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The Temple of Flora
Exploring the Biology of Plants
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An obvious plant
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and another
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Characteristics of living things
• Growth• Nutrition• Excretion• Sensitivity• Reproduction• Movement• Respiration
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Differences between plants and animals
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Plants
• Have cell walls made of complex polysaccharides (eg cellulose)
• Make their own food by the process of photosynthesis, requiring carbon dioxide, water, light energy and the green pigment chlorophyll (in structures known as chloroplasts)
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Kingdoms of organisms
• In simpler times:• Plants• Animals• Bacteria• Viruses• Plants and Animals are eukaryotic (ie their cells
contain a nucleus); Bacteria are prokaryotic (don’t have genetic material in a nucleus)
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A historical viewpoint
• Thallophyta– Algae– Fungi
• Bryophyta• Pteridophyta• Spermatophyta– Gymnosperms– Angiosperms
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More-recent changes
• Since then:Fungi no longer considered to be plantsSingle-celled organisms may be Protista‘Algae’ are several groups of unrelated
simple plants (some people don’t regard them as plants, but we’ll ignore them)
One group of algae (blue-green) now considered to be bacteria
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Some modern plant groups
• Rhodophyta• Phaeophyta• Chlorophyta• Bacillariophyta• Bryophyta• Pteridophyta• Spermatophyta• (in other words, algae now seen as being several
different groups, and fungi have been removed)
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Other ways of grouping plants
• Non-Flowering Plants (Cryptogams)/Flowering Plants (Phanerogams)
• ‘Algae’, Bryophytes and Pteridophytes are Non-Flowering Plants; Spermatophytes are Flowering Plants.
• Non-Vascular Plants/Vascular Plants• ‘Algae’ and Bryophytes are Non-Vascular Plants;• Pteridophytes and Spermatophytes are Vascular Plants.
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Why are fungi not plants?
• Cell wall is not made of polysaccharide• Do not have chloroplasts and do not
photosynthesise
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Groups of fungi
• Mushrooms and toadstools• Moulds eg Penicillium, Mucor• Rusts
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Fungi
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What is missing so far?
• Lichens• These are composed fungi with symbiotic algae
(rather like a fungus-alga-fungus sandwich)• The fungus provides protection; the alga
photosynthesises and produces carbohydrates which can be used by the fungus
• Classified as fungi• Interestingly, the symbiotic alga is not known in
the free-living state
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Lichens
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Lichen structure
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Algae
• Although once regarded as a single taxonomic group, now realised that the different classes of algae are a group of plants in their own right. So, for example, Class Phaeophyceae now Division Phaeophyta
• All simple aquatic plants reproducing by means of spores of one sort or another
• Both marine and freshwater (including soil algae); multicellular and unicellular; macroscopic and microscopic
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Algae
• Rhodophyta (red algae)• Phaeophyta (brown algae)• Chlorophyta (green algae)• Bacillariophyta (diatoms)• Various other groups: note, classified according to
colour (ie pigments) although their anatomy is also significantly different
• Blue-green algae (Cyanophyceae), being prokaryotic, now considered to be bacteria (Cyanobacteria) even though they have cell walls and photosynthesise
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Rhodophyta: Delesseria sanguinea
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Rhodophyta: Phycodrys rubens
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Phaeophyta: Fucus vesiculosus
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Phaeophyta: Laminaria digitata
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Chlorophyta: Pediastrum
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Chlorophyta: Volvox
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Chlorophyta: Spirogyra
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Chlorophyta: Ulva lactuca
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Chlorophyta: Codium fragile
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Bacillariophyta: Diatoms
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Oscillatoria – an example of a Cyanobacteria
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Bryophyta
• Mosses (Musci)• Liverworts (Hepaticae)
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Cell Division
• Mitosis – the type of cell division which results in identical copies of the original cell – found where organisms are growing or repairing tissues. Also found in simple organisms that reproduce by ‘binary fission’
• Meiosis – cell division which results in halving the chromosome number during the production of gametes (‘sex cells’). As a result, a diploid cell (with two of every chromosome: 2n) produces haploid cells (with one of each chromosome: n). Similarly tetraploid cells (4n) produce diploid ones (2n) and so on.
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More terminology
• Gametophyte – the haploid phase in a life cycle. i.e. a stage which produces haploid gametes/spores by mitosis.
• Sporophyte – the diploid phase in a life cycle i.e. a stage which produces haploid gametes/spores by meiosis.
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Life cycles
• In both Bryophytes and Pteridophytes there are two stages in the life cycle.
• The moss/liverwort ‘plant’ is haploid (the gametophyte) and lives in damp conditions; the spore capsule is diploid (the sporophyte) and requires dry conditions for the spores to be dispersed.
• The fern ‘plant’ is diploid (the sporophyte) and requires more-or-less dry conditions; there is a second stage (the prothallus: haploid, tiny, and totally different in appearance) and his requires damp conditions.
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Mosses
• Yet more terminology if you want it:• Acrocarpous mosses form cushions;
Pleurocarpous mosses creep across the substratum.
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Mnium hornum
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Mnium hornum
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Tortula ruraliformis
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Ptilium crista-castrensis
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Hypnum cupressiforme
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Sphagnum
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Marchantia
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Pteridophyta
• Psilopsida (Quillworts)• Lycopsida (Club-mosses: no relation to
‘mosses’)• Sphenopsida (Horsetails)• Filicopsida (Ferns)
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Psilotum: Quill-wort
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Psilotum: Quill-wort
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Huperzia selago: Club-moss
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Diphasiastrum clavatum: Club-moss
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Equisetum: Horsetail
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Equisetum: Horsetail
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Calamites: Fossil Horsetail
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Botrychium lunaria: Moonwort
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Dryopteris filix-mas: Male Fern
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Dicksonia: Tree Fern
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Gleichenia dicarpa
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Spermatophyta
• Seed plants• Gymnosperms (Conifers, cycads etc)• Angiosperms (Flowering plants):– Monocotyledons (have one seed leaf eg grasses,
orchids)– Dicotyledons (have two seed leaves – majority of
flowering plants)