danger

to the Roman’s and as long as it stood as a threat to Rome, the Romans

were united against it. They could not afford to fight among themselves, lest

they be destroyed.

When Carthage fell, so did the bond between the rich and poor class of

Roman people.2 Without the imposing threat of Carthage, there was no unit-

ing factor to keep the Romans “civic virtue” alive. Before Carthage, the Ro-

man government relied heavily on civic virtue: the willingness of the individ-

ual to subordinate himself to the good of Rome.3 This is clear through the

laws that were established in the early republic, such as that of the tribune-

ship. The tribunes could use their veto power over any piece of legislation in

the name of the people of Rome. The Senate established this law trusting

that the tribune’s would use the tribuneship for the good of Rome and not for

their own personal benefit. Carthage helped fuel the civic virtue that was al-

ready dwindling during the confusion of the struggle between the plebeians

and the patricians. When Carthage fell, the civic virtue that was keeping the

Romans united was essentially nullified. This loss of civic virtue led politi-

cians, to fight primarily for their own interests, rather than for the good of

Rome.4 This general corruption in Roman politics elevated the struggle of the

orders to an unprecedented level. It also led to many unfair laws and damag-

ing rivalry’s between Roman politicians which caused significant problems in

the effectiveness of the Roman Republic as a government.

1 Christopher Heaton, Third Punic War, 2003, UNRV History, June 7, 2005 <http://www.unrv.com/empire/third-punic-war.php>.2 J. Rufus Fears, “Famous Romans Part 1, lecture 7: Tiberius and Gaius Grac-chus,” University of Oklahoma, Norman, 2001.3 Fears, “Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus”.4 Fears, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus.


b. The Roman soldier’s relationship with his state and his general

Not only did the fall of Carthage and conquests in the east bring im-

mense wealth into Rome, but an unprecedented number of slaves as well.5

Because the price of slaves decreased so significantly, equestrians pur-

chased thousands of these conquered foes and used them to manage huge

plantations. This became a significant issue for many years because the bulk

of Roman citizens made a living off of farming. Because the small farmer

could not compete with the giant estates nor with any other job because of

cheap slave labor, the majority of working class Roman citizens were forced

onto the streets of Rome. This became an immense problem because the

backbone of the Roman army was the small farmer, and only land-owning

citizens were allowed to join the army. This became an even greater

dilemma in 107 BC when the Cimbri and Teutonic tribes began migrating in

the north, destroying everything in their way.6 The already dwindling Roman

army had no recruiting base, and the forces fighting in the North were suffer-

ing numerous defeats against the Gauls. This led to the adoption of Gaius

Marius’ legion reforms which, in themselves, became a major factor in the

decline of the Roman Republic.

In 107 BC, Gaius Marius was a rising star in the Roman political world.7

As consul, he proposed one of the most crucial reforms in the decline of the

Roman Republic. Along with numerous reforms to the legion and the way it

fought, Marius offered the entire head count of Rome, rich and poor, land

owning and non-landowning, the opportunity to serve under him in the

army.8 This gave disenfranchised Roman farmers the chance of some kind of

5 Hooker, The Roman Republic.6 Christopher Heaton, Cimbri and Teutons, 2003, UNRV History, August 4, 2005 < http://www.unrv.com/empire/cimbri-teutons.php >.7 Heaton, Cimbri and Teutons.8 Christopher Heaton, Marius Reforms Legions, 2003, UNRV History, August 4, 2005


future, the chance of spoils on the campaign, and possible retirement bene-

fits such as land after their 20-25 year terms9 were over. Because of these

factors, the relationship between Roman soldiers, their generals, and the

state was dramatically altered.

Before Marius’ reforms, the typical Roman soldier was somewhat loyal

to his general, but was actually fighting for the expansion of his state, which

included his own lands. After Marius’ reforms, the soldier’s loyalty to his gen-

eral was taken to another level. These landless Roman farmers had no future

but their general. They were fed by there general, they gained spoils from

their general, they had a chance of being promoted by their general, and

their general would fight for their retirement benefits.10 Because of these fac-

tors, the typical Roman soldier was loyal to his general and his general

alone.11 He owed his gratitude and life not to the state but to his general. The

loss of civic virtue also played a role in these soldiers extreme loyalty to their

generals. If the general was to command an extreme measure, not for the

good of Rome, but for his own interests and theirs, the soldiers would now

follow, having virtually no future but their general.

These two factors that came out of the tremendous amount of growth

Rome experienced around 147 BC12 played a large role in the impending fall

of the Republic. The loss of civic virtue would effect the entire political scene

in Rome. Ambitious politicians would show in the years following the fall of

Carthage that they would go to virtually limitless measures to gain what they

wanted, even if it meant the breaking of the principles that made the Roman

Republic a republic. Because of Marius’ legion reforms, the stage was set for

political chaos and bloodshed. Ambitious politicians looking for supreme

power in Rome could now influence the government dramatically because of

a tremendous army at their back, loyal to their general unto death, even if it

meant fighting fellow Romans.

< http://www.unrv.com/empire/marius-reforms-legions.php >.9 Heaton, Marius Reforms the Legions.10 Heaton, Marius Reforms the legions.11 Hooker, The Crisis of the Republic.12 Heaton, Third Punic War.


IV. Ambitious PoliticiansThe previous factors have all been crucial, but the individuals who took

advantage of them are even more so. After the loss of general civic virtue in

Roman politics, certain particularly talented politicians determined to do vir-

tually anything to further their interests. These politicians, starting with the

Gracchi brothers and ending with Caesar, were the ones who gained signifi-

cant power through the manipulation of the factors previously mentioned.

The various politicians each found several strong powers that the aforemen-

tioned factors had allowed. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus found the power of

gaining support from the bulk of the lower class Roman citizens by champi-

oning their interests. The Gracchi also found the true power of the tribune-

ship when used with the full support of the people. Gaius Marius found, and

Lucius Cornelius Sulla perfected, the power of a loyal army backing their po-

litical ambitions. Finally, Caesar, the ultimate consummation of the foregoing

four politicians, perfected and wielded these powerful tools to become ruler

of Rome, ultimately ruining the already weak Republic.

A. Tiberius GracchusTiberius and Gaius Gracchus were essentially the initiators of the trend

of going to any measure to carry through an agenda with the backing of the

general people of Rome. This caused the senate and the higher class Roman

citizens to fight back with equal energy, resulting in political turmoil such as

Rome had not seen before. This went on to such an extent that laws were

compromised, holes in the government were found, open corruption began,

and violence ran rampant.

The Roman historian Plutarch praised Tiberius highly for His virtue,

saying in his narrative The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, “Not-

withstanding, amidst the greatest misfortunes, and in the most unsuccessful

enterprises, not only the discretion and valor of Tiberius, but also, which was

still more to be admired, the great respect and honor which he showed for

his general, were most eminently remarkable.”1 Though the Gracchi brothers

1 Plutarch, 673.


may have had a good motive, the ways in which they attempted to gain what

they wanted — such as the tribuneship and the factor of popularity — played

a large role in the fall of the Roman Republic. Scipio Aemilianus the Younger,

a man known for his virtue and honor, criticized the Gracchi greatly because

of what they did in the name of the people, saying when Tiberius was mur-

dered, “So perish all who do the like again.”2

Just around the time Tiberius Gracchus began his political career, two

distinct political parties began to emerge as the leading parties in the Roman

Republic. The first, the conservative Optimate party, fought for more power

to the wealthy classes and gained power through the government system.3

The second major party was the left-leaning Populares, who fought for sup-

port from the majority of the people of Rome.4 Though the reasons are not

entirely clear, Tiberius joined the Populares party, championing the interests

of the people. There is still much speculation on the sincerity of Tiberius’

choice however.

After distinguishing himself as a soldier in the third punic war, Tiberius

became a quaestor in Spain, an official in charge of finances. As quaestor,

Tiberius managed to save the lives of as many as 20,000 Roman soldiers by

negotiating a treaty with the Numantians. This treaty was utterly rejected by

the senatorial Optimate’s in Rome who thought of it as admitting defeat. The

treaty was thus cut off and Tiberius would have been given to the enemy to

be dishonored had it not been for his popularity with the people and his in-

law Scipio Aemilianus’ intervention.5 Tiberius was related to the Optimate

party: his father had been a Roman consul, and his mother was a member of

the Scipio family, one of the most well known patrician families in Rome. The

rejection of the treaty, however, caused Tiberius to bitterly despise the Opti-

mate party.

2 Homer, The Iliad of Homer, ed. Britannica Great Books, 24 vols. (Chicago, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1952) 47.3 "Optimates" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimates>.4 "Populares" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populares >.5 Plutarch, 674.


Because of this, the reasons for Tiberius joining the Populares party

and fighting for the people of Rome will always be in question. Whether he

did it because he was truly a man of virtue as Plutarch indicates, because of

bitterness for the Optimate party, or because he found that championing the

people’s interest brought in immense personal power, will remain unknown.

Because of the general sense of corruption in Roman politics, it is difficult to

believe the first possibility to be completely true. Whatever the reason,

Tiberius joined the Populares party and was elected tribune of the people in

133 BC6 in which he started his fight for reform with zeal never seen in the

previous history of Rome.

Tiberius Gracchus emerged onto the political scene just as the fall of

the small farmer was becoming a big issue. The bulk of the Roman popula-

tion was facing poverty because of the Equestrians' huge estates manned by

thousands of slaves, making it impossible for the small farmer to compete.

When Tiberius became tribune of the people, his first attempt at reform

would be to solve this problem. He attempted to do this by creating a bill

stating that those living on the land gained through Roman conquest would

be restricted to the legal limit of 500 acres, giving portions of the “stolen”

land to the lower class citizens.7 In the plan, the Equestrian land-owners

would be compensated with a rent-free lease. The Optimates, however, were

still not happy about the reform because it would cut down on their profits.

Tiberius took the reform directly to the citizen assemblies, whereas the cus-

tom was to take it to the Senate for approval first.8 This is when the corrup-

tion of the Roman Republic became exposed. The Senate had never been di-

rectly opposed like this before and they knew it would be dangerous to let a

move like this go untouched.

The Senate convinced Octavius, the other tribune for that year to use

his veto power to put down Tiberius’ reform. This unveiled a major flaw in the

6 "Tiberius Gracchus" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus >.7 Christopher Heaton, Tiberius Gracchus, 2003, UNRV History, August 12, 2005 < http://www.unrv.com/empire/tiberius-gracchus.php >.8 Heaton, Tiberius Gracchus.


tribuneship, the undeniable veto power. In the wrong hands, this veto power

could essentially wreak havoc on the entire political system. In response to

Octavius veto, Tiberius used his own veto power to put down every proposed

law or bill, shutting down the entire Republican system, until his bill would be

passed.9 In the name of the people of Rome Tiberius did this. The people

supported him because it would positively effect them. It was surely not for

the good of Rome as a republic because it revealed the power of the tribune-

ship when used in a corrupt way along with openly undermining the civic

virtue the Roman Republic relied on to prevent political turmoil. Because it

was in the name of the people and for the benefit of the people, Tiberius be-

came an icon of equality in the eyes of the people. This made him and his re-

forms virtually untouchable, along with making Tiberius a very dangerous

politician, having the power of the people in his hand. Wielding this tremen-

dous power, Tiberius became a major threat to the Optimate party along

with the Republic as a whole.

Octavius held to his veto but the Senate, facing open rebellion because

of Tiberius’ tremendous support from the people, illegally ignored Tiberius

veto, and passed Tiberius’ land reform into law.10

The reform proved to be effective, creating around 75,000 small farms,

though it also was very expensive. Tiberius proposed to take money from the

newly acquired land of Pergamum to carry the reform through. This concept

was opposed by the Senate, but they were once again forced to accept the

measure due to Tiberius’ tremendous support from the people.11 As long as

Tiberius was tribune of the people, he was immune to revenge from the Sen-

ate, as the law forbade anyone to lay a hand on a tribune. The elections were

coming up, however, and the law stated that a tribune could not be elected

two consecutive terms. Tiberius, backed by the people of Rome, ignored the

law and carried forward his election campaign. This enraged the already furi-

ous Senate, and at an election rally, Tiberius’ cousin Scipio Nasica, with a

9 Heaton, Tiberius Gracchus.10 Tiberius Gracchus, 2003, Illustrated History of the Roman Empire, Au-gust 12, 2005 < http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/tib-gracchus.html >.11 Heaton, Tiberius Gracchus.


group of senators, charged the rally, clubbing Tiberius and many of his sup-

porters to death.12

Scipio Nasica fled from Rome but was hunted down and killed in Perga-

mum. Rome was in a state of chaos. Violence ran rampant in the streets of

Rome. Scipio Aemilianus was called from Spain to save the state. While

Rome was brought back to a better but still unstable state, the people of

Rome were still bitter about the death of Tiberius Gracchus. Scipio, while

sympathizing with Tiberius’ cause, criticized his actions and was murdered in

129 BC. He was believed to be killed by past supporters of Tiberius.13

B. Gaius Gracchus

Choosing to follow a similar path as his brother Tiberius, Gaius Grac-

chus served under Scipio Aemilianus, whom Tiberius also served.14 After sev-

eral years, Gaius served as a consul of Rome. After spending two years gov-

erning Sardinia as consul, Gaius returned to Rome where he was elected tri-

bune of the people.15

As tribune, Gaius chose the way of his brother, garnering support from

the masses by passing laws benefiting the common man. Gaius directly at-

tacked his political enemies by using the citizen assemblies to exile the con-

sul Popolius and his supporters for their involvement in Tiberius murder.16 He

then created a law that would prevent any magistrate who had been taken

12 Plutarch, 680.13 "Scipio Aemilianus Africanus" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus_Africanus >.14 "Gaius Gracchus" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus >.15 Christopher Heaton, Gaius Gracchus, 2003, UNRV History, August 16, 2005 < http://www.unrv.com/empire/gaius-gracchus.php >.


out of office by the will of the people to serve in any political office again.

These laws were followed by a long line of popular legislation directly damag-

ing the revenue and status of the patrician class.17 This was the start of a

bloody trend in Roman politics in which there were two sides to follow, one

side openly against the other. This principle was at a small scale at the time

of Gaius Gracchus but would grow into bloody conflict and open civil war in

the later days of the Republic.

In 122 BC, Gaius blatantly disregarded the Roman constitution by be-

ing elected a second consecutive year as tribune. Gaius continued to bring in

anti Optimate legislation throughout 122 BC. He overhauled the taxation sys-

tem in Asia Minor, hurting the Optimate senators’ profits. He then introduced

a state-funded grain law, allowing the citizens to buy grain directly from the

state, slicing grain prices in half. Gaius re-introduced his brothers’ agrarian

law, which was revoked by the Senate after Tiberius death. According to Ci-

cero, one of Romes greatest orators, Gaius reforms were far more successful

than the reforms of Tiberius.18 Through his legislation, Gaius received even

more support from the Roman people than Tiberius. Had it not been for

Gaius’ tremendous mistake at the end of his tribuneship, Gaius, to some ex-

tent, could have passed virtually any bill that had some benefit to the peo-

ple. Gaius was safe from assassination because he had so much support

from the people. Open rebellion would have been a threat to the government

of Rome had it acted against him. Because of this, along with the fact that

any one politician would become extremely unpopular if he stood up to

Gaius, the Senate was forced into signing every piece of legislature Gaius

created.

At the end of 132 BC however, Gaius Gracchus made a tremendous

mistake that cost him his popularity and his life. The Italian citizens, who

payed the same taxes as regular Roman Citizens but could not yet vote,

wanted the agrarian laws (Tiberius’ land reforms) to apply to them as well as

the official Roman citizens. Gaius saw this as a chance to gain more votes

16 Suzanne Cross, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, 2001, Julius Caesar: The Last Dictator, Agust 16, 2005 < http://heraklia.fws1.com/contemporaries/gracchi/ >.17 Heaton, Gaius Gracchus.18 Heaton, Gaius Gracchus.


and proposed a law that would grant all the Italian citizens full citizenship.

What seemed to be an intelligent move in the eyes of Gaius was a disaster in

the making because the law was unpopular both in the Senate and with the

majority of the people of Rome. If the law was passed, the people of Rome

would have to share their land with the Italian citizens, something they about

which were extremely displeased. The Senate played this against Gaius by

backing Livius Drusus, another tribune for the year 132, in proposing laws

very beneficial to the people of Rome. These laws were never intended to be

permanent and were supported by the Senate only long enough to do dam-

age to Gaius. In 121 BC, Gaius attempted to be elected for a third consecu-

tive year of tribuneship. He failed in getting elected because of his rapid loss

of support from the people.19

Realizing his mistake, Gaius led a protest in the streets of Rome with

thousands of his supporters at his back. The protest escalated into an armed

revolt as the mob of Gaius supporters grew. The consul, Lucius Opimius was

a strong political enemy of Gaius and saw his chance to bring an end to him.

Because some of Gaius’ supporters were carrying weapons, the Senate was

able to charge Opimius with the first ever Senatus Consultum Ultimatum

which was the ultimate decree of martial law.20 Opimius, backed with an

armed militia of legionary infantry and archers marched on the mad protest-

ers, killing thousands of them. Gaius Gracchus, seeing that all hope was lost,

ordered his personal slave to stab him to death. After the massacre, thou-

sands more of Gracchus supporters were rounded up, arrested, and stran-

gled to death.21 This started a new stage in the Roman Republic marked with

violence and bloodshed.

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were the beginning of the end of the Ro-

man Republic. All of the elements had fallen into place for them to make a

tremendous splash in the way the Roman Republic worked. They revealed

the power of gaining support from the Roman people; they also revealed the

power of the tribuneship when used by a politician with such support from

the people that he could openly undermine traditional Roman laws and get

away with it. However moral or caring they were, the Gracchi were the first

19 Heaton, Gaius Gracchus (whole paragraph).20Heaton, Gaius Gracchus.21 Plutarch, 688.


major showcase of the loss of civic virtue, at least as far as the Republic was

concerned, having no consideration of the effect that their actions would

take on the Roman Republic as a governing system.

What the Gracchi did changed the whole way the Roman Republic

worked. The stakes for political dominance were higher then they ever were

before, and there were now more ways then ever for an ambitious Roman

politician to rise in power. The Gracchi started the trend of two distinct fac-

tions going to extreme measures to gain political dominance, even if it

meant violence. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus brought out this turmoil in Ro-

man politics and died because of it. While the Gracchi rarely resorted to open

violence, they used the threat of violence to gain much political power in pol-

itics. This raised the bar in terms of the way Roman politicians played poli-

tics, and because of this, the Gracchi were killed. The mere power of the peo-

ple was not enough in this era of violence and ferocity that the Gracchi had

brought in. What was needed was an army. This army could not be any nor-

mal army, however; it had to be an army loyal not to its state but to its gen-

eral.

C. Marius and Sulla

The stakes raised with Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus escalated to an un-

precedented level with the infamous rivalry of Gaius Marius and Lucius Cor-

nelius Sulla. The years of Marius and Sulla were marked with political turmoil,

confusion, and bloodshed. If the Roman people were convinced that the Ro-

man Republic was becoming ineffective as a government, this became even

more evident with Marius and Sulla.

Just as Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Marius spent his early career serv-

ing under Scippio Aemilianus in Hispania.22 Because Marius did not have any

political position at birth,23 he had to rise through the ranks of the army be-

fore he could have any political influence. Marius proved himself to be an ex-

cellent soldier and quickly rose through the ranks of the military.24 In 123 BC,

Marius became a novus homo or new man, the title given to a plebeian who

22 Plutarch, 333.23 Plutarch, 333.24 Christopher Heaton, Rise of Marius, 2003, UNRV History, June 15, 2005<http://www.unrv.com/empire/rise-of-marius.php>.


has risen through the ranks and is the first in his family to acquire some sig-

nificant political position.25 Marius was 34 and was elected as quaestor, start-

ing his political career. Marius used past clients and relations in his military

career to back his political ambitions.26

In 119 BC, Marius joined the Populares ideology, and was elected tri-

bune of the people.27 Just as the Gracchi, Marius championed the peoples in-

terests to gain political power. Marius firmly opposed the Roman elite by

passing a law that forbade the inspection of ballot boxes. Before this law, the

elite members of Roman society would intimidate voters by inspecting the

ballots in the citizen assembly elections, thus gaining votes. Through popular

laws such as this, Marius gained the status of champion of the people which

would greatly help him in fulfilling his political ambitions.28

In 115 Marius was elected praetor, an official with similar powers as

the consul, usually commanding Roman armies. He served a year in Rome

and then was assigned to the province of Further Spain.29 Through this Mar-

ius gained a significant military reputation and amassed much wealth

through his conquests. Marius then returned to Rome. In 110 BC he allied

himself with the Julii family through marriage.30 The Julii family were a much

respected but poor patrician family. Through his relationship with them, Mar-

ius gained the benefit of entry into social and political circles, and the Julii

family gained the benefit of becoming a power player in Roman politics

through Marius’ wealth. 31

In 107 BC, the Roman people were utterly frustrated with their govern-

ment because of Jugurtha, the king of Numidia. Jugurtha was a brilliant gen-

eral and led the Numidian armies against the surrounding nations, including

allies of Rome. The Roman allies appealed to Rome for help, and envoys

were sent to stop Jugurtha’s attacks. The envoys were sent home empty

25 "Novus Homo" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novus_homo >.26 Heaton, Rise of Marius.27 Plutarch, 333.28 Heaton, Rise of Marius29 Plutarch, 334.30 Plutarch, 334.31 Heaton, Rise of Marius.


handed because Jugurtha had much influence in the leading families of Rome

because of bribes. Finally, after a long period of time, the Senate declared

war on Jugurtha. Two Roman generals were sent with large armies to stop

him. These generals were easily corruptible and did very little damage to

Jugurtha. The Roman people were furious that such a small problem could

penetrate the Roman Republic because of inner corruption.32 Memmius, a tri-

bune of the people at the time, passed a law that would force Jugurtha to

come before the Roman Senate and reveal those who he had bribed. But be-

fore Jugurtha could arrive in Rome, another tribune vetoed the whole ar-

rangement and Jugurtha left Italy without a question asked. Later, some as-

sassins sent by Jugurtha were caught in the attempt of murdering some of

Jugurtha’s political enemies. Rome reacted by sending another general to

stop Jugurtha in his conquests. But with the excuse of being “surrounded” by

Jugurtha’s army, the general and his army fled back to Rome. This obvious

corruption and bribery angered the Roman people to the uttermost. Rome

was giving up battles to a small Numidian king without a single fight.33 The

Roman people were rapidly losing confidence in their government to solve

problems.

In 107 BC, after another unsuccessful general was sent back to Rome,

Marius was elected consul, promising to take care of the situation in Nu-

midia. In the two years of his consulship, Marius not only fulfilled his promise

of conquering Jugurtha, but, through his reform of the legions, completely

changed the way Roman politics were played. Though the people were led to

believe that Marius reformed the legions because of his love for the people,

Marius really created the reform because increasing threat of Cimbri and

Teutonic tribes migrating from the North.34

The year 107 BC also marked the start of the infamous rivalry between

Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. According to Plutarch, Sulla, a rising gen-

eral in Marius army, used the betrayal of Jugurtha’s ally Bochus to capture

32 Heaton, Rise of Marius.33 Christopher Heaton, Jugurthine War, 2003, UNRV History, June 18, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/empire/war-with-jugurtha.php >.34 "Marius" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marius >.


Jugurtha.35 In 105 BC, despite Sulla’s claims to victory, Marius was honored

as victor due to his command and he was granted a Triumph (a ceremony

honoring the victor of a war.)36 This, along with various other similar situa-

tions, began the rivalry between Marius, the champion of the people and

Sulla, the champion of the Senate.

In order to deal with the Germanic threat, the people of Rome elected

Marius consul for 5 consecutive years, an open breach in the Republican con-

stitution which required at least a ten year gap between one year consul-

ships for an individual.37 This was a clear display of the power of a politician

with full support from the people of Rome.

After years of battle with the Cimbri and Teutonic tribes, Marius, Sulla,

and a general by the name of Catulus each proclaimed themselves victor.

Because of Marius’ tremendous support from the people, Marius and Catulus

shared a joint triumph. In Rome, Marius was hailed as the Savior of Rome

and the Third Founder of Rome.38 Marius displayed his power over Rome by

illegally giving grants of citizenship to many of the Italian allied soldiers that

fought for him. He then used Saturninus, a tribune of the people, to give set-

tlement rights to his large body of veteran troops. Marius pushed through

this proposal, along with many others, by the use of the tribune Saturninus,

the citizen assemblies, mob tactics, and open street violence.39 Marius used

these tactics to exile his old enemy Metellus, continuing the strong arm tac-

tics that Tiberius Gracchus had begun.

In 99 BC however, Saturninus pushed the limits of the tribuneship, or-

ganizing the assassination of a potential rival. Saturninus took control of the

streets of Rome, bringing mob violence to an unprecedented level.40 Marius

35 Plutarch, 369.36 Christopher Heaton, Cimbri and Teutons, 2003, UNRV History, June 18, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/empire/cimbri-teutons.php >.37 "Marius" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marius >.38 Heaton, Cimbri and Teutons.39 Christopher Heaton, Political Turmoil, 2003, UNRV History, June 18, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/empire/political-turmoil.php >.40 Plutarch, 345.


was the only one who could stop him, so the Senate issued a Senatus Con-

sultum Ultimatum giving Marius the authority to stop a tribune. Marius or-

dered his troops to stop the violence in the streets of Rome. Saturninus and

his supporters tried to get refuge in the senate house where he was killed by

angry senators.41 This ended the crisis but proved the inability of the Republi-

can system to solve problems: there was no way to stop Saturninus through

the law, thus the Senate had to resort to violence. It was events like these

that weakened the Republic to such an extent that violence soon became the

popular choice in Roman politics to solve problems, as holes in the Republi-

can system were revealed.

By 88 BC, Sulla had made a name for himself militarily and was greatly

favored by the Senate. He became consul and was chosen to lead a cam-

paign against Mithridates of Pontus, who was leading a major offensive

against Rome in Asia Minor. Marius, at the age of 70 and possibly mentally

ill, desperately sought this command. He used the tribune Supicius Rufus,

and the citizen assemblies. Marius got what he wanted because the people

were still in favor of him. But this time, Marius had no army, and hearing the

news of the transfer of command, Sulla gathered his legions and marched on

Rome.42 Marius managed to flee to Africa before Sulla could capture him.

When Sulla did secure Rome however, he killed Supicius Rufus and many

other supporters of Marius.43 This was the beginning of the reign of terror, a

stage in which the Roman people lost all trust in the Republic government

due to its instability and corruption. This was the ultimate consummation of

the factor that the Gracchi initiated: two distinct factions doing anything to

gain power. This reign of terror would also not have been possible without

Marius’ legion reforms. If the soldiers were loyal to the state as opposed to

their general, they would not have followed Sulla to march on Rome itself.

This was the first time a Roman politician had marched on Rome in pursuit of

political power.

41 Plutarch, 345-346.42 Christopher Heaton, Fall of Marius, 2003, UNRV History, June 18, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/empire/fall-of-marius.php >.43 Plutarch, 373.


The first of Sulla’s reforms was to immensely reduce the power of the

tribunes and increase the power of the Senate.44 Soon after Sulla took Rome,

he had to leave with his army to fight Mithridates of Pontus.45 While Sulla was

gone, Cinna, whom Sulla had put in charge of Rome when he was gone, was

banished from Rome by the Senate.46 Cinna decided to join forces with Mar-

ius, and they used an army that Marius had been forming to return to Rome

in Sulla’s absence. Marius and Cinna continued the bloodbath that Sulla had

started by putting to death any Sullan supporters they could find .47 Marius

and Cinna declared joint consulship without the consent of the Senate or the

people, but Marius died just half way into his consulship. While Sulla chose to

concentrate on the war with Mithridates, Cinna ruled ruthlessly over Rome

for three years. Finally fed up with Cinna, his troops put him to death48,

showing the influence the army had on politics.

When Sulla finally defeated Mithridates, he and his supporters in hiding

marched toward Rome. Their forces met with the forces of Marius’ support-

ers at Colline gate, just outside of Rome. It was a desperate battle, but

Sulla’s forces were victorious. In the battle of Colline gate, 50,000 Romans

died49 and Sulla became supreme master of Rome. After crushing the re-

maining forces openly opposing him, Sulla was proclaimed dictator of Rome

for an indefinite period of time, giving him supreme power in Rome. With this

power, Sulla made a new law called proscription: the listing of names of peo-

ple he supposed to be undesirable and murdering them. The death toll rose

past 1,600 members of the Equestrians class and over 40 senators. Sulla had

an intricate network of spies who kept him informed and tracked down all

slight opposition.50 Sulla continued his reforms, completely abolishing the

power of the tribunes and giving more power to the Senate (now full of Sulla

44 Heaton, Fall of Marius.45 Plutarch, 374.46 Plutarch, 351.47 Plutarch, 352.48 Christopher Heaton, Roman Victory, 2003, UNRV History, June 18, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/empire/roman-victory.php >.49 Christopher Heaton, Sulla’s Civil War, 2003, UNRV History, June 18, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/empire/sullas-civil-war.php >.50 Plutarch, 384.


supporters because of the proscriptions.) In 79 BC, Sulla grew weary of poli-

tics and retired to write his memoirs, dying a natural death in 78 BC.51

The time of Marius and Sulla was a time of political turmoil, a time in

which the Roman people lost all confidence in their government, and right-

fully so. The Roman government as a concrete system of politics had lost its

function due to the holes that were brought in through the various factors.

These holes were put into the light with the Gracchi and put into context with

Marius and Sulla. That is, with the Gracchi, the holes were exposed and

somewhat used to gain political power but in practicality, Marius and Sulla

put these powers into action and found the prize which they could gain from

these powers: ultimate power in Rome. After Marius and Sulla, the people of

Rome realized that because the Roman constitution, the basis on which the

Republic was formed, was being so blatantly ignored, there would never be

stability in the Roman Republic in its current form. There would always be a

chance for a rivalry like that of Marius and Sulla to cause chaos and blood-

shed once again. This general thought in the minds of the people, encour-

aged by the brilliant mind of Caesar, ultimately ended the Republic. This end-

ing was not something the people of Rome despised, but rather, encouraged.

The Roman government in the state it was in after Marius and Sulla was

completely unacceptable in terms of stability and balance. Because of the

corruption in the Roman government, small problems like that of Jugurtha

could not be solved and the Republic was ineffective to carry out anything

but what the strongest politicians were fighting for.

After Sulla’s death, there were many power grabs by Sulla’s supporters

and Sulla’s opposers. This led to another civil war in which one man, Gnaeus

Pompeius, became victor with an army at his back. For fear of a repetition of

Sulla, the Senate illegally granted him his wish of governing Hispania.52 By

the time of the rise of Gaius Julius Caesar, the ultimate consummation of all

the popular politicians who had gone before, the people were ready for a sin-

gle man to gain full control of the Roman empire in order to stabilize it for

the good of Rome.

D. Gaius Julius Caesar

51 Plutarch, 386.52 Plutarch, 506-507.


Gaius Julius Caesar was born around 100 BC into the Caesar sprout of

the patrician Julii family.53 Because Caesar was born just before the rise of

Marius, throughout his life he was able to learn from the mistakes of Marius,

due to their close relationship. Caesar benefited greatly from watching his

uncle Marius’ success through his championing the interests of the people,

and his use of the military to gain political power.54

Not only did Caesar have the benefit of watching his uncle, but he also

had the tremendous benefit of many great qualities so crucial to a politi-

cian’s success. Qualities such as military genius, political brilliance, cunning,

and great speaking ability allowed Caesar to quickly climb the political lad-

der. Caesar also had the advantage of having noble patrician blood and be-

ing in a respected patrician family with the wealth of Marius to back him.55

Caesar sided with the populares party early in his political career, and

used the first 27 years of his life to showcase himself as a brilliant military

commander and a man of virtue. In Rome, Caesar had an extravagant life-

style, way beyond his financial means, to generate for himself the image of

an elite member in Roman society.56 This is when Caesar began his relation-

ship with Marcus Lucinius Crassus, the richest man in Rome. Caesar used

Crassus to support his financial situation and in return, he passed legislation

in favor of Crassus.57 At the funeral of his Aunt Julia, Marius’ wife, Caesar

proved his boldness by openly praising Julia and her husband Marius, some-

thing no politician had done since the death of Sulla.58 Because he needed

the support of not only the people but the Optimate party as well, Caesar

married the granddaughter of Sulla and daughter of Gneius Pompeius after

his previous wife died. He further nurtured his relationship with Pompeius as

53 "Julius Caesar" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_caesar >.54 Christopher Heaton, Gaius Julius Caesar, 2003, UNRV History, June 18, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/gaius-julius-caesar.php >.55 "Julius Caesar" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_caesar >.56 Heaton, Gaius Julius Caesar.57 Plutarch, 581.58 Plutarch, 578.


a senator by passing reforms in the interest of Pompey.59 This relationship,

along with that with Crassus, would play a key role in Caesar’s rise to politi-

cal power.

In 65 BC, Caesar was elected as curule aedile, which put him in charge

of the care of public temples, public buildings, and public games. Caesar

used this position to gain immense popularity with the people by using Cras-

sus money to finance extremely elaborate games60. Along with this, Caesar

erected statues of Marius for public display, creating an outrage in the Sen-

ate but making him extremely popular with the head count of Rome. His pop-

ularity forced politicians looking to stay in office to support him granting Cae-

sar tremendous political success.61

In 60 BC, Caesar faced strong opposition in his race for consulship. For

this he needed allies in the Senate. Crassus needed a politician to support

legislation that benefitted his faction, so he gladly joined Caesars “amicitia,”

or coalition. Once Crassus was solidified into the coalition, Caesar came to

Pompey (Pompeius) who needed a politician to push through a reform that

would give land to his veterans, something most senators did not support.62

This coalition, widely known as the first triumvirate, consisted of not only

Caesar Pompey and Crassus but also included many more leading senators

such as Lucius Lucceius and Lucius Calpurnius.63 The alliance, which was

formed in 60 BC, secretly worked for the interests of all involved.64 The mem-

bers in this coalition, which contained around 200 politicians,65 voted for leg-

islation benefitting their fellow members and supported those who were in

the coalition. This greatly assisted Caesar’s rise in prominence and power.

As consul, the first law Caesar passed was a piece of legislation that

would require the public release of all debates and procedures that the mem-

59 Plutarch, 578.60 Plutarch, 579.61 Plutarch, 579.62 "Julius Caesar" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_caesar >.63 Plutarch, 582.64 "Julius Caesar" Wikipedia, Site created and designed by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, 15 January 2001 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_caesar >.65 Plutarch, 586.


bers of the Senate participated in. Later in his career, Caesar would use this

to publicly reveal his records in the Gallic Wars so that the people might

think highly of him. The next bill Caesar presented to the Senate was a land

bill that would benefit Pompey, the senators, and the people, giving the Sen-

ate no reason to oppose it. The Senate however was deeply concerned about

Caesar and opposed Caesar’s bill because of his popularity with the people.

Because the Senate would not support the bill, Caesar took it to the citizen

assemblies. After taking it to the citizen assemblies for voting, Caesar asked

his co-consul Bibulus what he thought of the bill. Bibulus answered that the

bill would never be passed, even if the people voted to approve it. This is

when the coalition of senators and politicians was made public. Both Pompey

and Crassus, two of the biggest players in Roman politics, approving the bill.

The Optimate party was in a state of panic, doing everything it could to stop

the bill. Bibulus tried to veto the entire process; but the crowd, who strongly

supported Caesar, cast dung onto Bibulus’ head. This intimidated the sena-

tors into passing the bill regardless of Bibulus’ veto, which was an illegal

act.66 For the remainder of his consulship, Caesar proposed many bills bene-

fitting Crassus which were easily passed because of the coalition. Caesar fur-

ther strengthened his relationship with Pompey by giving him his daughter in

marriage. Caesar then supported the tribune Publius so that he would give

him the Lex Vatinia; which allowed him to be Proconsul over Cisalpine Gaul

and Illyricum.67

In Gaul, Caesar proved his military genius. In the five years he served

there, he conquered over three-hundred and fifty thousand square miles of

territory, killed over one million Gauls, and enslaved around one million

Gauls. While Caesar was away from Rome, Crassus had gone off on a foolish

war campaign and was killed by his own carelessness. Because Pompey was

a terrible politician, he was forced closer to the Optimate party in order to

maintain order in Rome. By the time Caesar was marching to Rome, with

wealth and glory from his conquests, Pompey was jealous of Caesar.68

66 Christopher Heaton, First Triumvirate, 2003, UNRV History, August 22, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/first-triumvirate.php >.67 Heaton, First Triumvirate.68 Plutarch, 588.


Though Caesar bribed many politicians to join his side as he marched toward

Rome, the majority of the senators strongly opposed Caesar and were afraid

of a Sullan like march on Rome.69

On the first of December, 50 BC, the Senate ordered both Pompey and

Caesar to disband their legions. Gaius Marcellus and Lucius Lentulus, who

were joint consuls, ignored the Senate vote, the people, and the Roman con-

stitution and ordered Pompey to prepare the defense of Rome against Cae-

sar. Neither the Senate nor the tribunes could do anything. The Roman con-

stitution was annulled. Driven by ambition and jealousy, Pompey gladly ac-

cepted the challenge of defending Rome against Caesar.70

On January first, 49 BC, the Senate refused Caesar’s final peace pro-

posal and declared him a public enemy of Rome, beginning a civil war.71 The

tribunes, acting on the will of the people, attempted to block these measures

once again, but their attempts failed. On January eleventh, Caesar crossed

the Rubicon river, officially invading the borders of Rome.72 After one year of

civil war, Caesar defeated Pompey. Pompey fled to Egypt and was assassi-

nated not long afterwards by the Egyptians.73

In 46 BC, Caesar arrived in Rome, victor and master. When Caesar ar-

rived in Rome, he appointed many new hand-picked senators and praetors,

garnering more control over Roman politics.74 This was the first act in which

Caesar expressed his ultimate authority over Rome. There was no major

player powerful enough to oppose Caesar. Not only did he have the army at

his back but he had the support of the people as well. These two powers

combined granted Caesar the power to rule Rome.

69 Christopher Heaton, Crossing the Rubicon, 2003, UNRV History, August 22, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/crossing-the-rubicon.php >.70 Plutarch, 589.71 Plutarch, 589.72 Plutarch, 590.73 Plutarch, 595.74 Christopher Heaton, Caesar the Dictator, 2003, UNRV History, August 22, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/caesar-dictator.php >.


Many senators tried to convince Caesar to return to the Republic gov-

erning system, but Caesar had no intention of giving up all that he had

worked so hard to gain. Caesar wore the purple robe of the kings of Rome

and held many public occasions in his honor.75 Caesar had absolute authority

over Rome, and there was nothing to stop him from becoming king publicly.

Some even referred to him as king, a title he did not yet except.76 By this

time, the Roman Republican way of government was completely annulled

and was on the way to public extinction with no return. Along with many

other honors, the Senate appointed Caesar dictator for life. Caesar probably

would have proclaimed himself king had he not been murdered by conspira-

tors on March 15th, 44 BC.77 After civil war, Caesar’s relative Gaius Octavius

became the first emperor, having been proclaimed heir through Caesar’s

will.78 This was the official end of the Republic, although it had ended long

before with the rule of Caesar.

75 Plutarch, 600.76 Christopher Heaton, Caesar the King, 2003, UNRV History, August 22, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/caesar-the-king.php >.77 Christopher Heaton, Ides of March, 2003, UNRV History, August 22, 2005< http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/ides-of-march.php >.78 Plutarch, 603.


V. ConclusionWhat had started as a small city flourished into the dominant nation of the world through the Roman Republic. After a period of time, however, the Re-public government became obsolete due to massive holes in the constitution and tremendous growth. The Struggle of the Orders brought in the basis of the Roman government with its many holes. The initiation of the tribuneship, as well as the conflict of classes, proved to be a leading factor in the decline of the Roman Republic.

Civic Virtue, the foundation on which the Roman constitution relied so heavily, was lost upon the destruction of Carthage. The tremendous growth of the empire, and the influx of slaves, caused the fall of the Roman farmer, who represented the majority of the Roman citizens. This issue was dealt with by Gaius Marius, bringing in the legion reform which played a tremen-dous role in the fall of the Roman Republic and the ineffectiveness of Roman law.

Soon after the stage of growth, ambitious politicians exposed and used the gaping holes in the Roman Republic for their advantage, and the Repub-lic’s demise. The Gracchi brothers found the power of the people. They used the general population’s thirst for equal rights with the governing classes to gain tremendous power. And they used the tribuneship to use this power in practicality. Gaius Marius and Lucius Sulla contributed to the political power machine by exposing the tremendous power of a loyal army at the back of a politician, exposing the ineffectiveness of the Roman Republic to the public. Caesar combined all these powers and circumstances along with his lineage and brilliance to completely upturn the Roman Republic, causing its collapse in 44 BC when he was proclaimed dictator for life. What started as a Republic with tremendous hidden holes, was weakened with the growth of Rome, and finally completely destroyed by ambitious politicians who manipulated the holes to gain personal power. These three major factors, though ineffective by themselves, built on each other to cause the fall of the Roman Republic.


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