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32
Results
Participation
in
a1l
aspeets
of the
present
study,
including
supplying
social
security
numbers
for identification,
was
voluntary.
At
the
physiologieal
testing
(PHYS)
and at each
of
the
three
psychological
testings
(PSYI,
PSY2,,lnd
PSY3)
rhere
were
employees
who
provided
a1l or
some of
the informatiorr
requested
and
their
soci-a1
security
numbers,
employees
who
provided
all or
some
of the information
requested
but
not
their
social
securitynumbers,
and employees
who
chose
not
to
participate.
A1so, participation
or the
auount
of information
that
an
individual
provided
at one
testinl;
session
did not necessarily
relate
to what.
he
or
she
did
at other
sessj-ons. As
a result,
the more
data from
different
testing
sessions
that
;t
given
analysis
required
to
be
matched,
the fewer
subjects
had
the
necessary
data
and
identification by social seeurity
number.
Due
to the sma1l
rtumber
of individuals
for
whom
there was
a eomplete
set of
data,
subjects
llere
grouped
according
to how
much information
was
available
that
could
btr matched.
Results
will
be reported
in
groupings
formed
by
the avai-labil-ity
of data,
from
the
broadest
groupings
to the
narrowest
groupings.
The
groupings
usecl in
this study and their
abbreviated
titles, are
present.ed
in
Table 1. A1l
tests of significance were
made at the .05
alpha
1evel,
Ewo-tailecl.
A11
stepwise mulgiple regression analyses
used
a
probability
of
F-to-ent,er
the
regression equation
of(.05.
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33
Insert Table
1 about
here
Results
for
A11
Subjects
(Exercj.sers
and Nonexercisers)
September
1984
Psychological Testing,
(n=334)
(PSYI)
The first
group
(PSY1)
included
all those
partici.pating
in
the
first
pyschological
testing. It
was
possible
to match
the different
pi"eces
of
information
in this testing, whether
the individual
provided
his or her
social security number
or
not,
because the
questionnaries
were
stapled
together
in a
packet.
This
resulted in a large number
of subjects
for
whom
data
could
be analyzed.
SMI
was related to other measures frou
the
fall 1984
psychological
testing sessions:
STAI-T,
Reasons
for Starting a
StrucEured Exercise
Program,
and
Reasons for
Not
Starting
a
Structured Exercise
Program.
There
were
L27
persons
who
reported
having
started
an exercise
program
(STRT)
and
200
persons
who
reported
noE
having started an exercise
program
(NST)
.
No
exercise
reports
were available at this time.
Reasons
for
starting
and for not starting
exercise. Of
tl:,e
L27
people
who reported starting
an
exe::cise
program
the reasons most
often
cited
included
"want
to
get
in
shape",89.07",
"exercise
feels
good",
70.87",
"want
to
prevent
heart attacktt,
66.187",
ttyou
should take
care
of
yourselftt,
59.87",
ttwant
to lose weightt',
58.37",
and,
ttwant
to see
how fit
I
am",
52.0%.
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Of
the
200 people
who
reported
not
starting
an exercise
program
the
reasons most
often cited
were
that
"classes
are too
far
from homett,
42.52,
ttclasses
at bad timerr, 38.57",
t'plan
to start
1ater", 28.52,
and
"fitness
1eve1
is aeceptable'r,
26.37".
The frequencies
of all
responses
to
individual
statements on
the
Reasons
for
Starti-ng
a
Structured
Exercise
Program
are
presented
in
Table
2
ar.d
the
Reasons for
Not
St,arting
a
Structured
Exercise
Program
j-n
Table
3.
Insert
Table
2
about
here
Insert
Table
3
about
here
Cluster analysis.
Cluster analysis is
a statistical
process
that
groups
together items that
covary
with one another.
The
17
reasons
for
starting
an exercise
program
and the
19
reasons
for noE starting an
exercise
program
were analyzed
using the
average
linkage between
groups
method of cluster analysis,
(SPSSX
User's
Guide'
1983).
Analysis
revealed
4 clusters of
reasons
for starting that
seemed
to
go
together, with one
reason
(to
stop
smoking)
not
joining
any
cluster.
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Each
cluster
was
givett
a name
that described
its
contents.
Cluster
1
was
call
the Health
conce::n
clusrer
(cL1);
it
is made
up
of
wanting
to
rrprevent
heart
attackrt,
"reduce
stress
1eve1tt,
and
"lower
blood
pressurett.
Cluster
2
was called
t:he Self-care
Cluster
(CtZ1;
it
is
made
up
of
wanting
to
ttget
in
shapert,
to
ttdo
something
for
selftt,
and
statements
thattryou
should
take
care
of
yourselfrr
and
that
ttexercise
feels goodtt.
Cluster
3
was
ca11ed
the
Externe.l
Motivation
cluster
(cL3);
it
is
made
up
of
"the
company
is
providing
i.ttt,
"fami.ly
encouraged",
"want
to find
out how
fit,,,
ttfriends
are
taking
pa.rt",
and
ttheard
the
program
is excellenttr.
cluster
4
was
called the
out-of-shape
cluster (cL4); it is
made
up
of
I'wanting
to
lose
weighttt,
ttnever
able
to
exercise
on
owntt,
ttfeeling
out of
shapett,
and
ttdocEor'
encouragedtt.
Analysi-s
revealed
4
clusters
of reasons
for not
starting
that
seemed
to
go
together,
with
one reason
(fanily
opposes
my exercising)
not
joi-ning
any
cluster. Each
cluster
was
given
a
name
that described
its
contents.
cluster
1
was called
the General
Excuses
cluster;
it
is
composed
of
t'I
plan
to
start laterrr,
"exercise
takes
too
much timert,
ttsummer
is a
bad
time for
me
to
start
thingstt,
ttexercise
is
drudgerytt,
"r
am
not
mot.ivated
enough
to do itrr,
"I
am
afraid I
will injure
myselftt,
"I
donrt like
the
kinds
of
exercise
offeredt',
rtl
don't like
to exercisetr,
ttMy
friends
are
not
doing
ittr, andttI
smoke
and donrt
want
to
qui-ttr.
Cluster 2
was
called
the Logistical
Probleurs
Cluster; it is
composed
of "the
classes
are
too
far from
my
homett
and
"the
classes
are at inconvenient
timestt. Cluster
3
was cal1ed
the
Self-conscious
Cluster;
it is
composed
of
"my
doctor
advised
me
not
to exereise'r,
"I
would
feel
silly
running
around like a
kj.d",
and
"I
exercise by myself".
Cluster 4 was
called the
Rationalizatj.on
cluster;
it
composed
of
"my
fitness
level
is adequate",
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'rI
don't
need
to lose
weighttt,
and
ttl
work
so
hard
I
canrt
exercise
tootr.
Relationships
Between
Psychological
variables.
The
bivariate
correlations
between
the
individual
statements
on
the Reasons
for
Starting
a Structured
Exercise
Program
form
are
presented
in
Table
4
a11d
those
for
the Relasons
for
Not
St;rrting
a
Structured
Exercise
Program
foTm
in Table
5"
Insert
Table
4
about
here
Insert
Table
5
about
here
Pearson
Product-Mcment
correlations
between
the
psychological
variables
available
at
this
stage
were
made i-n
two
parts,
one for
the
group
that
had reported,
starting
an exercise
program
(Stnt)
and
the
other
for
the
group
that
had
reported
not starting
an exereise program
(NSTRT).
A
computed
variable
named
START
was
created
to
indi.cate
how
many
reasons
for
starting
exercise
an
individual
had cited.
START
has
a
value
equal
to
the total number
of reasons for
starting
an exercise
program
cited, 0
to
17.
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37
Bivariate
correlaEions
between
the variables
available
at
this stage
of the analysis
for
thr)se who reported
starti-ng an
exercise
program
are
presented
in
Table
6 arrd
significant correlations
are
reported be1ow.
For
those who
repr:rted
starting an
exercise
program
(STRT) (N=126)
signifieant correlations
were found
between SMI and:
STAI
(a=-.38)
and
the
Start
External
Motivat:Lon
Cluster
(a=-.20);
between
START
and: STAI
(r=.22),
Start
Health
(loncern
Cluster
(r=.57),
Start
Self-care Cluster
(r="65),
and
Start
Extrrrnal
Motj-vation
Cluster
(r=.58);
and between the
Start
0ut-of-Shape
Clur;ter
and:
STAI
(R=.21),
START
(R=.70),
Start
Health
Concern Cluster
(r=.27'.t,
Start Self-care Cluster
(r=.25),
and Start
External
Motivation Clrrster
(a=.30)
.
Insert Table 6 about here
For
those
who
rep<>rted
not
starting
an
exercise
program
(NSTRT)
(n=200)
there
were onl.r three
variables available
for
this
stage
of
the
analysis, SMI, STAI-T,
and
NST
(a
computed
variable
created
to indicate
how many
reasons for not starting
exercise an
i-ndividual had
checked,
0
to
l9). Significant correlations
were
found between all
three variables,
SMI
and:
STAI
(r=-.36),,
and
NST
(r=.24);
and between
STAI
and
NST
(.23).
Differences
betwer:n
mean SMI
scores
and
mean
STAI-T
scores
for those
who started
exercise
arrd
those
who
did not start
exercise
were
analyzed
using
a
t-test.
Those who
reported
starting
exercise
displayed
significantly
higher
S1{I
scores
(I=148.4,
S.D.=19.9) than those
who
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38
reported
not
starting
,rxgrgiss
(i=t42,2,
S.D.=20.0);
(t=2.69,
p(.05).
However,
there
was
not
a
significant
difference
in
STAI-T
scores
between
the
two
groups.
February
1985
Psychololtical
Testing
(pSy2),
(n=220).
The
second
group
of
data
to
be
aaaLyzed
included
all
those
employees
who
completed
the
secortd
psychological
testing
(PSY2).
Again,
comparisons
between
data
received
lirom
this
group
and"
from
other groups
are limited
because
inclusion in ttLis
group
did not require providing a social
security
number.
Reasons
for
Continuj-ng
and
Disconti.nuing
Exercise.
At
the February
1985
Psychological
Testing,
92
people
reported
continuing
a
structured
exercise
prograu.
Their
reasons
for
conti-nuing
exerci-se
included
',have
more
energy
when r
exercisett,
88.02,
ttexercise
can
prevent
heart
attackrr,
71.72,
ttr feel
more
relaxed.
after exercisett,
68.57",
ttyou
should
Eake
care
of
yourselfrr,
637",
and
ttit
has
been helping
me
lose
weight",
56.52.
The
frequencies
of all
responses
on
the
Reasons
for
Continuing
structured
Exercise,
February
1985
form
are
presented
in
Table
7.
Insert
Table
7
about
here
At
the
same
testinl;,
35
persons
reported
discontlnuing
structured
exerci.se.
The
most.
of
trrn
cited
reasons
were:
t'classes
are
too
f
ar
f
rom
home",
"classes
are at
:Lnconvenient
timest',
and
ttl
was
not
motivated
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39
enough
to
do
ittt,
42.92
each,
ttl
sustained
injurytt,
22.92,
and
ttexercise
took
too
much
time'r,
2\).02.
The
frequencies
of
all responses
to
Reasons
for
Discontinuing
Strur:tured
Exercise,
February
1985 are
presented
in
Table
8.
Insert
Table
8
about
here
June
1985
Psycholosical
Testing
(PJI,3)-r--(rt?]
I.
The
third
group
included
all
those
employees
who
participated
in
the
third
psychological
testing
(PSY3).
Again,
inclusion
in this
group
required
only
participation
in
PSY3'
not
social
security
number,
limi-ting
the
comparisons
that
can
be made
with
data
from
other
groups.
At
the
June
1985
Psychological
Testing
(PSY3),
85 people reported
continuing
an
exercise
program.
The
reasons
Bost
often
ci-ted
included:
ttl
have
more
energy
whr:n.
I
exerci-se",
88.02,
ttexercise
can
prevent
heart
attackfr,
68.27",
ttI
feel
more
relaxed
after
exercisett,
67.12,
ttyou
should
take
care
of
yourself''
,
58.87.,
and
ttexercise
has
been
helping
me
lose
weighttt,
58.82.
The frequencies
of
all
resPonses
to
reasons
for
Continuing
a
Structured Exercise
Program,
June
1985
are
Presented
j-n
Table
9.
Insert
Table
9 about
here
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At the same
time ,1
people
reported
discontinuing
an exercise
program. The
mosE
comaronly
cited
reasons included:
ttclasses
were at
inconvenient timesrr,
5:i.97.,
t'classes
were too
far from my homett,
45.L2,
ttl
was
not
motivated
erLough
to
do
ittt,
37.37",
ttexercise
took too much
timetf
,
25.57., and
"exet'cise
was
drudgerytt,
L5.72. The frequencies of
all
responses
to
Reasons
for
Discontinuing
Structured
Exercise,
June
1985 are
presented
in table
10.
Insert
Table
10
about
here
Fall
1984
Psychological.
Testing
(PSY1)
and
Sumner
1984
Physiological
Testing
(PIIYS)
,
(Group
I)
'
(n=104)
.
Group
I
was
formerl
by including a1l
those
individuals
who
had
participated
in the
phl'siological testing,
the
first set of
psychological
testing
(PSYf),
and
whose information
could
be
matched
by social
security
numbers.
This
group
irrcluded
104
persons
and
was
composed
of
87
men and
16
women.
Further
demographic
information
is
presented
in
Table
11.
Insert
Table
11
about
here
Bivariate
correlat:ions
between
the
variables
available
for this
group
are
presented
in
Table
L2
al.d significant
correlations
that
relate
to
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4T
this
study
ate
rePorte,i
be1ow.
stated
otherwise.
)
(n=104
for
each
correlation
listed
unless
Significant
Maximal
Aerobie
(a=.24,
n=96).
corre
lations
Power
(v=.21,
were found
between
n=9)-),
and
Maximum
SI,II
and:
STAI
(r=-.32)
,
Breathing
CaPacitY
Insert
Tab1e
12
about
here
F.esults
for
Subjects
Who
Reported
Starting
an
Exercise
Program
The
present
stud1.
proposed
to
examine
exercise
adherence
in
persons
who
had
chosen
to
star:t
an
exercise
Program.
Therefore,
all
subsequent
groupings
will
include:
only
those
employees who
reported
starting
an
exercise
program
in
ttre
first
psychological
testing
(PSY1).
(n=58)
.
For
those
indivi,iuals
who
had
undergone
physiological testing
and
reporLed
starting
an
exercise
program
in
the
first
psychological
testing,
availabledatawasanalyzed'.Thisgroupwascomposedof4Tmenandll
women.
Further
demographic
information
is
presented
in
Table
1l'
Subiects
who
took
Part
in
siological
testing,
fall
1984
psychological
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Bivariate
Correlar:iona1
Analyses
The
bivariate cor:relations
beEween all of the available variables
is
presented
in
Table
13,
those
related to this
study
are
reported
be1ow.
(n=58
for each correlar:ion listed
unless
stated
otherwise.)
Significant
corre.Lations
were
found between
SMI
and: the
Start
Health
Concern
Cluster
(r=.38),
the
StarE
External
Motivation
Cluster
(r=-.38),
Resting
Diastolic
Bloorl Pressure
(r=-.38),
Resting
Systolic Blood
Pressure
(r=-.37),
Weight
(r=-..J8),
STAI-T
(r=-.31),
Lean
Body
Weight
(a=-.30),
Percent
Body Fat
(r=-.129),
Maximal
Aerobic Power
(a=.29),
and
Height
(7=-.27).
Other
significant
correlations
were
found
between
the
Start
External
Motivation Cluster
and;
Weight
(s=.36),
Maximal
Aerobic Power
(r=-.29),
and
Percent
Body
Fat
(.r=.34)1
and between
the
Start
Out-of Shape
Cluster
and
START
(R=.69),
Sta::t
External Cluster
(r=.37);
Trunk
Flexion
(a=-.49),
Triglycerides
(r=.36,
tr=45),
Total cholesterol
(r=.32,
n=48), and
lu1axj-mum
Breathing
Capacity
(v=.30
,
n=52)
.
Insert Table
13 about here
Subjects
who
took
part
in summer
1984
physiological
testing
(PHYS),
Seprember
1984 Psychol,:gical
Testing
(PSYI),
June
1985 Psychological
Testing
(PSY3),
and
reported
starting
an
exercise
Program,
(Group
III
n=33
)
.
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Group
III
includerl
all
employees
who
completed physiologi-cal
resring,
the first
and
third
pslzchological
testings,
reported
having
started
exercise,
and who prov:Lded
their
social
securi-ty
number
at
each
testing
session.
This
groupinl;
was
composed
of
26
men
and 7
women.
Further
demographic
informatiorr
is
presented
in
Table
11.
Changes
in STAI-T
This
grouping
is
t:he
first
one in
which
changes
in the
STAI-T
scores
between
two
testing
sesisions
could be
computed. To
report the results
of
the computations,
the SiTAI-T
scores will
be abbreviated
for
the
three
different
testings
as {'ollows:
(a)
september
L984,
srAr,
(b)
February
1985,
sTArA,
and
(c)
Jrine 1985,
sTArB.
Change
in STAr-T
scores
between
testing
sessions was
ccmputed
by subtracting
the later
score from
the
earlier
score.
The
dlfference
in STAI-T
scores
between
the September
1984
and the
February
1985
testings
is STAI-STAIA;
from
September 1984
to
June
1985
is STAI-STAIB:
and for February 1985
to
June 1985
is
STAIA-STAIB.
t-Tests Between
Continuers
and Dropouts
SMI
scores
and STAI-T
scores frorn
both the Septenber
1984
and the
June 1985
testi.ng sessi.ons for
those who
reported
continuing
exercise
and
those
who
reported
dropping
out were compared
using
a t-tesL. No
significant
dlfferences
between
these two
groups
were found
on
any of the
three
ueasures. Neither
was
there a significant difference
between the
September 1984
and
the
June 1985
STAI-T
scores
for
this
grouping.
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44
Reasons
for
start.Lng
exercise
The
most
often
cil:ed
reasons
that members
of this
grouping
had
given
for starting
an
exercir;e
program
in
September
1984
were:
trI
want
to get in
shapett, 90.97",
ttexercir;e
can
prevent
heart
attackrt and
ttI
want
to
lose
weight" 69.77",
"I
want to see
how
fit
I
am'r
66.72,
and
"I
like the way
exercisemakesme feel"., 60.67.. Frequencies for
all the reasons for
starting exercise that this
group
had
given
in September 1984
are
presented
in
Table
2.
Bivari.ate
Correlat:ional
Analyses
The
bivariate corr:elations
between
all available vari-ables
in this
group
are
presented
in
Table
14
and significant
correlations that relate
to the
questions
of thi.s
study
are
reported
below.
(n=33
for all
correlations
listed unl.ess stated otherwise).
Significant correl.ations
were
found
between
SMI
and:
STAI
(r=-.56),
Start
Health
Concern
Cl"uster
(a=.55),
STAIB
(1=-.41),
Start
External
Cluster
(r=-.35),
I{eigtLt
(r=-.36,
n=32), Weight
(r=-.36),
Trunk Flexion
(r=.36,
n=32);
between
STAI and:
STAIB
(a=.71),
STAI-STAIB
(a=.39);
between
STAI-STAIB and Start
Self-care Cluster
(r=-.36),
Weight
(r=.36),
Total
cholesterol
(r=.1r5,
t=29), Glucose
(r=.38,
n=29), Forced
Expiratory
Volume
(r=.41,
n=28),
zrnd
Maximum Breathj-ng Capacity
(r=.37,
a=29);
between the
Start
Healt:h
Concern Cluster and:
START
(a=.50),
&Be
(1=-.50)'
Years
Eurployed
(a=-.58,
n=31),
Hours
per Workday
(r=.36,
n=31),
Resting
Diastolic Blood
Pressut'e
(r=-.42,
n=32), and
Shoulder
Extension
(r=.35);
between the
Start
Self-.care
cluster and:
START
(r=.41),
Start
Out-of-Shape
Cluster
(r=.35),
PercerLt Body
Fat
(s=.37);
and between the
Start
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45
Out-of-Shape
Cluster
arrd: START
Total
Cholesterol
(a=.t+0,
n=29)
and
Maximum
Breathing
()apacity
(r=.72),
Trunk
Flexion
(r=-.38,
n=32),
,
Low
density
Lipoproteins (r=.44,
n=29)
(r=.38,
n=29).
Insert
Table
14
about
here
Multiple
Regressicn.
To
test
the
hypothesis
that
a
significant
porti.on
of
the
variance
in
exercise
adherence
would
be
accounted
for
by
the
three
variables
percent
body fat,
sMr
score,
and
weight
taken
Eogether,
a
sEepwise
multiple
regression
analysis
was
conducted
using
a
probability
of F-to-enter
the
regression
equation
of(.05
(sPSSx
userrs
Manual,
1983).
wlth
rhe
June
1985
exercise
report
(Ex2)
as
dependent
variable,
none
of
the
three
variables
entered
the
regression
equati.on.
Exercise
Report
The
final
exercise
report
covering
the
period
from
Sept
1,
19g4,
to
May
15,
1985,
(Ex2)
com:rleted
at
rhe
summer 1985 psychological
tesring,
was
available
for
the
prtrsons
in
this
group.
Reported
exercise
for
this
group
had
a rnean
of
22.1)
weeks,
a
standard
deviation
of 14.6
weeks
and
a
range
of 0
to
36 weeks.
subjects
who
took
part
-Ln
sunmer
1984
Physiological
Testing
(pHys),
September
1984
Psychological
Testing
(PSYI),
February
1985
Psychological
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46
Testing
(PSY2),
June 1985
Psychological
Testing
(PSY3),
and
reported
starting
a structured
e
xercise
program,
(Group
IV), n=12.
Group
IV included
those
persons
who
had
compleEed
the physiological
testing,
al1
three
psychological
testings,
reported
starting
an
exercise
program, and
had
provided
their
social
security
numbers at
each
testing.
This
group was composed.
of
10
men
and
2
women.
Further
demographic
characteristics
are
presented
in
Table
11.
Reasons
for starti.ng
exercise
The
reasons
that
tLad
been
cited
most
often
by
this
grouP
for starting
an
exerci-se
program in
Fall
1984
were
"wanting
to
get
i-n
shape"
cited
by
100.02;
rlexercise
feelsi
goodtt
and
ttexereise
can
Prevent,
heart
attacktt
by
75.02;
and
t'wanting
to
lose
weight"
and
t'wanting
to.
find out
how
fit
I
am"
by
66.77""
Frequencies
of all
reasons
for starting
an
exercise
program
for
thi-s
group
are
present<ld
in
Table
2.
Bivariate
Correlal:ional
Analyses
The
bivariate
cor::e1atj-ons
between
all
variables
i.n
Ehis
group
are
presented
in
Table
15 rlnd
signifieant
correlations
that
relate
to
the
questions
of this
stud:f
are
Presented
below.
(n=12
for al1
correlations
listed
unless
stated
oEherwise,)
Significant
correLations
were
found
between
SMI
and:
STAI
(p=-'68),
STAI-STAIB
(r=.60),
EXz
(r=.61),
EX3
(r=.63),
and
Weight
(r=-.59);
between
STAI
and
STAI-STAIB
(r=.69);
betInTeen
STAI-STAIA
and
STAI-STAIB
(r='80);
berween the
Start
llealth
Anxiety
Cluster
and:
I{eight
(r=-.58),
Weight
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47
(r=-.63),
and
Years
Employed
(r=-.65);
between
the
Start Self-care
Cluster
and:
Trunk
Extension
(r;=.62),
Shoulder
Extension
(1=.58),
and
Maximal
Aerobic
Power
(r=.87,
rt=9); between
EX2
and:EX3
(1=.95)
and
Maximum Heart
Rate
(r=.69,
n=10);
bel:ween
START
and:
Start
Self-care
Cluster
(t=.76),
Start
Out-of-Shape
Clusiter
(a=.80),
and
Maximal
Aerobic Power
(1=.70);
between
the
Start
Healt:h
Anxiety Cluster
and:
Ileight
(r=-.58),
Weight
(1=-.63),
and
Years
Em1>1oyed
(r=-.65);
and the
Start
Self-care
Cluster
and:
Trunk
Extension
(r=.62),
Shoulder
Extension
(r-.58),
and
Maximal
Aerobic Power
(r=.87,
rr=9).
Insert Table
15
about
here
t-Tes
ts
No significant
di:iferences
were
observed
between
those
who
reported
continuing
and those
who
reported
dropping
out of
exercise
on
SMI
or
any
of
the
three
STAI-T
sc{)res
(September
L984,
February
1985, and
June
1985).
For this
group
there
wits
a significant
difference
between
the
STAI-T
scores
from
September
L984
(X=31.5,
S.D.=8.7)
and
June 1985
(X=28.7,
S.D.=6.6);
(t=2.2,
p(.,J5,
n=12).
No significant
differences
were
observed
between
any
other
combination
of
STAI-T scores.
Multiple
Regression
To
test
the
hypothesis
that
a significant
portion
of
the
variance
in
exercise
adherence
would
be
accounted
for by the
three
variables
percent
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/+8
body fat, SMI
score,
arrd weight
taken
together,
a stepwise
multiple
regression
was conductrrd
using a
probability
of
F-to-enter
the
regression
equation
of(.05
(SPSSX
User's
Manual,
1983).
The
multiple correlation
between weeks of
adhere:nce
to
exercise
reported
June
1985
(EX2)
and the
three
variables
of
ther
hypothesis
resulted in
only
SMI
entering
the
regression
equation; Ril=.37.
With
the composite
exercise
report
(EX3)
as
the dependent
variable,
again
only
SMI
entered
the
regression
equation; R2
=.40.
To
further
descritre
the relationship
between
the
amount
of
exercise
adherence and the varierbles employed, another stepwise
multiple
regression
analysis was
conducted
(SPSSX
User's
Guide,
1983)
including all of the
available
psychological.
and
physiological
variables. The
obtained
mu1tipl6 correlation be,tween
days
of
adherence reported June 1985
(EX2)
and the other vari-ables
(Maximum
Heart Rate,
SMI,
change
in STAI-T
from
September
1984
to
June 1985r
and the
Health
Concern Cluster)
was
.96,
F(4,7)=21.g7,
p(.05,
R?,.93.
Results
of the stepwise
procedure
using
EX2
as the dependent variat le are
presented
in
Table L6.
The
obtained
multiple correlation between
days
of
adherence
reported
j-n
the composite
exercise report
(EX3)
and the other
variables
(SMI,
Forced
Expiratory
Volume,
Resting
Systoli.c
Blood Pressure,
Total Cholesterol,
Weight,
and
Trunk
Extension)
was
1.00,
F(6,5)=882.64,
p1.05,
R2=1.00.
Results
of
the
stepwise
procedure
witt.
EX3
as the
dependent
variable
are presented
in
Table
1
Insert
Table
16 about here
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Exercise
Reports
Persons
in this
g
exercise
reporting
per
1985
(EX2)
the mean
15.3 weeks,
and
the
r
from
the
summer
1985
a
composite
report
(EX3)
number
of
weeks exerc
range
from
0
to
36 wee
49
Insert
Table
17
about
here
oup
have exercj-se report
data
avallable
from both
ods.
Using only
the
report
made in
the
sumrner
of
of
weeks
exercised
was
24.3,
standard
deviation
ge
from
0 to
36
weeks.
Combining
the
information
the
winter
1985
exercise
reports
Lo make
a
and
presumably
getting fresher reports'
the
mean
ed
was
26.2,
standard
deviation
12.2 weeks,
and the
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50
Discussion
Three
main hypotheses
were examined in
this study. The first
hypothesis
was
that a r;ignificant
portion
of
the
variance
j-n
exercise
adherence
would be accounted for
by
three variables:
percent
body fat,
Self-Motivation Inventory
score, and body
weight. The
second hypothesis
was
that the construct
Self-Motivation,
as defined
by
Dishman
and
Gettman
(1980),
would
be suppot:ted
as a major
factor
in
exercise
adherence.
The
third hypothesis was
that the Self-Motivation Inventory
(SMI)
would
be
supported as
a valid
merasure
of Self-Motivation
as defined
by
Dishman
and
Gettman. The
relaEionsrhip
of the results of this
study
with each hypothesis
will
be discussed
individually.
Percent
Body Fat,
SMI,
and
Weight AccountinEi
for
Variance
in
Adherence.
The
results of thj.s
study
do
not
support
Dishman
and Gettmanrs
(1980)
finding
that a significant
portion
of the
variance
in
exercise
adherence
level was
explained
by the variables
percent
body
fat,
SMI score, and weight
taken
together.
The
el'idence does suggest that
exercise
adherence
correlates with a number of variables,
emotlonal and
cognitive
as
well
as
self-motivational
and
p,hysiological. However,
with respect to accounting
for
variance
in adherer.ce, the results of this
study
and the
inferenees
from
those
results
must be
treated with cauEion.
First,
the
number of subjects
utilized in the
analyses
is
sua11
(Group
III,
n=331 Group
IV'
n=12)
and
those
subjects self-selected.
Second, the
same analyses
performed
on Groups
III
and
IV
yiqlded
different resulLs.
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51
For
the
grouping
wj-th
a
fu11
set of data
(Group
IV,
n=12)
multiple
correlations
between the
anounts
of
exercise
reported in the
two exercise
reports and
percent
body
fat,
SMI score,
and
body
weight
were
obtained
by
stepwise
linear
regressions
using a
probability
of
F-to-enter the regression
equation
of(.05
(SPSSX
Userrs
Guide, 1983).
With
the
June 1985 exercise
report
(EX2)
as the dependent
variable, only
SMI
entered
the
equation;
R2
="37.
With
the composite
exercise
report
(EX3)
as the dependent
vari-able,
only
SMI
entered the
equation;
R2=.40.
These
results
do
not
support
the
hypothesized
psycho-biological
explanation
of adherence.
The results for Group
IV
do
support
roles
for
qelf-motivational,
physiological,
emotional,
and cognitive
factors i-n exercise adherence.
Significant bivariate
correlations
were
found
between
the
June
1985
exercise
report
(EX2)
and:
SMI
(i=.61)
and
Maximum
Heart Rate
(r=-.69);
and
between
the
composite
exercise report
that
combined
information
from
both the
February
1985 report
and
the
June
1985 report
(EX3)
and SMI
(r=.63).
The
amount
of
exercise
reported did not correlate significantly with
percent
body
fat,
weight
or
any
other
variable
than those
already
mentioned
for
ej-ther
EX2
or
EX3.
A
multiple
correlation
between
EX2
and
Maximum Heart
Rate,
SMI,
the change
in
STAI-T scores
from
September
1984 to
June
1985,
and
the
l{ealth Concern
Cluster of
reasons
for starting
exercise
(R2=.96)
was
obtained
by
a
stepwise
linear regression
(SPSSX
User's
Guide,
1983). This
multiple correlation with
EX2
as the
dependent
variable
lends
suPport
to a
broader
spectrum
of
factors
than
hypothesized
being
involved
in
adherence
(self-motivational,
phyr;io1ogica1,
emotional,
and
cogniEive).
A
multiple
correlation
beLween
EX3 and
SMI,
Forced
Expiratory
Volume,
Resting
Systolic
Blood
Pressure,
Total
Cholesterol,
Weight,
and
Trunk
Extension
1p2=1.0)
was
obtained
by stepwise
linear regression
(SPSSX
Userrs
Guide,
1983).
This
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52
Eultiple
correlation
wi.th
EX3
as
the dependenE
variable
supports
a
mix
between
self-motivatiorLal
and
physiological
factors
in exercise
adherence,
but
the cognitive
and
emotional
factors
that
appeared
in
the equation
with
EX2
are not representec,.
Perhaps
an
emotional
factor
can
be
inferred
from
the
presence
of SMI
in
the
formula
since
SMI
and
STAI-T
were found
to
correlate
posiLi,vely
in this
study.
For
the
grouping
r^rith
data
from
PHYS,
PSYI,
and
PSY3
(Group
rrr,
n=33),
there were
no
significant
correlati-ons
bet\,reen
amount
of
exercise
and
any
other
variable.
Because
Group III
did
not include
PSY2,
the
only
exercise
rePort
available
was EX2.
A
multiple
correlation
between EX2
and
percent
body fat,
sMr
score,
and
weight
using
a
probability
of
F-to-enter
the
regression
equation
of1i.05
(SPSSX
Userts Guide, 1983)
resulted
in none
of
the three variables
entering
the
regression
equation. Not
only does
this
result
not
support
the
hypothesis,
but it
is different
from
that with
Group
IV
(n=12).
Perhaps
there is such a large
number
of variables
affecting
adherence
in
a
variety
of
patterns
that no speci.fic
variables
show
up as
significant
correlates with
exercis3
adherence.
The
variables
that correlated with
the
two
exercise
reports within
Group
IV
and
the lack
oE correlations
in Group
III
were
unexpected.
In
a
previous
study,
percent
body
fat,
SMI,
and
weight
measured
before
an
exercise
Program
were
sl:ovm
to be major correlates
with
adherence and the
roles of other
types
of factors
were dovmplayed
(Dishman
& Gettman, 1980).
A1so,
the defini-tion of
rfstarting
an
exercise
programtt
in
the
present
study
seemed
to
favor
the cor.relation
of
physiological
factors
with exercise.
By
defining
starti-ng
exerc:lse
as starting
a
program
1n line
with the company
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53
exercise
Program
in
terms of recommended
schedule,
intensiEy,
and duration,
it
seems
like1y
that a
number
of the
were actually eontinuirLg an ongoing
should
have
been in
betrter
shape to
likely
to
continue
to urdhere.
This
physiological
variablesr
and exerci"se
results of
the
present
study
did not
persons
counted
as
starting
exercise
personal
program.
Regular exercisers
begin with
and should have been more
would result in correlations
between
in
Group III
and Group
IV,
but the
indicate
this
happened.
Differences
betwee,n
members of
Group
III
(n=33)
and
IV
(n=12)
in
variables related Eo e:i:ercise do
not
seem
to
be responsible
for the
difference in results t,etween the
two
groups.
t-tests
on common
variables
between the
12
persons
included
in both
groups
and the
21
persons
only in
Group
IlI
revealed
a si.gnificant
difference
between
the
groups
on only one
variable; the
21
persor:s
only
in Group
III
had
a significantly
higher score
1ra.05)
on
the STAI-T e.dministered
at
PSY3
(A=34.7,
S.D.=8.0) than
the
12
persons
in
Group
IV
(?=,28.7,
S.D.=6.6).
A
significant
difference in the
final
STAI-T
score
aIor.e
does
not
seem
li.kely to
account
for all of
the
other
differences in
re
sults
between the
groups.
Since significant
differences
in
means
of common
variables between
the
groups
of
participants
were not
found, the most
1ikely
source
of
error in
this
phase
of the studf
is in the
exercise
reports.
Self-reports
of
exercise
have been shor,m
to be accurate
(self-reports
correlating
highly,
r=92,
with covert spot
checks
by
observers)
when
made
shortly after
eaeh
session
(King
&
Fredericksen,
1984).
Ilowever, acceptable
use of
time
at the
refinery
made
it necessiary
in Ehe
present
study
to
include
exereise
reports
with
the
psychological testing
sessions.
This
meant that the
participants
had to
remember
what
they
had been doing
over as
much
as
40
weeks to
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54
complete
Ex2,
the
exercise
report
made
at
the
June
l9g5
psychological
testing.
Those persons
who
adhered
1002
had
no
difficulty
in filling
out
the
reports, but
those
who
dropped
out or
stopped and
restarted
ha4
a
more
difficult
task.
compa:ring
the
second
exercise
repor
(Ex2)
and
the
composite
exerci-se
report
(EX3)
for participants
1n
Group
IV
(n=12),
who
had
both
exercise
reports
irvailable,
shows
more
reports
of
no exercise
in
EX2
than
in EX3.
Apparent-Ly
when
people
had
to remember
over
the longer
period,
they were
likely
to clirim
no
exerci-se
if
they
were
unsure;
thereby
underreporting
short pt:riods
of exercise.
The
failure
to
report
shorter
periods
of
exercise
in EX2
accentuated
the extremes
of
participation,
O
and
36 weeks.
This
exagget:ati.on
of
the
extremes
is
displayed
in
the means
and
standard
deviati.ons
of
reported
exercise
for
both reports;
EX2
(i=24.3,
s.D.=15.3)
and EX3
(i=2',6.2,
s.D.=12.2).
Group rrr
(n=33)
had
only EX2
available
because
membe,rship
in
Group
III
did
not
include PSY2
where
part
of
the
composite
report
(IlX3)
was
made. The
mean
weeks
of
exercise
reported
in
EX2
for
Group
rrr
(1'.=22,0,
S.D.=14.6)
was
also less
than
that
reported
for
EX3
in
Group
IV.
It
appears
very
1ike1y
that the
correlations
relylng
upon
the
single
report
of
exercise
over
the 36
weeks
of the
study
(EX2)
are
confounded
by
underreporting
of
partial
adherence.
The
composite
exercise
rePort
(EX3)
seems
to
rnoderate
this effect
of
underreporting
sma11 amounts
of exercise,
but
EX3ts
reports
still
include
a
largememory
factor. rt
would
have
been
preferable
for
all
the reports
to have
been
made
much sooner
after
the exercise.
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55
Self-Motivation
as
a
Factor
in
Exercise
Adherence
Both
in
the
preserrt
study
and in an
earlier
study
(oldridge,
1980),
lack
of motivation
was
a reason
commonly
cited for
discontinuing
an
exercise
program.
It
cloes
seem
reasonable
to infer
that a
person
who
has
stopped following
an err.ercise
program
was
not
motivated
enough
to
continue.
Yet,
neither
the litere.ture
on
exercise
adherence
and
treatment
compliance
nor
the results
of this
study support
self-motivation
as more
than one
of
a
number
of factors
in
exercise
adherence. Instead,
the results
of
this
study
suggest
that se1{-motivational,
emotional,
physi-ological,
and
cognitive
factors
all
contribute
to
patterns
of exercise
adherence. One
of
the most
challenging factors
in attaining
adherence
to many long
term
health regimens
is
the
lack
of immediate
gratification
for
adhering
(Varni
&
A11ander,
1984)
however
exercj-se
may
be different
in this
regard
with both
physiological
and
psychological
rewards reported.
SMf of Starter, Nonstarters,
Continuers
and
Dropouts.
The
relationships
between
SMI
scores and whether
or not
an
individual
had started, not
started, dropped out, or continued
exercise
suggest
that
abilities to succeed
in
a
given
si.tuation temper
the
effect
of
self-mot.ivation"
Participants
in
the
September 1984
psychological
test sessj,on
(PSYl)
who
reported starting
an
exercise
program
exhibited significantly higher
SMI
scores
(X=taA.4,
t=126)
than
those
who reported. not
starting an exercise
program
(X=142.2,
n=197). However,
there
r^/as
no
significant
difference
between SMI
scores
either for
those
persons
in the
February 1985
psychological
testing
session
(PSY2)
who
reported continuing
(F152.0,
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56
rL=24)
and
those
who
reported
dropping
out
(1=U+q.44,
n=9)
in
the
June
1985
psych,logical
testing
session
(psy3)
who
continuing
(f=159.1,n=l.0)
and.
those
who
reported
dropping
or for
those
reported
out
(I=131
.5,n=2)
These
results
with
SMI
scores
agree
with
observations
in
the field
of
treatment
compliance
tltat health
beliefs
measured
before
entry
into
treatmen
are
poor
predictors
of
compliance,
but
health
beliefs
measured
after
therapy
has
progressed
are
better
predi-ctors
(Luborsky,
et
aI.,
19g0).
Positive
health
beliefsr
have
been
observed
to
increase
with
compliance
(Bruhn,1983)
.
Perhaps
in the
present study
the
d.ecision
to starr
was
a
poor
measure
of
self-uotivat
ion
than
the decision
to
continue
exercise.
Continuing
is likely
tc depend
not
only
on the
1eve1
of
self-motivation,
but also
on
abilities
and
responses
specific
to exercise.
It
is unforEunaLe
that the
present
study
did not
include
retests
on
the SMI
to
see
if SMf
scores responded
to adherence
as
health
beliefs
have.
Reasons
Ci-ted
for
Exercise
Participation
Status.
Reasons
cited
for
starting,
not
starting,
continuing,
and
discontinuing
an exercise
Program
support
the concept
of a
mix
of factors
shaping
exercise
behavior. Reasons
for exercising
were
mostly
participant
factors
and
reasons
for
not exercising
included
more
program
factors.
Reasons
for
Starting
an
Exercise
Program.
The
most
often
cited
reasons
for
starting
an
exercise
program
(see
Table
2)
were
partici-pant
factors:
rtI
want
to
get
in
shapet',
ttl
like
the way
exercise makes me
feelrt,
"r
want
to
prevent
hearE
attackfr,
"You
should
take
care
of
yourself",
and
rrl
want
to
lose
weighttt.
These
reasons for
starting
an
exercise
program
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57
support
the
Health
Bel.Lef Model
(Rosenstock,
1974)
as
a
means
of
explaining
exercise
adherence.
In
the
IIBM
format,
the
starters
displayed
a
perception
of
risks :hat
applied
the them
(Heart
attack,
obesity),
they
saw
exercise
as
an
act:Lon
they could
take to reduce
the risks,
and
they
expected
the
benefits r>f
exercise
(diminished
chance
of heart
attack,
weight
loss,
feeling
good)
to outweigh
the
costs
(time
and
inconvenience
of exercise).
The
reasorls
cited for
starting
an exercise program
provi-ded
information
on
the
cogrriti.ve processes
in
goal
setting
and
expectations
involved
in deciding
to start
exercisi.ng
(Meichenbaum,
L975)
that would
be
expected
to contribttte to decisions to continue
exercise
or
drop
out
later.
As
opposed
to
l:he most
often
cited
reasons
for
starting an
exercise
program,
the
l-east
cited reasons
\rere more
external,
including
ttlrve
heard
the
prograrr
is excellenttt,
ttMy
doctor
encouraged
mett,
ttl
have
never
been able
to
exer:cise
on
my
owntt,
ttMy
friends
are taking
partrr,
and
rrl
want
to stop
smokin6;tt.
Reasons
forNot
Sterrting
an
Exerci-se
Program.
Reasons
cited for
not
starting an
exercise
program
differ
from
those
cited
for
starting
in that
each
respondent
tended
to check
fewer
reasons
and
there
was
less agreement
between respondents
on what the most important
reasons were,
but
program
factors
topped
the list:
(see
Table
2
ar.d
Table
3).
The
first two,
"The
classes
are too far frc,m my home"
and
ttThe
classes
are at
inconvenient
timestr
simply
may
have
been
rationalizations for not
parEicipating
since
being
unable to schedul.e
exercise
would be one r^ray
to
resolve
a cognitive
di.ssonance
(Festinger,
1957)
if
a
person
thought exercise
was
important,
but
was
not
going
to
dc,
j-t.
However,
tiue
is limited and exercise is
not
the only
important
acti.vity vying for time in an adultrs 1ife.
Also,
the
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58
respondents
were
not
unwilling
to aceept
personal
responsibli.ty
since
t'I
was not
motivated
e::.ough to
do
itt' was the fourth
most often
cited
reason
for
not startinl3.
The
third
most often cited
reason,
ttl
exercise
by myselftr wai a
poorly
designed
choice and
the results from
it were confusing.
Pe:rsons who
cited this reason may have
thought
that
they
had to
participat,r
in
the company
program
or
some
other
group
exercise
program
to re')ort
starting,
when in
actuality
they
may have
had
an
individual
program;
some
who
cited this reason
may
have had
an ongoing
program
and
did not
corrsider
themselves starters; or some citing
thi-s
reason
may
have been
rr:ferring to a level of exercise that did not qualify
as aerobic
exercise.
.tn
the
first
two situationsttI
exercise
on
my
owntt
would have been
checkerl
because
the
quesEionnaires
were
not
clear
enough, in
t.he
last
sit:uation the
response
night
have been
a
way
to
deal with cognitive dir;sonance
over
not
starting
by denying the
need
to
exercise
(Festinger,
1l)57).
Reasons
for Contirruing
Exercise. Reasons most
often cited
for
continuing
exercise
wer:e
participant
factors with
program
factors
apparently being of
1it:tle importance.
The five
most often cited reasons
were the same for both
PSY2
and
PSY3:
"I
have more energy when
I
exerciser',
t'You
should
take
care <>f
yourself",
and
t'ft
has been helping
me
lose
weight". The
paralleL;
between
the
reasons
for
starting and
the reasons
for
continuing suggest
that those
who continued
r^rere
meeting their
expectations
in their
r:xercise
program.
Dishman
and
Gettmen
(1980)
defined
self-motivation
as
a
generaLi-zed
tendency
to
persist
in the absence
of external
reinforcement
including
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59
skil1 in
delaying
gratiEi-cation.
However, the
most
often cited reasons
for
continuing
exercise
do not. seem
to support a major role
in
the
exercj-se
adherence observed in
this study
for
self-motivation
as
defined by
Dishman
and
3ettman.
"I
have more energy
when I
exercisett,
and
t'I
feel
more relaxe:l after exercise"
indicate the
presence
of rewards
which
are intrapersonal,
being
psychological,
physiological,
or both in
origin
(Morgan,
1984),
but
they
are
both
irrmediate
and
speci-fic to
exercise.
The
Utility
lfode1
of
Preventive Behavior
(Cohen,
1984)
suggests
that
continuing
because
|tExercise
can
prevent
heart atEacktr also
provides
immediate
gratification
through
the alleviation of anxiety
and
again
it is
specific to exercise.
.r-'inally,
individual
perceptions
of
a stressful
experience
(exercise
is
physiologically
stressful, though it is
usually
a
positive
stress)
show
marked and consistent differences that affect the
ability to
persevere
(Kr>riat,
et a1.,
L974). It
is
possible
that the
iuportant cognitive ski.Ll
in
self-motivation
as it relates to
exercise
is not
delaying
gratifir:ation, but rather
percei-ving
the physiological
and
psychological
resporrses
to
exercise
as
positive.
Reasons
forDroppinll
Out
of
Exercise.
The
reasons
for
dropping
out
of
exercise reflected a shift
from what had been said upon starti.ng
to
a
pattern
very similar
Eo
that
in the reasons
for not
st.arting,
external
factors
were
cited
more
often
than
internal factors
as reasons
for
dropping
out of exereis,:,
but there
was
a mix
of the two. In both
PSY2
and
PSY3
the most
often
ciLed reasons
for dropping
out were
"The
classes
were too
far from my hornett,
ttThe
classes
were
at
i.nconvenient
timesrt,
andttl
wasntt motivated
enough to do ittt.
Apparently
the
obstacles
to
exercise
loomed
larger
;rfter
dropping
out.
Because of the
construction
of the
forms, it was noE
possible
to
determine
much
about
how
exercise
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felt
to
those who dro
positive
outcomes cite
ttExercise
was
drudge
good
feelings
reported
177"
of those
reporting
"I
rdas not losing
weig
respondents
in PSY2
a
who
later
dropped
out
SMI
scores were
not si
out and those
who
cont
exercise
playing
the
60
out, however, negative para1le1s
to the
by
those
who
continued were
not
chosen often.
comes
close to finding a
negative paral1e1
to
the
by
those
who
continued,
but
lt was
cited by
only
dropping
out in PSY2
and
16Z
in PSY3.
Similarly,
t
like Ifd
hoped" rdas
cited
by only
9% of
tt.e
4Z
in
PSY3.
Something
changed
for the
starters
it
does
not seeru
to
be
self-motivation.
That
the
ificantly
different between
those
who dropped
d exercise,
lends
support to the specifics
of
e major
role in adherence.
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6L
SMI
as a
Measure
of
Self-motivation
The
results
of
th.Ls
study
supported
the
hypothesis
that
SMI
measures
the
general-i-zed,
nonspecific
tendency to
persevere
defined
by
Dishman
and Gettman
(1980)
as lielf-Motivation,
but
there
seem to
be
other factors
contributing
to the
SM.[
score
as
we11.
Emotional
and
physiological
correlates
of SMI
suggost
t.hat
at
least
some
of
the
broader
range
of
factors
associated with
self-motivation in exercise
adherence
are
also
included
in the SMI score.
Anxiety.
The
significant correlation between SMI and STAI-T was
unexpected
because
it
had
not beerr reported in
the
literature. Yet,
consistently a
signifiiant
negative
correlation between
SMI
and STAI-T indicated that
parti.cipants
with higtLer SMI
score
(and
more self-motivatj.on) tended to
have
lower
STAI-T
scor€rs
(and
less anxiety).
SMI
and
STAI-T
correlated
significantly
for
all of the
particl-pants
in
PSY1
(n=334r
r=-.37) which
included those
persons
who reported sLarting
an exercise
program
(r=L?7,
r=-.36).
Though
st.art€rrs
and nonstarters
displayed
signiflcant
difference
in SMI scores, there
wErs no
significant difference between the starters
and
the nonstarters
on STAI-T
scores.
These
results
suggest
that
the
degree to
whj-ch
a
persron
reports
an
ability to
persevere
in the
SMI
is
significantly correlat€rd
with his or
her level of
anxi-ety
at the time
of
the
SMI.
Because
the
S|MI
and
the STAI-T
were
administered
at the same
session, at the
workplEice,
within the
context of an employer
sponsored
exercise
program,
specj.fic
situational
factors
were
likely to
be involved
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62
in
these
results.
Such
faccors
could
have
been
job-related,
exercise-
related,
or
both.
For
Group
rV
(n=12;
the June
1985
srAr-T
score
was
significantly
lower
than
the
September
1984
STAI-T
score
which
suggesrs
that
lowering
anxiety
rdght
be
a factor
in
adherence.
However,
this
lowering
of anxiety
wari not
observed
in Group
III
(n=33)
or
in
comparisons
of
the
February
1985
SIIAI-T
with
either
the
Seprernber
1984
or the
June
1985
STAI-T
for
Group
.tV"
Reasons
Cited
for
Starl:ing
Exercise.
The
reasons
cited for starting
exercise
and the
clusters
formed
from
those
reasons
support
IiMr
as
a measure
of Self-Motivat.ion,
but
also
suggest
that
other
fact:ors,
both general
and
specific,
are
included.
A
negative
correlation
bertween
SMI
and
the cluster
called
External
Motivation
(r=-.20)
was
expected
si.nce
citing
external
reasons
for
starting
does
not
fit r^rith
the
concept
of self-motivation.
A positive
correlation
between
STAI-T
and START
(SfAnl=
the
total
number
of
reasons
cited for starting)
(1=.20)
implies
that
the more
reasons
a
person
cited
for
starting
exercise,
the more
anxious
he or
she
was
or
vice
versa.
STAr-T
and
the
cluster
called
Out-of-Shape
also
had a
positive
correlati.on
(r=.21).
The
correlations
between
START
(the
total number
of
reasons
cited for
starting)
and
the STAI-T
along
with
the
correlation
between
SMI
and
STAI-T
suggest
that
not
only
dld
anxiety
correlate
with
SMr,
but
anxiety
is
1ikely
to
have
been
correlated
with
specific
exercise
setting.
Physiological
Factors.
Physiological
factcrs
related
to
being
in
shape
correlated
with
SMI
in
two
of
the larger grrupi-ngs.
For
the
group
that
was
in
psyl
and
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63
completed
the
fitness
irssessment
(pHys)
(n=104),
higher
sMr
scores
correlated
with
higher Maximal
Aerobic
Power
(r=.21)
and
a higher
Maximum
Breathing
capacity
(r=,24).
For
the
group
rhat
completed
psy1,
pHys,
and
reported
starting
erxercise
(n=58),
higher
SMr
scores
correlated
significantly
with
beirLg
shorter
(Heightt
t=-.27),
lighter
(weighr,
r=-.38;
Lean
Body
WeigtLt,
r=-.30;
Percent
body Fatr
r=-.29),
having
lower
blood
pressure,
(Resting
systolic
Blood
pressurer
r=-.37; Resting
Diastolic
Blood
Pressure,
r=-.38),
and
being
in
better
shape
(Maximal
Aerobic
Power,
r=.29).
The
SMI
test
was
taken
after
most
of the
parti-cipants
in
PHYS
had
been
tested and
had
received
the
report
of thei-r
scores.
rt
may
be
that the
people
who
had
the
higher SMI
scores were
in better
shape because
theyhadmore
self-motivation.
However,
it
might
also
be
that
higher
scores
on the
physiological
testing
increased
intrinsic
motivation
in
a
similar way
to that
already
reported
for
competitive
sports
(tr{einberg,
L97e).
Conclusion
Summary
of
Findings.
The
results
of this
study
support
self-motivation
as
a factor
in
exercise
adherence,
but not in
the form or
to the
degree
of
significance
hypothesized.
Percent Body
Fat,
SMI score,
and
Weight
taken
together
di-d
not
account
for
a
slgnifi-cant
portions
of the variance
in exercise.
adherence
as
reported by
Dishman
and Gettman
(1980).
Self-motivation
was
supported
as
p1ayin13
a role in exerci.se
adherence,
but
it did not
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54
appear
to
be
either
inrlependent
of the
situation
or without short-term
and
immediate
gratificirtion.
SMI
did
seem to
measure
self-motj-vation,
but
evidence
of
emotiorral
and
sj-tuation-specific influences
on
the
SI'1I
score
were
also
found.
Problems in
Meths5 o s&'/.
Some of the
desigrr
flaws of the
present
study
were
inherent
in the
industrial
plant
settirlg.
The
operating
schedule
of the refinery
required that
psychololgieal
testing
be conducted
at regular
department
meetings
and include e'reryone
attending
those meetings.
Management
recommended
using Sociirl
Security numbers
as identification
numbers
beeause
time
was lirnitr:d in the
department
meetings
and
they
provided a
simple,
reliable
form
r:f
identification.
Instead
of
random
selection
of subjects,
individua.Ls
attending
departmental
mee-tirgs
self-selected
by
choosing
to
fill out tl:e
questionnaires
or
not and by
choosing to
identify
themselves
by their social security
numbers
or not.
People
who
missed the
meetings
whrlre the
questionnaires
were administered
due
to
job
assignments,
illner;sr oE
vscdtion
were
lost from the study.
Since
the
testing
was
done at
cornpany
meetings
and
soci.al
securi-ty
numbers
were
used
as identification,
Ehere
\^ras concern
about
confidenLiality
among
participants.
This fo:rmat
for testing
meant
that
exercise
reports
were
made
only twice,
requiring
participants to remember
what they
had done
over
relatively
long
p,31ieds.
Other
problems wiEh this
study
resulted
from
a more
general
lack of
foresight
and
have bee:e
noted
in the
Discussion.
The
main
difficulties
occurred
as a
result
oE
not explaining
the
purpose and
methods
of the
study clearly
enough
t3
get
the
parEicipants to
identify
themselves
and
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and
and
and
continue
in the
st
not
having
paralle
from
continuers
Future
Study.
Further
investiga
a)
the
role
playe
correlation
between
SM
b)
whether
or
not
have
been observed to
c)
how
the
percep
continue and those
who
65
y;
not
assuring
confidentiality
clearly
enough;
information frou
starters
and
non-starters
dropouts.
ion
by
and
SMI
t
ion
drop
is
suggested
into
the
following:
anxiety
in the SMI
score
as
implied
in
the
STAI.T,
increases r^lith
adherence
as
health
beliefs
of exercise differs between
those who
out.
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66
Aho, I^I.
1977.
their beliefs
92,65-71.
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