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Contents
Introduction 3
ChapterOneMelancholyandNostalgia 8WhatisMelancholy? 8TheHistoryofMelancholyanditsMeaning 10TheImportanceofMelancholyintheVictorianandEdwardianEras 14IdentifyingPersonalandCulturalMelancholy 19
MelancholyinHistoryofArt 25ChapterTwoCamdenTownGroup:ABriefHistoryandContextualisation 30
WhoWeretheCamdenTownGroup? 30InspirationandTechnique 31TheCamdenTownGroupSubject 33DisagreementandDivision 36PersonalMelancholyandtheEndoftheCamdenTownGroup 37ChapterThreeAnAnalysisofMelancholyandNostalgiawithintheLandscape
PaintingsoftheCamdenTownGroupinComparisonwithotherPost-ImpressionistArtists39
i)AnAnalysisofMelancholyintheCityscape 39ii)AnAnalysisofMelancholyintheModernCountryLandscape 47iii)AnAnalysisofChildhoodNostalgiaandMelancholy 56iv)AnAnalysisofSocialNostalgiaintheTraditionalCountryLandscape 66
Conclusion 73
Bibliography 77
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Introduction
Figure1.SpencerGore,GauguinsandConnoisseurs,1911.Oiloncanvas(83.8x71.7cm)PrivateCollection.
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4
In1910,theEnglishartcriticRogerFry,heldaseminalexhibitioninLondoncalled
ManetandthePost-Impressionists.Itwastoforgethewayinshowcasingmodern
EuropeanartinBritain.1Thenin1911,anEnglishartistbythenameofSpencerGore,
decidedtocelebratethiseventinapaintingcalledGauguinsandConoisseurs[Figure1]
Hisdepictionoftheeventshowsalivelycrowdofvisitorsembracinganewmovement
ofartdevelopedbythePost-ImpressionistmastersGauguin,CezanneandVanGogh.
Gore,likehisartisticcolleagues,hadlongheldafascinationwiththisart,whichhad
precededtheBritishpublicsknowledgeofitsexistence.2Itwasaroundthetimeofthis
exhibition,thatagroupofmensoughttodepicttheirownlandinthestyleoftheir
idolsandsotheCamdenTownGroupwasborn.
TheCamdenTownGroupsplacewithinthehistoryofBritisharthasunfortunately
beensomewhatignoredandunderstated.Yettheirartisacuriousnarrativeonthe
experiencesofBritishculture,whichlaidimportanceonboththelandscapeinthecity
andthecountry.Furthermore,thegrouphaveoftenbeenevaluatedascelebratorsof
thecityandthattheirimportanceonlyliesherewith.Inreality,thereisastrongcase
foranexplorationofmelancholyandnostalgiawithinthesepaintersworks.
MelancholiawasanunavoidablepartofBritishculture,whichhaddevelopedoutof
theVictorianeraasaresultofthenegativeeffectsofmodernisation.Nostalgiabecame
partofaremedyinwhichtoalleviatetheseproblemswithinsociety.Withinananalysis
oftheirworks,itshallbeseenthattheseartiststrodalineonwhichtheycouldusethe
1AnnaGruetznerRobins,ModernArtinBritain1910-1914(Michigan:UniversityofMichigan,1997),p.8.2JudithTerry,TobiBruce,JaniceAndersonandDanielleChaput,Lasting
Impressions:CelebratedWorksoftheArtGalleryofHamilton(Hamilton:ArtGallery
ofHamilton,2005),p.82.
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creative,colourfulandexperimentalstyleofthePost-Impressionistsandapplyittoa
melancholicornostalgicsubject.
Whatshallbearguedhereisthatthereismuchtobesaidaboutthesimilarsubjects
whichtheCamdenTownGroupandPost-Impressionistsportrayed.Itwasnotjust
stylisticallyinwhichthetwoartisticerassharedacommontheme.Frenchsocietywas
undergoingmodernisation,perhapslaterthanEnglandbutnevertheless,thatcuriously
createdsimilarfeelingsofmelancholyandnostalgiawithintheirculture.Itishowever,
noteworthythatthePost-Impressionistsappearedtoinvolvemoreoftheirpersonal
feelingswithintheirworkthanperhapsdidtheCamdenTownGroup.Thisis
understandable,forthegroupworkedtogether,whereasthePost-Impressionists,
althoughgroupedundersuchaname,didnotcollaborateasagroupinthesameway.
Togatherafullunderstandingofthecircumstancesoftheseworksandwhatthis
thesiswillmeanbymelancholyandnostalgia,thefirstchapterwillseekathorough
evaluationofitsmeaninginitssocialandpersonalcontext,itshistory,itsimportancein
theVictorianandEdwardianeraanditssignificanceinarthistory.Fromhere,weshall
seejusthowimportantmelancholywasculturallyandthereforebeableto
comprehendhowitisreflectedinartinthesubsequentchapters.Thesecondchapter
shallgiveabriefcontextualisationoftheCamdenTownGroup,itshistory,technique
andsubject.Asanartisticgroupwhichisrarelywrittenaboutinanygreatdetail,this
willallowtheCamdenTownGrouptobeevaluatedinregardtotheirsignificanceand
whytheyarebeinganalysedagainstotherPost-Impressionistartists.
Therearefourmainareaswherethisthesisshallexploreaconnectionthrough
subject,andevaluatetheirdifferent,sometimessimilarexplorationsofpersonaland
socialmelancholy,aswellasthatofnostalgia.Bycomparingthroughsubjectand
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theme,thisthesiscanfocusonthepersonalandculturalconnectionswhichthese
artistsshared,notmerelyfromastylisticpointofview.Chapterthreeshallevaluate
melancholywithinthecityscape,forthissubjectisperhapswhattheCamdenTown
Grouparebestrememberedforandsoprovidesaspringboardforthesubject.This
chaptershallfindasharedappreciationofmelancholiaandapersonalreflectiononthe
subjectthatdiffersquitesignificantly.
Chapterfourwillprogressintothecountrylandscape,anareaofworkforwhichthe
CamdenTownGrouparelargelyforgotten.Hereafocusontheimpactof
industrialisationwithinthecountrysidewillbediscussed,whereagainweseeashared
passionforacommonsubject.Interestinglybothdisplayacommondesiretooppose
culturalopinion,yetpersonalreflectiondivides.Chapterfivemovesintochildhood
nostalgia,wherewedepartfromsubjectcomparisonontoacommonculturaland
personaltheme.Here,twoworkswhichappearsodifferent,shareadeepexpressionof
bothpersonalandculturalnostalgiathatreflectssocietyintheirrespectiveperiods.
Finally,chaptersixshallexploretheculturalnostalgiaofthecountrylandscape,which
perhapsfindsthemostsimilaritiesbetweenartistsinthisthesis.Bothexploring
personalexpressionsofappreciationwhilstsharinganostalgicculturewhichwas
apparentbothinEnglandandFrance.
WhatshallbediscovereduponanalysisisthattheCamdenTownGroupfoundbeauty
inbothcityandcountry,despiteanyunderlyingculturalmelancholy.Sometimes
however,byattemptingtoprojectinnocence,suchasinanexpressionofcultural
nostalgia,theviewerstillseesthemelancholythattheyareattemptingtohide.
Personalexpression,sometimesreflectiveofculturalviews,sometimesnot,comes
acrossstronglythroughsymbolismandstyle.TheylearntwellfromtheirPost-
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Impressionistpredecessors,thattechniqueandpalettecouldinformapersonal
expression,toeitherreflectorchallengeculturalopinion.Colourcouldbringbeautyto
acitydeeplyrepresentativeofculturalmelancholy,wherecolourcouldalsoadequately
expressthenostalgicbeautyofthecountryside.Sidebysidewiththeirartisticidols,
theysharedanappreciationofthemelancholicsubjectandexpressingtheirown
personalopinionthroughthepaintbrush.FrenchandEnglishculturesometimesdiffers,
sometimestheyconverge,muchliketheopinionsoftheCamdenTownGroupandthe
Post-Impressionists.
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CHAPTERONE
WhatisMelancholy?
Definingmelancholyisacomplexandratheroverwhelmingtask.Asisthewayofthe
Englishlanguage,wordshavechangedandevolvedtheirmeaningovertime.
Melancholyisnoexception.Today,itsdefinitionasanounisgivenasafeelingof
pensivesadness,typicallywithnoobviouscause,anothertermformelancholia(a
mentalcondition)orhistorical:anothertermforblackbile.3Theexperienceof
melancholycanbeaverypersonalexperience.4Itisquiteoftendescribedasamood,
whichinitselfisafeelingthatcandifferfrompersontoperson.HarvieFergusonhas
writtenthattheworditselfremainsanembarrassmenttomodernthought.5When
weexploremelancholywithinpaintingsinChapter3,wemustkeepinmindthat
melancholycanbeaverypersonalexperience.Whereyoumayseeit,anothermay
not.
Wheremelancholywillbemostrelevanttothisdissertation,willbeitsunderstanding
asasharedfeeling.Theluciditywithwhichthistermhastoday,meansitcanbe
adaptedtodescribeeverythingwhichispeculiartothemodernworld.Duringthe
lifetimeofourartists,whichincludesthelatterVictorianperiodandintotheearly
twentiethcentury,melancholyhadamoresubstantialplacewithinsocietysculture.As
DavidG.Riedewrites,VictorianmelancholyishistoricallyspecifictoVictorian
3OxfordEnglishDictionary,Melancholy,http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/melancholy(accessed15February2012).4HarvieFerguson,MelancholyandtheCritiqueofModernity:SrenKierkegaards
ReligiousPsychology(London:Routledge,1995),p.XVI.5Ibid.
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culture.6ItbecameentwinedandcomplexwithintheVictorianmind,aresultofthe
consistentlyevolvingandindustrialnatureoftheirworld.
Animportantsubchapterofmelancholy,whichiscrucialforanunderstandingof
Victorianlife,istheexperienceofnostalgia.TheOxfordEnglishdictionarydescribes
thisexperiencetodayasasentimentallongingorwistfulaffectionforaperiodinthe
pastorsomethingdoneorpresentedinordertoevokefeelingsofnostalgia.7Many
writersofthesubjectappreciatenostalgiaasanimportantfactorwithintheculture
andartsoftoday.Bonnetsextensiveanalysisofnostalgiawithinpolitics,haspin
pointedseveralwriterswhoshareanawarenessofnostalgiaanditsstandingin
modernculture.Oneofthosemostrecentwriters,Glazer,wroteofwhathecalleda
globalepidemicofnostalgia.8Furthermore,FredDavis,tenyearsearlier,notedthat
nostalgiaisverymuchinvoguethesedays.9
Inafastandmobilesociety,nostalgiaisanimportantpartofourpsychology,culture
andpolitics.Asaresult,wecanfullyappreciatethecultureofnostalgiathatwas
preeminentinVictorianandEdwardiansociety:thesocietyofwhichtheCamdenTown
GroupandthePost-Impressionistswereverymuchpartof.Wetooyearnforthepast
aswefaceanoftendifficultandeverfastchangingpresent.Yettofullyunderstandthe
placemelancholyhadwithinthepaintingswearetoexplore,agreaterunderstanding
ofitshistoryandsignificanceisfundamental.
6DavidReide,AllegoriesofOnesOwnMind:MelancholyinVictorianPoetry(Columbus:OhioStateUniversityPress,2005),p.7.7OxfordEnglishDictionary,Nostalgia,http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/nostalgia(accessed15February2012).8P.Glazer,RadicalNostalgia(Rochester,NY:UniversityofRochesterPress,2005),p.35.9FredDavis,YearningforYesterday:ASociologyofNostalgia(NewYork:FreePress,1979),p.viii.
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TheHistoryofMelancholyanditsMeaning
Wemustbewaryofthechangingdefinitionofmelancholy,foritcanmeansomething
entirelydifferenttoustodaythanitdidinthetimeoftheCamdenTownGroup.What
makesthesubjectofmelancholy,withintheCamdenTownGroupandPost-
Impressionistworksofascinating,isthatthemeaningofthewordreachedamilestone
initsdefinitionatthetimeinwhichtheywerealiveandworking.ForthePost-
Impressionists,melancholyanditsseparationfrommedicaldepressionwasreachinga
climaxduringthelatenineteenth-century.Nostalgiawasalsotakingonimportant
culturalsignificance.Toappreciatethesignificanceofthesechangesanditsimportance
bythetimeoftheCamdenTownGroup,wemustdelvefurtherintothewords
meaningpriortothisartisticeraandtraceitsdevelopment.
Untilthelatterdecadesofthenineteenthcentury,thetermmelancholyappearsto
coveranumberofthings,includingfleetingmoods,mentaldisordersrangingfrom
severetoverymild,normalreactions,andlongtermcharactertraits.10Thiscanbe
gatheredfromSamuelJohnsonsdictionaryof1775,wheremelancholyisdescribedas
havingseveralmeanings,withtworeferencestodifferentmedicaldisordersandathird
tomorecommonstatesofmelancholy.11Melancholiadescribedawiderangeof
10JenniferRadden(ed.),TheNatureofMelancholy:FromAristotletoKristeva(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2000),p.4.11SamuelJohnson,DictionaryoftheEnglishLanguageinWhichtheWordsAreDeducedfromtheirOriginals,andIllustratedintheirDifferentSignificationsbyExamplesfrom
theBestWriters.9thed.4vols(London:Longman,[1755]1805)asquotedinRadden,TheNatureofMelancholy,p.5.
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medicaldisorderssuchasapoplexyandepilepsy,aswellaspartialinsanity,whichwas
seenasalesssevereformoffullmadness.12
Thetermdepressionwasnottocomeintocommonuseuntilthelatterpartofthe
nineteenthcentury.Itisrelativelyrecentinitshistorythen,thatmelancholyhaslostits
connotationsofmentalillness,ratherthanitsmorecommonusetodayasatermused
toexpresspensivesadness.13Thebreakdepressionmadewiththeterm
melancholyoccurredaroundthesametimeastheRomanticideaofmelancholy,asa
subjectivestate,wasflowering.14Itisacknowledgedthatthebirthofmodern
psychiatrypartlycameaboutwiththedocumentationofmanic-depressiveillnessby
EmilKraepelininhis1899textbookonpsychiatry.15Today,itisacknowledgedthatwe
owemuchofourconceptualisationoftheillnesstothephysiatrist.16Therefore,the
complexityandambiguityofthetermmelancholywasbeingsomewhatresolvedby
theendofthenineteenthcentury,particularlyinscientificterms.
Inthearts,LindaM.Austinhasalludedtoliteraturetopresentthetheorythatthe
breakbetweenmelancholyandbereavement,ononeside,andthebittersweet
pleasureofrememberinglossontheotheroccurredwellbeforeithappenedinthe
medicalworld.17ShelookstoapoembySchiller,writtenin1784,wherehewritesthe
Mayoflifebloomsonceandnotagain;ithasceasedtobloomforme.18Austinreads
12Radden,TheNature,p.5.13OxfordEnglishDictionary,Melancholy.14Radden,NatureofMelancholy,p.33.15J.M.Quen(ed),EmilKraepelin,Psychiatry:ATextbookforStudentsandPhysicians(Canton:ScienceHistoryPublications,1990).16FrederickGoodwin,Manic-DepressiveIllnessVolume1(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1990),p.2.17LindaAustin,NostalgiainTransition1780-1917(Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginia
Press,2007),p.54.18FriedrichSchiller,Resignation(1784),asquotedinAustin,Nostalgia,p.54.
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thisasamansawarenessofhistransitionfromdeepandphysiologicalmelancholia
towardsawistfulrecollectionofthepast.19
Assomeoftheartworkweshallbeexploringproceedsintothe1920s,itisalso
relevanttopointoutafterFreuds1917essay,atleastintheEnglish-language
tradition,melancholiabecomesanincreasinglyraredisordercategorylessandless
frequentlydescribedinclinicalcasematerial.20Despitethisimportantdecisivebreak
madebetweenclinicaldepressionandthestateofmelancholia,itshistoryofvaried
meaningshasledtoperplexityininterpretation.Itisinterestingthatmelancholy,asa
mood,hasnotparticularlyalteredinmeaningsincetheearlymodernperiod.In
medicalaccounts,itsmeaningasafeelingoffearorsorrowisdescribedasbecomingof
withoutcauseorwithoutapparentcause.21
Today,melancholyissimilarlydefinedastwoapparentlyunconnectedformulations
ofanexperienceofsorrowwithoutcauseandlossofbeing.22Thereforeinthe
Victorianperiod,therewasasimilardiscrepancyoveritsdefinitionasamood.Despite
itscomplexity,melancholyasdescribedasamoodbecamemoresignificant.
Groundlesssadnessanddespondency,asamood,becameseparatedfromclinical
depression,whichwasbasedongroundedfearandanxiety.23Despitethiscomplex
meaning,thewordmelancholyandtherichnessofitsdefinition,meansthatwecan
exploresubjects,liketheCamdenTownGroupspaintings,frommanyinterestingand
variedviewpoints.
19Austin,Nostalgia,p.54.20Radden,TheNature,p.49.Seealso:SigmundFreud,MourningandMelancholiainCollectedPapersVol.4(London:HogarthPress,[1917]1967.21StanleyJackson,MelancholiaandDepression(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1986),p.107.22Ferguson,MelancholyandtheCritiqueofModernity,p.XVI.23Radden,NatureofMelancholy,p.39.
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Itisnoteworthythatnostalgiaalsohasahistorytoitsmeaning,ifnotquiteas
complex.Thetermasitisknowntoday,asayearningforthepast,isaccordingto
Bonnettnotmuchmorethanacenturyold.24Thetermfirstcameaboutin1688by
JohannesHoferbycombiningtheGreeknostos,meaninghome,andalgos,meaning
pain.Thislongingforhomewasconsideredamedicaldisorder.25Itsfirstreferencein
Englishcomesin1770whenthebotanistJosephBanks,atseaatthetime,wroteinhis
diarynowprettyfargoneinthelongingforhomeadiseaseunderthenameof
Nostalgia.26Thisisquiteacomparisontothemorelucidandinformallyreferenced
nostalgiatoday.Indeed,bytheendofthenineteenthcenturythetermwasnotbeing
usedinaprecisemedicalway,butinalargersensetodescribesentimentsofthe
past.27Thefastpaceoflifestylethattookonforceinthenineteenthcenturyledtothe
termnostalgiagainingameaningthatrepresentedasharedfeeling.Inshort,its
meaningtookonanew,significant,culturalsense.Bythemiddleofthelastquarterof
thenineteenthcentury,theVictorianshadnowoutlinedperformativeandimplicit
memoryandthusitlegitimisedimpersonalandcommunalnostalgiaasacultural
force.28
Bythe1920s,theOxfordEnglishDictionarydescribednostalgiaasafleetingfeeling
ratherthanamedicalaffliction,areflectionofitschangedmeaning:regretfulor
wistfulmemoryorrecallofanearliertime.Austintellsusthatwithindecadesone
24AlastairBonnett,LeftinthePast:RadicalismandthePoliticsofNostalgia(NewYork:Continuum,2010),p.5.25CarolynKiserAnspach(ed)andJohannesHofer,MedicalDissertationonNostalgia,1688,BulletinoftheHistoryofMedicinebyJohannesHofer,2(1934),pp.380-1.26OxfordEnglishDictionary,Nostalgia(1989),asquotedinBonnett,LeftinthePast,p.5.27Bonnett,LeftinthePast,p.10.28Austin,NostalgiainTransition,p.86.
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couldtalkofnostalgiafrequentlyandthatthisbegananendemicphenomenon.29Asa
result,weoftentalkintermsofnostalgiatoday.Ourworldisnotmuchdifferentfrom
theonethattookoffinthenineteenthcentury,andwestillfeelwecanlookintothe
pastforsafetyandsecurity.Youneedonlyseethesuccessofhistoricaltelevision
dramasonBritishtelevision.JustastheVictorianpubliclovedtoshareanostalgiclook
intothepast,wetooappreciatethosegoodtimesthathavepast.
TheImportanceofMelancholyintheVictorianandEdwardianEras
ItisinterestingthattheCamdenTownGrouparebestknownfortheircelebrationof
themodern,whentheirworkoftendelvesintothemelancholicandnostalgic.Yetan
appreciationofthemodernaswellasofthepasthad,andstillhas,amorecomplex
relationshipthanonemightrealise.AsBennettstates,modernityistheconditionof
nostalgia,itprovokesandchangesit.30Toadequatelyunderstandmelancholyandits
placeatthetimeoftheartistswearetodiscuss,anunderstandingofindustrialisation
andsocietyisindispensable.
Thenineteenthcenturywasatimeofsweepingchangesandsometimesunsettling
uncertainty.TheVictorianerawasusheredinbytheFrenchRevolutionaswellasthe
IndustrialRevolution.AlthoughtheFrenchRevolutionwasremoteanditisimpossible
totellhowmuchofaneffectithadontheVictorianconsciousnessinBritain,Burrow
recognisesitashavingaprofoundeffectonliteratureinthe1830sand1840s
29Ibid.,p.1.30Ibid.,p.10.
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especially.31Ofcourse,forourPost-Impressionistsonthecontinent,thesignificanceof
theseeventswouldhavehadfargreaterimpact.Thisoccursbeforethelatterpartof
thecentury,whichisofmostrelevancetooursubject,butitdoesrepresentthe
beginningofaperiodinwhichinstabilityandchangewasrampant.Therewastobe
religiousuncertaintiesinthe1860s,commercialanxietiesinthe1870sandsocial
tensionsinthe1880s,tonamebutafew.32
WiththeIndustrialRevolutioncamegreatwealthforthosewhocouldachieveit.
HippolyteTaine,theFrenchcriticandhistorianwhovisitedEnglandinthe1860s,
notedhisamazementinthesizeofwealthinthecountry.Healsocommentedonthe
manywealthycitizenswhoenjoyedgreatluxuriesandevenwriterswhowereearning
forhardlywritingatall.Howeverhisenthusiasmwastemperedbyhisdislikeofthe
socialinequalitiesofsociety,thedegradingpovertyandmiserablypoorcitizens.Hefelt
thatinFrance,althoughlesswealthy,therewasafairerdistributionofwealth.33For
themodernscholarofthisperiod,itisanundeniablefactthatpovertyinBritain,
especiallyinitscities,wasanintegralpartofVictoriansociety.
Asamelancholysubject,povertyhasgreatimportanceasasourceofinspirationfor
theCamdenTownGroup.Oneofthebestwaysinwhichtodemonstratetheextentof
povertyinLondonatthetimeistoquotethefindingsofCharlesBooth,the
philanthropistandsocialreformer.HisinvestigationofLondoninthe1890sfoundthat
31LaurenceLerner,TheVictorians:TheContextofEnglishLiterature(London:Methuen&CoLtd,1978),p.124.32CarolDyhouse,TheConditionofEngland1860-1900,inLerner(ed.),TheVictorians,pp.70-71.33H.Taine,NotesonEngland,1860-70,trans.EdwardHyams(London:ThamesandHudon,1957),pp.290-2.
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30.7%oftheLondonpopulationwerelivinginpoverty.34Asaresultofthis,Keith
Robbinsidentifiesthattherewaspersistenceinapovertyculture,whichbecamea
concerntoreformersintotheEdwardianperiod.35TheCamdenTownGroupwere
stationedinCamden,North-WestLondon.CharlesBoothsstudydescribesthisareaas
havingmanyshops,mosthavinglodgersabove,aconsiderableamountofpoverty
existsinthecentreandtherebeingagooddealofpovertyamongthelabourers.36
OfcourseoneofthegreatestcomponentsoftheIndustrialRevolutionwastherailway
andCamdenTownwaspartofthisgrowingindustry.Infact,bythe1870sCamden
Townlayinaseaofrailwaylinesanditdidnotcreateaprettysight.TheNorth
WesternrailwayandtheNorthLondonlinebothcrossedthedistrict,belchingsmoke
andcoaldustdayandnight.37CamdenTownwasquitethecontrasttoRegentspark,
somuchsothatHughPrincefeelstheneedtodescribeitassuch:Nowherein
Londonwasthecontrastbetweentwosidesofarailwaytrackmoresharplydrawn.38
Itisnosurprisethatsuchanenvironmentwasaptforanartisttoexpressmelancholy.
ItalsoprovidedachallengingenvironmentfortheCamdenTownGrouptoexpress
someofthebeautythatcouldbefoundinmodernity,aswellasshowingitsgrim
reality.
34KeithRobbins,TheBritishIsles1901-1951(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2002),pp.207-8.35Ibid.,p.213.36CharlesBooth,LifeandLabourofthePeopleinLondon:Volume1(London:Macmillan,1902),p.180.37JackWhitehead,TheGrowthofCamdenTownAD1800-2000(London:J.Whitehead,1999),p.43.38DavidOwen,TheGovernmentofVictorianLondon1855-1889:TheMetropolitan
BoardofWorks,theVestries,andtheCityCorporation(Cambridge,Mass:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversity,1982),p.261.
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ThesignificanceofthetermnostalgiaintheVictorianandEdwardianperiodwas
relatedtothefastchanginglandscape,suchastheimpactoftherailways.Although
Austindescribesthenostalgiaphenomenonastakingshapeafterthe1920s,itrather
ignoresthesignificanceofaharkingtothepastthatwassoevidentinVictorianand
Edwardianculture.Perhapsitisrighttoascribethephenomenonofitsmodern
meaningasbeginningintheperiodafterthe1920s.However,wecanbetter
understandtheworldinwhichtheCamdenTownGrouplivedbyapplyingthismodern
meaningtotheirwork.Perhapsthewordnostalgiadidntquitehavethesamebroad
significance,butitsmeaningasweknowitwascertainlydominantintheirculture.
Urbanisationwasthemostspectacularfeatureofnineteenthcenturysocialchange.39
ThevastmetropolisofLondon,andtheindustrialstrainsfeltelsewhereinthecountry,
leftmanyfeelingmelancholic.Asignificantreactiontothiswastheembodimentof
newideasofhowtocombinecountryandtown.Onewayinwhichthiswasdonewas
throughthecreationofparksandprivategardensandtree-linedroadsthatinserted
zonesofquietandtranquillitywhichformerlyhadbeenrarities.40Butonalargerscale
therewasabiggerissue,whichwasthatofurbansprawl.Forcontemporarysocialand
architecturalcriticsofthetimewerefascinatedandappalledbythemindless,
sweepingnatureofthesprawldevouringland,destroyingthecountryside.41
Somefeltmelancholicaboutthelossofclose-knitcommunitieswhichexistedinaby-
goneera.Itwasthisnostalgiaforawayofrememberedaspurer,simplerandcloserto
39Dyhouse,TheConditionofEngland,p.80.40RobertJohnMorris,RichardRodger,TheVictorianCity:AReaderinBritishUrban
History1820-1914(London:Longman,1993),p.21.41Ibid.,p.150.
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naturethatcreatedandunderpinnedsemi-ruralsuburbandevelopments.42Theidea
oftheGardenCitywasadvocatedbyEbenezerHowardinTomorrow:APeacefulpath
toRealReform(1898).TheGardenCitywasintendedtobeaplannedself-contained
communitysurroundedbyparks,withselfcontainedhousing,agricultureandindustry.
ThisledtothecreationofLetchworthGardenCityin1903;thefirstofitskind.Afewof
theCamdenTownGroupactuallyvisitedLetchworthandpaintedthereasarespite
fromLondon.Letchworthperfectlyrepresentedthepastandpresentbyattemptingto
providethebestofbothworlds.TheCamdenTownGroup,withtheirflarefor
appreciatingthemelancholicandnostalgic,foundafittingsubjectinLetchworth,aswe
shallsee.
Childhoodnostalgiawasanunderstandablesubjectinartofthisperiod,forchildren
werethemajorcause-andthereforevictims-ofpoverty.43SeebohmRowntree,asocial
reformerinspiredbyBoothssurveyofLondon,identifiedhimselfthatafamilyoffour
ormoreasthecauseofoverafifthofpovertyin1899.44InLondonalone,60,000
childrenwereinsufficientlynourishedtobenefitfromschooling.45Withthemajorityof
workingclasschildrenbornintopoverty,itwasunderstandablethatsocietydeveloped
anostalgiccultureoflookingbacktoatimewhenchildrenweremorelikelytobe
broughtupinacountrysetting.
42PaulJ.Cloke,TerryMarsden,PatrickH.Mooney,HandbookofRuralStudies(London:SAGE,2006),p.141.43Robbins,TheBritishIsles,p.211.44Ibid.45Ibid.,p.214.
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IdentifyingPersonalandCulturalMelancholy
Thecomplexityofthehistoryandmeaningofmelancholycanmakeitdifficultto
definethedifferencebetweenpersonalandculturalmelancholy.Ithasbeennoted
however,thatintheartsoftheeighteenthcentury,melancholyasawistfuland
pleasurablefeelingwasalreadybeingdefinedandexpressed.Thiscanbetakenasa
personalexperience,forexample,thelossofalovedonewhoyoumayremember
fondly.However,thecultureofmelancholywasonethatwasbeingfeltandexpressed
byasocietyasawhole,inallofitscomplexities.
Dyhousepointsoutthatitwasduringthisperiod,around1900,thatmanyindividuals
werepassingthroughapersonalcrisisengenderedbythelossofreligiousfaith.46This
personalsenseofmelancholyoftentranscendedtopeoplefindingsolaceinasocial
dutytohelpthoseinneed.Tryingtofindoptimismwithinpersonaldespairwas
recognisedinliterature.InthenovelRobertElsmere,writtenin1888byMrsHumphrey
Ward,thisthemeisdramatisedthroughhertitlecharactersjourneyfrompersonal
religiouscrisistowardsfindingredemptioninhelpingthepoor.47Thissortoftransition
highlightsthedifficultiesindividingsharedandpersonalmelancholy,forsucha
personalexperiencecanbesharedandappreciatedbyasociety.
Itisperhapsinmentalillnessandclinicaldepressionthatwecanappreciateatrue
experienceofpersonalmelancholy,boththenandtoday.Thisiswhatseemingly
dividestheCamdenTownGroupmostdefinitivelywiththePost-Impressionists.Van
Gogh,CezanneandGauguinallsufferedfromclinicalmelancholiaatonestageattheir
46Dyhouse,TheConditionofEngland,p.75.47Mrs.HumphreyWard,RobertElsmere(London:Macmillanandco,1888).
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lives,atleast.Theirabilitytotranscendthispersonaldarknessintotheirworkhasbeen
appreciatedwidely.Itcouldbesaidthat,likethoseindividualsfindingthemselvesin
religiousturmoil,thesemenwerefindingoptimisminaformofartisticexpression.
PersonalmelancholywithintheCamdenTownGroupwasnotsoperceptiblyevident
withintheirwork.Instead,itismoreoutwardlyexpressiveoftheculturalvariety,aswe
shallsee.
ItcanbesaidthatthemostlastinglegacywehaveofVictorianculturalmelancholy,is
itsexpressionthroughoutliterature.CharlesDickens,nodoubtoneofthemost
successfulnovelistsoftheage,iswellknownforthegrittyrealismheportrayedinhis
novels.Infact,hehimselflivedinCamdenTownasaboyaswellashischaracterof
TinyTiminAChristmasCarol.48Furthermore,hedescribesCamdenTowninThe
posthumousPapersofthePickwickClub:whateveritmaybenow,wasinthosedaysa
desolateplaceenough,surroundedbylittleelsethanfieldsandditches.49
MelancholywithinBritishculturebecomesparticularlyinterestinginthelatterstages
oftheVictorianage.Itwasanerainwhichdespairandoptimismwereoftenclosely
allied.50DonaldReadhashighlightedtheimportanceofoptimismandpessimism
throughnewspaperextractsfromTheTimes.Onthe1stJanuary1901,beforeQueen
Victoriasdeath,thenewspaperwritesoptimisticallyaboutBritainsfuture:wemay
lookforwardwithgoodhopetothestormsandconflictsthatmayawaitus.In
contrast,anarticlewrittenbuttwenty-twodayslaterinthesamenewspaperandafter
theQueensdeath,pessimismiscreepingin:wearefindingourselvessomewhatless
48PaulNahin,OliverHeaviside:TheLife,Work,andTimesofanElectricalGeniusoftheVictorianAge(Baltimore:JohnHopkinsUniversityPress,2002),p.13.49CharlesDickens,ThePosthumousPapersofthePickwickClub,Volume1(London:
ChapmanandHall,1858),p.305.50Dyhouse,TheConditionofEngland,p.75.
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secureofourposition.By1914,TheTimesreportsnowhereistheregreater
pronenesstoself-deprecationthaninthiscountry.51
AttheturnofthecenturytheBritishconsciousnessinregardstothecountrysplacein
theworldhadacomplexrelationshipbetweenoptimismandarathermoremelancholy
outlook.Asshallbediscussed,itisthisfinelinebetweenthesetwoseemingly
contradictoryfeelingsthattheCamdenTownGrouptrodsosuccessfully.Byfinding
magnificenceinmelancholytheyexpressedthisextremelycomplexcultureof
optimismandpessimism.TheirPost-Impressionistcounterpartsonthecontinentcan
alsobereadastreadingthisfineline,yetfromtheirownpersonalandcultural
perspective.
InFrance,oneofthebestlastinglegaciesofRomanticpoetrycomesfromCharles
Baudelaire.Hislifewasoneofpersonaldespair,areflectionofhisBohemianParis
lifestyle.Hesufferedfromillnessandaconstantdespondentmood,whichbecomes
evidentinhispoems.52Romanticpoetryofthistimetypicallyalignedsadnesswith
beautyanditisofthisveinthatBaudelairewrotehispoetry.InAutumnSonghewrites,
Soonwillweplungeintothecolddarknessundertheheavyandceaselessblowsof
thebatteringrain.53MirroringtheEnglishpoetJohnKeats,Baudelaireuseda
conjunctionofsadnesswithpleasure.54Hehimselfexpressedinhisjournalthat
beautyitissomethingofardourandsadnessofvoluptuousnessandsadness-which
51TheTimes(1January1901),TheTimes(23January1901),TheTimes(IJanuary1914),inDonaldRead,DocumentsfromEdwardianEngland1901-1915(London:Harrap,1973).52Radden,TheNature,p.231.53CharlesBaudelaire,AutumnSongfromFlowersofEvil(1857),inRadden,The
Nature,p.232.54Radden,TheNature,p.232.
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conveysanideaofmelancholy.55Baudelairespersonalexperiencewithsadnessand
pleasurewasalsobeingexpressedculturallyinliteratureandart.Itwasanexperience
thatmanycouldidentifywith.Personalmelancholywasbeinginfusedintothe
collectiveexperience.TheCamdenTownGrouptappedintotheculturalvoguefor
combiningtwoseeminglyopposingthemes:thatofsadnessandbeauty.
Beforethelatenineteenthcentury,itcouldbesaidthatnostalgiaonlyhaditsplaceas
asub-definitionofthemedicalandpersonalafflictionofmelancholy.Bythetimethe
CamdenTownGroupwerelivingandworking,ithaddroppedthismedicaldefinition
andbecomemoreintegralinculturalmelancholy.Thisisnttosaythatnostalgiawas
notalsoapersonalexperienceandthatitwasntexpressedassuch.Bonnettdescribes
nostalgiaasbeginningtoleadadoublelifeinitsplaceattheheartofbothcultural
andpersonalexperience.56
Asshallbeexplored,anartistspersonalexpressionofnostalgiacouldhaveboth
personalandculturalmeaning.VictorianandEdwardiansocietyexpressedcultural
nostalgiawithinthearts,mostnotablyperhapsinliterature.TheIndustrialRevolution
rapidlyanddecisivelyledtoagreatevolutioninsocietyandculture,whichwasnot
necessarilyappreciatedbyeveryone.Peoplesharedasenseofsocialdislocationand
memoriesofagreaterpast,whichtranspiredintotheirculture.Thisculturalnostalgia
isveryprominentinsomeoftheCamdenTownartistswork.Nevertheless,nostalgiais
aubiquitousfacetofpersonallifeandsometimesthishastranspiredwithinthese
artistswork.
55CharlesBaudelaireandA.VanBever(ed.),JournauxIntimes(Paris:Cres,[1887]
1999),p.84.56Bonnett,LeftinthePast,p.5.
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TheVictoriancultureforlookingbackintothepastwasexpressedbyamanofhis
time,WilliamMorris,whenheexpressedtheVictoriansashavingatendencyto
retrospection.57Wecanseeinthisthenineteenthcenturyarchitecturethatsurrounds
ustoday.TheirresurrectionofGothicmedievalstylearchitecture,expressedtheir
desiretoharkbackintotheEnglishpast.Thistendencytopromotethehistorical
withinVictorianculturehasbeentoucheduponbyJ.W.Burrow.Heacknowledgesthat
wecanseesuchnostalgicculturewithinthepaintingsofthePre-Raphaeliteswho
providedearnestescapism.Nevertheless,importantlyhewritesofdefiningbetween
thepublicsapparentlyinsatiableappetiteforconversationpiecesinhistorical
costumeandothersearnestlyheldandvehementlyprofoundsocial,moraland
aestheticpreferences.58Awhimsicaltasteforthepastcouldsimplybesomeone
followingfashionableculture,whereasforsomeanostalgiclooktothepastcouldbe
feltonamorepersonal,deeplevel.
OneofthewaysinwhichnostalgiawasmoststronglyfeltwithinVictorianand
Edwardianculture,wasthroughanappreciationofthecountryside.Withinan
industrialworld,societystillsoughtcomfortinthecountrysagriculturalpast.Thus
evenasBritaincelebrateditsorderlyVictoriancultureanditssuccessastheworkshop
oftheworld,thecountrysidewascelebratedastheveryheartofEngland.59These
valueshadrootswithintheeighteenthcenturyperiodofRomanticism.Thecountryside
idealhadbeenareactiontoparliamentaryenclosure,whichrationalisedtheEnglish
57WilliamMorrisasquotedinJ.W.Burrow,TheSenseofthePast,inLerner(ed.),TheVictorians,p.120.58Burrow,TheSenseofthePast,p.121.59JamesErnestMurton,CreatingaModernCountryside:LiberalismandLandResettlementinBritishColumbia(Vancouver:UBCPress,2007),p.50.
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landscape.60TheRomanticpoets,suchasWordsworth,wroteofthenaturalbeauty
andlifethatthecountrysidepossesses:somethinginfusedwiththeveryspiritof
creationitself.61Consequently,acultureofcountrynostalgiatranscendsintothe
nineteenthcentury.
ItisthispastEnglandthatbecamesoimportanttoaVictorianculturewhichthrived
onnostalgia.IntheLondonmetropolistherewasashareddemandforsomesortof
escape,whichinoneway,wasfoundinliterature.IfDickensprovidedgrimmelancholic
reality,writerssuchasMaryMitfordprovidedaruralescape.Inthe1820sand30s,
MitfordwroteaseriescalledOurVillage.Theproofofsuchnostalgiccultureisreadin
thefactthatthecirculationofthemagazine,whichcarriedheressays,increased
eightfold.62ItwasLondonreaderswhowantedtoreadhersketchesoflifeinaclassic
Englishvillage;thesortofvillagethatindustrialisationandurbanisationwere
destroying.63ThepopularityofsuchcontradictorysubjectsasDickensandMitford,
representthecomplexityofVictoriansociety.
TheextensivepovertythatplaguedareasofLondonandthechildrenwholivedwithin
it,ledtoaformofnostalgicculturethatrevolvedaroundchildhood.Aswellasseeking
ahistoricalnostalgiaforatimewellbeforetheirown,someVictorianssought
reassuranceintheirownchildhoodmemories.Thisformofpersonalmemory
transpiredintoliteratureandtheartsandthusbecameaculturalphenomenon.Ann
C.ColleyhasstudiedthisparticularformofVictoriancultureandrecognisedits
importance.ThismoreimmediatenostalgiacanbefoundinthenarrativesofElizabeth
60Ibid.,p.49.61Ibid.62HerbertTucker,ACompaniontoVictorianLiteratureandCulture(Cambridge:
BlackwellPublishers,1999),p.384.63Ibid.
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GaskellorWalterHoratioPatersTheChildintheHouse,oreveninaseriesof
engravingsbyJ.M.W.Turner.64Sheargues,thattheseartistsallsufferfromadesire
forreunion,forsomepointofcorrespondencebetweentheirpresentandtheirpast.65
Suchartistsarepartofaculturethatisseekingaresolutiontothemelancholythey
experienceintheirlives.Itisperhapsironic,thattheyfindthisinrecollectingthepast,
whichinitselfcanbearathermelancholicexperience.Nevertheless,childhoodand
whatitrepresented,namelyanideologicallifewithoutworryorpressure,providedthe
Victorianswithacreativeoutlet.Thecomplexityofnostalgiaanditsdoublelifeasa
personalandculturalexperiencehavecertainlytranspiredintothetwentyfirst
century.Asaresult,wecanrelatetopopularityofnostalgiainbothitspersonaland
culturalsense,furthermorehelpingusunderstandtheCamdenTownGroupsworkand
theircomplexrelationshipwiththemodernandtraditionalworld.
MelancholyinHistoryofArt
Thecomplexityofmelancholiaanditsmeaningovertheages,hasmeantthatitisa
constantthemeandinspirationformanthroughtothepresentday.Madnessand
melancholyhavealwaysdisturbedbuttheyalsoexerciseasingularfascinationonthe
imaginationofcountlessgenerationsofartists,writersandthinkers.66Themanyforms
ofmelancholydescribed,createdanendlesssupplyofpossibleformsinwhich
melancholycanbeexploredandexpressedusingthearts.Itisintriguingthatwhere
64AnnColley,NostalgiaandRecollectioninVictorianCulture(NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1998),p.2.65Ibid.,p.3.66PeterE.Pormann(ed.),RufusofEphesus,OnMelancholy(Tubingen:MohrSiebeck,2008),p.3.
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madnessinhistoryhasoftenbeenmisunderstoodandthosesufferingfromitshunned,
itcouldalsobeappreciatedasacharacteristicofgenius.Soisthecomplexityof
melancholy.
BeforethePost-ImpressionistsandtheCamdenTownGroupputpainttocanvas,
melancholywithinarthadavariedhistory.Lookingbacktothemedievalages,weonly
needlooktomedievalillustrationstohaveavisualisedrepresentationofhow
melancholiawasunderstoodandexpressedatthetime.JenniferRadenhaspointedto
Melancholicus(1490)fromtheAugsburgCalendar,showingamanofagloomy
expression:avictimofmelancholicdisorder.67DuringtheGermanRenaissance,the
artistLucasCranachtheElderpaintedMelancholy,AnAllegoryin1532[Fig.2].This
workalsogivesusavisualideaofhowmelancholywasunderstoodaccordingtoRaden.
Indeedthepaintingshowsusrathercontradictoryelementsofacontentedlooking
femalefigureintheforeground,whilstanunsettlingsceneofnakedfiguresriding
animalsoccursinthebackground.Asaresult,thispaintingpresentsthearrayof
associationsmadesoevidentinwritingaboutmelancholy.68
67Melancholicus,1490.Oil.BayerischeStaatsbibliothek,Munich.Seealso,Radden,The
Nature,p.5.68Radden,TheNature,p.6.
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Figure2.LucasCranach,Melancholy,AnAllegory,1532.Oilonpanel(113x72cm).
StatensMuseumforKunst,Copenhagen.
Figure3.C.D.Friedrich,TheMonkbytheSea,1809-1810.Oiloncanvas(110x171.5
cm).BildarchivPreussischerKulturbesitz.
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WehavenotedhowintheeighteenthcenturytheriseofRomanticismputtheideaof
culturalnostalgiaontheliterarymap.YetitisalsotheideaofRomanticmelancholy
thatgathersforcetowardstheendoftheeighteenthcentury,wherewritingwas
similarlyfilledwiththeexaggeratedfeelingsofgriefandsolitude,longingandsadness.
ThepainterC.D.FriedrichcreatedTheMonkbytheSea(1809-1810)[Fig.3],which
evokeshisabilitytoshowthisrangeofresponsesandmoodsindark,haunting
landscapes.69Thischartsanimportantdevelopmentofmelancholyinart;amovefrom
melancholyasexpressedasamentalailmentofman,toasubjectivefeelingwhichcan
beappliedtonature.
IthasalreadybeenmentionedthattheVictoriansenjoyedlookingtothepastand
revivingoldarchitecturalandartisticstyles.Thistendencyforrevivalism,although
consideredaVictorianphenomenon,wasnotanewone.Intermsofarchitectural
history,lookingbackonhistoryandrevivingstyleshastouchedalmostallEuropean
architecturefromtheRenaissancetothepresentcentury.70Itisratherironic,thatina
periodknownforitstechnologicaladvances,culturallyinBritaintherewasanartistic
yearningforthepast.ThisisartisticevidenceprovingBennettsstatement,that
modernityprovokesandchangesnostalgia,isaveryprudentone.
JosephFLambhaswrittenoftheLateVictorianartsceneinLondon,withparticular
referencetotheartistscommunitieswhichthrivedthere.Duringthe1860stothelate
1880s,artistsfoundgreatadulationfromthepublic.Theseartistsweregenerallytobe
foundhappilywithinthesuburbanareasofKensington,Chelsea,HampsteadorSt.
JohnsWood.Butbythe1890stheLondonartscenewasmovingawayfromthese
69Ibid.,p.30.70Burrow,TheSenseofthePast,p.121.
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areasastheybecametooexpensiveforyoungartists.Besides,theseartistspreferred
tofindnewinspirationelsewhereinLondon,especiallyinareaslikeCamdenTownwith
itsgrittyreality.71ThisiswheretheCamdenTownGroupfoundtheirplacewithinthe
historyofart.Itiswheretheyweretofindtheirinspirationtoappreciateallaspectsof
themelancholyworld,aswellassendthemfurtherafield,tocapturethelostworldof
agriculturalEngland.
71JosephF.Lamb,SymbolsofSuccessinSuburbia:TheEstablishmentofArtistsCommunitiesinLateVictorianLondon,inDebraN.MancoffandD.J.Trele(eds),
VictorianUrbanSettings:EssaysontheNineteenth-CenturyCityanditsContexts(NewYork:GarlandPublications,1996),p.72.
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CHAPTERTWO
WhoWeretheCamdenTownGroup?
TheCamdenTownGroupwasofficiallyactivebetween1911and1913,arelatively
smalltimeperiod.Subsequently,althoughthisdissertationwillrefertotheCamden
TownGroup,notalloftheirpaintingsinthisdiscussionwilldatefromthisprecisetime
period.Thegroupwaspartofadevelopmentwhichactuallypreceded1911and
continuedbeyondit.Tograspthis,abriefhistoryofthegroupanditsparticipantsis
necessary.
Today,themostrememberedmemberoftheCamdenTownGroupisundoubtedly
WalterSickert.In1905theartistreturnedtoLondonafterhavingspentthepreceding
yearsinDieppeandVenice.Atforty-fiveyearsofage,hehadalreadyexperienced
ImpressionismandbeeninvolvedinacircleofartiststhatincludedWhistlerand
Degas.72ItwasonthistripabroadthathehadmetthefutureCamdenTownpresident,
SpencerFrederickGore.73ItwasyoungartistssuchasGore,whoSickertwantedto
steerandsupportwithhismatureoutlook.
Onhisreturn,herentedtwostudiosintheneighbourhoodaroundFitzroyStreetand
settleddownat6MorningtonCrescentinCamdenTown.Itisaroundthetwostudios
thattheFitzroyStreetGroupwasborn,aprecursortotheCamdenTownGroup.He
receivedregularvisitorsincludingbothSpencerGoreandHaroldGilman.Theybegan
toexhibittheirworktogetherat19FitzroyStreet,whereotherartistssuchasLucien
72WernerHaftmann,PaintingintheTwentiethCentury:Volume(London:AshgatePublishing,1965),p.149.73WendyBaron,PerfectModerns:AHistoryoftheCamdenTownGroup(London:AshgatePublishing,2000),p.19.
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Pissarro,RobertBevan,WalterBayesandCharlesGinneragreedtojoin.74Othervisitors
includedWilliamRatcliffe,AugustusJohnandJ.D.Innes.
TheCamdenTownGroupitselfwasbornin1911,whenSickertandhiscirclewanted
toformanassociationwithacommoncauseandpartlyasareactionagainsttheNew
EnglishArtClub.Thisassociationhad,accordingtotheCamdenTownGroupmembers,
beencreepingtowardsconservatisminthewakeofRogerFrysManetandthePost-
Impressionistsexhibitionof1910-11.75Membershipwaslimitedtosixteenartists,most
memberstransferringfromtheFitzroyStreetGroup.GilmanandSickertwereopposed
totheinclusionofwomeninthegroup,andonlyWyndhamLewisandMaxwell
Lightfootwereelectedfromtheoutside.76
InspirationandTechnique
IftheCamdenTownGroupfoundacommongroundwithinsubjectmatter,the
techniquestheyadoptedweremorelucid.Theirmindswereopened,notonlyto
GauguinandCzanne,butalsotoVanGoghandtheNeo-Impressionists.Thepresence
ofLucienPissarromeanttheywereinsupplyofagooddealofauthentic
information.77Wehavementionedthe1910exhibitionbyRogerFrytwicealready,this
isduetotheimportanceithadinbringingthetechniquesofthePost-Impressioniststo
thegroup.However,forsome,theyhadalreadyencounteredtheirwork.Thepalette
thegroupuseddrewontheexamplesoftheirFrenchPost-Impressionistcounterparts.
74WendyBaron,Sickert:PaintingsandDrawings(Yale:YaleUniversityPress,2006),p.6975Haftmann,PaintingintheTwentiethCentury,p.150.76BernadetteNelson,TheCamdenTownGroup(Oxford:OxonianRewley,1991),p.4.77Haftmann,PaintingintheTwentiethCentury,p.150.
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GorestechniquewaslittleinfluencedbyhismentorSickert.Sickertwasoccupiedby
thecontrastsofcolourandtexture,typicallywithinthecompositionoffiguresand
theirpsychologicalrelationship.78Hispalettewastypicallyrestrictedtotheuseof
violet/greencolourmixedwithboneblackthatWhistlerintroduced.79Gore,onthe
otherhand,foundhisgreatadmirationinCezanne,claimingthatitisthesinceritywith
whichhepursueshisobjectthatgiveshisworkthatwonderfulgravity.80Bevan,like
SickertandGore,hadalsotravelledabroad,seeingVanGoghandGauguinswork
whilstlivinginPontAvenandParis.Hisunhabitedapproachtocolourcapturedthe
membersof,thethen,FitzroyStreetGroup.81
By1912,Gore,GinnerandBevanwerebecomingadventurousincolourand
design.82WewillfindthatBevanwasparticularlyinspiredbyGauguin,aswasGore.
GilmanfoundhisinspirationparticularlyintheworkofVanGogh.AcopyofVanGoghs
letterswerealwaysonhistableandreproductionsofhispaintingswerepinnedallover
hiswalls.83ItwasGinnerwhointroducedGilmantogreatFrenchpaintersbytakinghim
toexhibitionsinParis.VanGoghtouchedhimmosthowever,andhesoughttoemulate
himinusingbuiltupstripsofvividcolour.84Gilmaninturn,influencedRatcliffeafter
theymetinLetchworthin1908,turningtoGilmanssourcesofinspirationforhimself.
Techniquewouldcreatedivision;Sickertdislikedtheuseofthickimpasto,asdida
minorplayerofthegroup,WalterBayes.Ontheotherhand,GinnerandGilmanwere
78Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.3.79GraceBrockington,InternationalismandtheArtsinBritainandEuropeatthefindesicle(Oxford:PeterLang,2009),p.46.80Haftmann,Painting,p.122.81Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.3.82Ibid.,p.4.83MaureenConnett,WalterSickertandtheCamdenTownGroup(Devon:Davidand
Charles,1992),p.48.84Ibid.,p.49.
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lifeseemedtoassumeakindofgravitas.89TheirfirstexhibitionheldinJune1911and
theirsecondlaterthatyear,reflectedthissubjectmatter.TheareaofCamdenTown
wasconsideredtheperfectareatodothis,Sickerthavinglivedintheboroughfor
severalyears.Apartfromfindingtheirdesiretopaintrealismwithinthecitylandscape,
theyalsofoundinspirationinportraitsandstill-lifes.
AtthethirdandlastexhibitioninDecember1912,therewasadramaticchangeof
subjecttothatoftherurallandscape.90Itisatthispointwhereourdiscussionwillbeof
mostvalue.Thetypicalinteriorswhichhaddominatedbefore,werenowbeing
dominatedbyathemethatwasnotoriginallypartofthegroupschosensubject.Gore
hadbeenpaintinglandscapesbeforetheCamdenTownGroupwasestablished.Some
tentativelandscapeshepaintedinNormandyin1904,stillsurvive.91Afteran
interludeofpaintingthecityofLondonwhenundertheinfluenceofSickert,tripsinthe
country,suchasatApplehayeswithGinnerandBevan,providesuswithanalternative
subject.
89StephenDeuchar,DirectorsForeword,inRobertUpstone(ed.),ModernPainters:TheCamdenTownGroup(London:TatePublishing,2008),p.6.90Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.4.91Baron,PerfectModerns,p.21.
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Figure4.WalterSickert,TheCamdenTownMurder(WhatShallwedoforRent?),c.
1908.Oiloncanvas,(25.6x35.6cm)YaleCentreforBritishArt.
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DisagreementandDivision
Insomeofthedarkestsubjects,themembersoftheCamdenTownGroupcouldfind
beautyandmodernity.However,thecracksintheirrelationshipsandtheirdiverse
viewsontechniqueandsubject,wereproblemsnotsoeasytocover.LikeGauguinand
VanGoghbeforethem,artisticdifferenceshadanegativeeffectontheirartistic
relationships.Eventhoseartistswhobelievedinthegroupscommongoal,found
irreconcilabledifferencesdividedthem.
WhilstSickerthadanappreciationforGoresuseofCezannestechnique,hehimself
hadalowopinionofCezanne.Additionally,hisrelationshipwithGinnerandGilman
wassouredbytheiropposingideas.Hedeniedthateitherofthemhadinheritedany
ofCezannestechnique.92Sincetheirmeetingin1904,GoreandSickerthadaclose
relationship,whereSickerttendedtofacedisagreementswithothermembers.Gilman
andSickert,inparticular,hadclashingpersonalities.Theybecamecarelessofeach
othersfeelings,disagreeingoverhowthegroupshouldberun.93Disagreements
flowedintothepostCamdenTownGroupperiod.SickertopenlyattackedGinnerand
GoreinJune1914,claimingthatitisatrivialthingtospendalife-timeinaneffort
afterintrinsicbrightnessofpaint.94
LucienPissarrogrewdisillusionedwiththegroup,dislikingWyndamLewissvorticist
style;hedidnotseewhytheyshouldputupwithsuchrubbish.95Theseinternal
differenceswouldleadtothegroupsdemise.Membersofthegroupwerevirtually
92Haftmann,Painting,p.234.93Connett,WalterSickert,p.48.94Baron,PerfectModerns,p.23.95Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.4.
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dividedfromthestartintoaninnerenthusiastichierarchyandanouterringof
satelliteswhoseloyaltytoitwashalfhearted.96.Allthatheldthemtogetherwasa
resentmentoftheestablishedartworldanditwasaforegoneconclusionthatthelife
oftheCamdenTownGroupwouldbeshort.97
PersonalMelancholyandtheEndoftheCamdenTownGroup
JustasdepressionandturmoilwerepresentattheendsofthelivesofCezanne,Van
GoghandGauguin,deathwasalsopresentinthefinaldaysoftheCamdenTown
Group.Lightfoottragicallycommittedsuicidein1911afterhisparentsdisapprovedof
hisfianc.98Gorediedprematurelyfrompneumoniaon25thMarch1914,whichwas
feltdeeplybyhisfriendsandfellowartisticfriends.Gilmanwrotetothewifeof
Pissarro,Itisaterriblelosstomemademoreterriblebyhishavingsuchawonderful
character.99
Gilmanhimselfsufferedatroubledpersonallife.Hismarriagehaddisintegratedby
1909,whenhiswifetooktheirchildrentohernativeAmerica.Hewasleftdevastated
bythelossofhischildren.100Hediedin1919anditwasadevastatingblowtohisartist
friendRatcliffe.Hecontinuedtopainthowever,butwithlittlesuccess,andbeingvery
96TheArtsCouncilofGreatBritain,AnExhibitionofPaintings:TheCamdenTownGroup(GreatBritain:TheArtsCouncilofGreatBritain,1953),p.2.97Ibid.98TateOnline,MaxwellGordonLightfoot:ABiographyhttp://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/ArtistWorks?cgroupid=999999961&artistid=1510&page=1&sole=y&collab=y&attr=y&sort=default&tabview=bio(13December2011).99LetterfromHaroldGilmantoMrsPissarro(25March1914),Connett,WalterSickert,
p.44.100Connett,WalterSickert,p.47.
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poorasaresultplaguedhislife.101Drummondalsolackedsuccessandsufferedfrom
blindnessinthelastfewyearsofhislife.Hediedin1945,obscureandforgotten,save
forafewfriendsandfellowartists.102
Bythistime,theCamdenTownGrouphadalreadybeendissolved.InOctober1913,
theLondonGroupwasformedbycombiningtheCamdenTownGroupandFitzroy
StreetGroup.AfterGoresdeath,Gilmanwaselectedpresidentandmembership
increasedtothirty-two,aswellaspermittingwomen.SickertandPissarroresigned
beforethefirstexhibitionwasheldinMarch1914.103.GinnerandGilmanwentonto
worktogetherclosely,callingthemselvesNeo-Realists.104Althoughtheywerenot
technicallyreferredtoastheCamdenTownGroupbythispoint,theirworkwillstillbe
importantasastudy.Consequently,thefollowingchapterwillmakenoattemptto
restrictthepaintingstothe1911-13period.AsIhopethischapterhasshown,the
artistswhoweassociatewiththegroupproducedworkwhichwascreatedbeforeand
afterthisspecifictimeperiod,andwhichisstillrelevanttothisdiscussion.
101Ibid.,p.89.102Ibid.,p.77.103Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.5.104Ibid.
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CHAPTERTHREE
i)AnAnalysisofMelancholyintheCityscape
Figure5.WilliamWhiteheadRatcliffe,RegentsCanalatHammersmith,c.1910-20.Oiloncanvas(52x60cm)LetchworthMuseumandArtGallery.
Figure6.VincentVanGogh,ViewoftheRoofsofParis,1886.Oiloncanvas(54x75.5
cm)VanGoghMuseum,Amsterdam.
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ThereisnobetterwaytodiscussthecityscapeinourperiodthantoanalyseLondon
andParis;twoburgeoningcitiespulsingunderthepressureofVictorianandEdwardian
life.IhavespecificallychosenVincentVanGoghsViewoftheRoofsofParis[Fig.6}
andWilliamRatcliffesRegentsCanalatHammersmith[Fig.5],fortheyexpressso
eloquentlythethemesdiscussedinthefirstchapter.Unfortunately,writingonthese
twopaintingshasbeenslim,forarthistorianshavelargelyoverlookedthem.Onthe
otherhand,wecanfortunatelyexploreafreshperspectiveontwogreatartistsandthe
connectiontheyshared.
VanGoghhadleftHollandforParisin1886andwastospendtwoyearsthere,where
hewouldexperienceImpressionistpaintingbutbecomeambivalentabouttheirsubject
matterwhichfocusedonmodernParis.105VanGoghwantedtocelebratethepoetryof
oldParis,yettherazingofwholemedievalneighbourhoodslefthimfeelingthatthe
citynowdwarfedtheindividual.106WilliamRatcliffe,ontheotherhand,wasanartist
whorevelledinexploringthemodern.InHammersmith,hefoundthepeculiar
juxtapositionofaffluenceandpoverty,choosingtoportraythelessattractive
residentialareaandtransformitthroughart.
Atfirstglance,ViewoftheRoofsofParisshowsthevieweritisacity,yetitisntclear
preciselywhichcityitis.Oursensesarefilledwiththevariationoftheswirling
brushstrokesthatdominatethesky,whicharecontrastingagainstthesmallervertical
linesthatdominatethebuildingsintheforeground.Theshapesofthebuildingsare
thereforemoredensethanthefreeformingstrokesofthecloudedsky.Immediately,a
tumultuousmoodhasbeencreated.Lineandshapebecomemorefullyformedfor
105AnnGalbally,ARemarkableFriendship:VincentVanGoghandJohnPeterRussell
(Carlton,Vic:MelbourneUniversityPublishing,2008),p114.106Ibid.
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RatcliffeinRegentsCanal.Formiscreatedwithsmaller,softerbrushstrokes,toexpress
socialmelancholyinasedatestate.Yetbothartistshaveeffectivelyexpressedthevast
conurbationofhousesbyusingananglethatoverlapsthefeaturesinthelandscape.
VanGoghusesrepetitionofsimplifiedshapestorepresentthebuildingswhichoverlay
oneanother.Spacebecomesrestrictedwheretheskyisopen.Ratcliffealsoshows
repeatedbuildingsextendingintothedistance.
Crowdedhousingwasavisuallandmarkofpoorareasinurbancentres,whichviewers
thenandnowcanequallyidentify.Suchiconographywassharedwithinliterature
throughouttheVictorianperiod,notonlybyDickens,butalsothatothergreatnovelist
SirArthurConanDoyle.HisgreatcreationSherlockHolmesobservedsodensea
swarmofhumanity.107ThetendencyinwhichsocietyinBritainhadinexpressingthe
themeofmelancholiawithinartisticresources,madeRatcliffesworkculturally
relevant.VanGoghhadallowedthisimagetoexpresstheburgeoningexpansionof
Paris,aswellastoexpresshistendencytoprojecthisownpersonalmelancholy.By
1900,PariswasdealingwiththesameproblemsLondonwasexperiencing.Stoval
writesthattherewasashortageoflow-costhousingcausingtheresultant
overcrowdingoftheworkingclassinParis.108
WithinViewoftheRoofsinParis,thescaleofthesubjectislarge,presentingavast
viewofParisfortheviewertoengagein.Buildingsmovefromlargeintheforeground
tosmallerandlesswellformedinthebackground.Theskyisgivenoverhalfofthe
canvasspace,preventingthelandscapefromdominating.Thecityrepresentsthe
107SirArthurConanDoyle,AdventuresofSherlockHolmes(NewYork:Harper&Bros,1892),p.154.108TylerStovall,TheRiseoftheParisRedBelt(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990),p.24.
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significanceofthenineteenthcentury;itisasymbolofindustrialisation.Thevieweris
madetofeelsmallinrelationtoit,amereobserverofthesocialmelancholywhichfalls
uponthemasses.Ratcliffedoesntuselargescaletomakeusfeeldwarfed,butinstead
placesusinsidetheresidentialarea,makingusfeelconfined.Heusestheconceptofa
smallspace,aclearlysqualidandpoorareaofLondon,toexpressthecultural
importanceofpoverty.
Ratcliffeexpressestexturalvariationbypaintinginthebrickandtilesontheleft
building,aswellasfinedetailontheropesandwoodpanellingoftheboat.Forallthe
darknessthatisimpliedbythecrowdedhousing,heisexpressingvariationanddetail
withinasociallymelancholylandscape,whichhasbeeninformedbyitsclaustrophobic
structure.Yettexturebecomesobsoletefurtherbackinthepictorialspace,wherehe
suggeststhevasthousing.Thefigureontheleftisbarelynoticeableandthefigureon
theboatamereshadow:avisualreminderofthepoor.Thesecharactersbecomean
expressionofthepovertyculturethatKeithRobbinshasidentified.109Ratcliffes
inclusionoftheseindividualsrevealsaninterestinprojectingsocialmelancholy.Van
Goghleavessuchtexturaldetailoutofthepicturealtogether.Thisisalandscapewhere
thecityhasdwarfedtheindividualandthereisnobeautifuldetailtobefoundhere.
Bothartistsareexpressingsocietiesmelancholicexperienceofthecity,yetRatcliffe
canfindindividualityinanoppressiveplace,whereVanGoghseesthecityscapeasa
massmelancholicexperiencereliantonthecityscapetosymbolisethis.
InViewOftheRoofsofParis,thecloudshavebeenpaintedimpastotodefinethe
swirlingactionofhisbrushstrokeandcharacterizeskyfromlandscape.Thesoftshaping
ofthecloudshasthenbeenreflectedinthesoftroundedbrushstrokesthatformthe
109Robbins,TheBritishIsles,p.213.
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trees.Thefoliagethenbecomesjuxtaposedwiththesolidsquare,rectangularand
triangularshapesthatformthebuildings.Ratcliffeusesaflatterandsofterbrushstroke
forthewholeofthepainting,whichensuresthatthetreebecomespartofthe
cityscaperatherthancompetingwithit.Bothpaintingsarealludingtothepowerand
beautyofnature,howitiscompetingwithurbanlife.InViewoftheRoofsofParis,the
treesarebarelynoticeableagainsttherooftops.Beautyistrappedinmasssprawl.In
Ratcliffespainting,thetreealsoappearstrappedwithinurbanlife,yetthelight
upwardstrokesthatformthebranchesandleavesofthetree,appearhopefulasthey
stretchtowardsthesky.Natureoftenbecomesasymbolinwhichtoexpresspersonal
andculturalmelancholywithinthearts.Itisparticularlysignificantinthe1800s
however.Forexample,WutheringHeightsbyEmilyBront,publishedin1847,is
famousforitsuseofpatheticfallacy.110Naturehowever,wasalsoasimpleenduring
symbolofthecountryside.InLondon,conscientiouseffortsweremadetobringthe
countryintothecitytoappeasethepersonalandsocialmelancholythecitysuffered.
RatcliffedisplaysboththemelancholicstructureoflifeinHammersmithandalsothe
beautysocietyfoundinnature,sidebyside.VanGogh,bycontrast,usesnatureasa
strugglingsymbolofindividuality.
Ratcliffecreatestonethroughhisbrightandvibrantpalette.Thebuildingsare
informedbydeepintenseyellows,oranges,pinks,reds,blues,greensandpurples.Dark
bluesontheroofsofthebackgroundbuildingscreatedepthandshadow,wherethe
translucentuseofapastelpaletteforthecanalcreatelightness.Thedeepcontrastsdo
notsomuchcreateabuoyantmoodasevokeafantasticcombinationofmoods.
Ratcliffeusescolourtoevokepersonalappreciationratherthanilluminateanycultural
110EmilyBront,WutheringHeights(NewYork:Harper&Bros,1858).
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significance.AdarkcornerofLondonisbathedinthelightofsunset:itisbeautifulbut
clearlyshouldntbe.ForVanGogh,darknessandlightisformedprimarilyfromhisuse
oftwoprominentlydifferentcolourpalettes,darkerintonethanRatcliffe.The
buildingsandfoliageintheforegroundaredefinedbywarmbrowns,greensand
oranges,formingbrick,foliageandchimneys.Thebuildingsinthebackgroundare
informedbydarktolightgreys,blues,beige,whiteandahintofpink.Thisopposing
colourpaletterendersformandshapesimplified,whereasthecontrastofcolourin
theforegroundensuresformisdominant.Thegreysandbluesthatdominatethespace
createahazeofsmoke,whichalludestotheindustrialnatureofindustrialcities.
RatcliffeinsteadusesRegentscanaltoexpresstheextensionofindustryintothecity.
ThecanalboatbecomesanimmediateiconofindustryinLondon.However,hereit
appearssubdued:anacceptedpartofthelandscape.Ratcliffeistappingintothe
complexityofVictorianculturethatprojectedoptimisminindustryaswellasthesocial
andculturalmelancholywhichindustryprovoked.InViewoftheRoofsofParis,the
buildingsinthebackgroundseemtofoldintotheskylinebyechoingthesameblue-
greycolourpalette.Itappearsasifsmokeandcloudismovingtoconsumethe
foregroundbuildingsinformedinawarmerpalette.WeareremindedoftheParisian
poetBaudelaire,quotedpreviouslyinchapterone:Soonwewillplungeintothecold
darknessundertheheavyandceaselessblowsofthebatteringrain.111By1910,
Londonhadformanyyearsbeentransformedintoanindustrialcentre.Ratcliffe
reflectsthisacceptanceofsharedmelancholyandthebeautytobefoundwithinit.For
BaudelaireandVanGoghhowever,theyfoundthemselvesinacitystillundergoing
change.HisworkreflectsthemelancholyfeltsociallyandpersonallyaboutPariss
111Baudelaire,AutumnSong(1857).
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transformation.WhenVanGogharrivedinParis,thecitywasbusypreparingforthe
InternationalExpositionof1889,aswellasstillundergoingaprogrammeof
modernisationunderBaronHaussmann.ControversyoverthebuildingoftheEiffel
Tower,reflectedthefeelingsofunhappinesspeoplefeltovermodernisation.112Asa
result,bothVanGoghandRatcliffeareexpressingthethoughtsofcontemporarysocial
andarchitecturalcriticsofthetime.Peoplewereasequallyfascinatedastheywere
appalledbyurbansprawl.113
GreatmovementhasbeenimpliedbytheswirlsoflargebrushstrokesthatVanGogh
usestoformclouds.Thelongthinlinesrepeatedlyformingchimneysontherooftops
createastaccatorhythmicquality,whichcontrastswiththelargerounded
brushstrokesofthesky,creatingaheavierandconfusedrhythm.Asaresult,the
buildingsrepresentthefast,quickpaceofthecity.Thedarknessofformcreates
density,butthechimneysbecomeasymbolofindustrialisation.VanGoghisshowing
thereisconsistentexpansioninthiscity,butthedarkpaletteandoverlappingformare
areminderofthemelancholicdestructionofoldParis.Movementisnotsomuch
portrayedinRatcliffespainting,butratheritisimpliedashappeningwhenwe,the
viewer,cannotsee.Ratcliffestopsusfromfeelingmovementsothatweareprevented
fromseeingtheobvious,inthatsocialmelancholywasfeltprominentlyinapoorarea
andtoinsteadseebeautywithinit.Thebrushstrokesthatformthewaterarenotlarge
andswirlinglikethebrushstrokesthatformvanGoghssky,butinsteadappearinsmall
strokes.Darkoutlinesaroundforms,suchastheboatandbrickwall,preventforms
112EnricaCrispino,VanGogh(Minneapolis,MN:OliverPress,2008),p.24.113SeeChapter1,pg6Referencewhenpagesarenumbered
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frommoving.Theboatandthecurvedformofthecanalonlyimplymovement.Weare
simplylefttoobservesocialmelancholyandbeautycoincidinginthegoldenlight.
In1886,VanGoghhadnotyetdiscoveredhisbrilliancewiththecolourpalette,howit
couldtransformsomethingdarkintosomethingluminous.Yethisuseofformand
brushstrokewereuniquelyhisandallencompassinginViewoftheRoofsofParis.Here
heexpressesbothhispersonaldisillusionmentwithParisandcombinesitwiththe
socialmelancholyoflifefeltinParis.Ratcliffealsosharedbothpersonalandsocial
experiencewithinRegentsCanalatHammersmith.PaintedduringtheCamdenTown
Groupdecade,the1910s,thelastinginfluenceofVanGoghslater,brighterpaletteis
clearinthispainting.
Whatmattersmosthowever,ishowbothsharedanappreciationofallforms
melancholywithinthecityscape.Ratcliffewasabletoreconcilehispersonal
appreciationofmodernlifewithsociallyacceptedmelancholiclifeexperiencedin
London.Subject,form,shapeandlinecreatethemelancholicscene.Colourhowever,
allowedmelancholytoshine.HeperfectlyreflectedthecomplexityofVictoriansociety,
whichhadcontradicteditselfbybeingattractedtothesocialmelancholyofthecities
aswellasthebeautyofthecountry.Bothartistsequallyexpressed,notonlytheirown
feelingbutalsosocieties,eveniftheseopinionsweresomewhatdifferent.
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ii)AnAnalysisofMelancholyintheModernCountryLandscape
Figure7.SpencerGore,TheBeanfield,Letchworth,1912.Oiloncanvas(30.5x
40.6cm)TateCollections.
Figure8.PaulCezanne,TheRailwayCutting,1870.Oiloncanvas(80x129cm)
NeuePinakothek,Munich,Germany.
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SpencerGorehadapreoccupationwiththeworkofPaulCzanne,suchthathewrote
ofhisadmirationinhisregularcolumnforArtNews:Itistheintensesinceritywith
whichhepursueshisobjectwhichgivestohispaintingthatwonderfulgravity.114Both
GoreandCezannefoundthatgravityandmeansofexpressioninthecontroversial
subjectofindustrialisationwithinthecountrylandscape.Comparedtotheworkofhis
colleagueRatcliffe,Goresworkhasbeengivenconsiderablemoreattentionwithinthe
historyofart.
Cezanne,likeVanGogh,iswrittenaboutextensivelybutthepaintingthatshallbe
discussedhere,TheRailwayCutting[Fig.8],isnotsowellanalysedasthatofhislater
work.Gores1912landscape,TheBeanfield,Letchworth[Fig.7],providesanintriguing
comparisontoCezannesimpressionofmodernisminthecountry.Cezanneoften
voicedhisattitudetochangeswhichtechnologicalprogresshadonthelandscape.The
townofAixhasbeenruinedbytheChiefEngineerofRoads.Youwillhavetohurryif
youwanttoseeanything,hewrotetoEmileBernard.115AtthetimeofpaintingThe
RailwayCutting,hewaslivinginLEstaqueasarefugefromParisduetotheoutbreak
oftheFranco-Prussianwar.Gorewasalsoseekingasortofrefuge,atthegardencityof
Letchworth.Here,culturewasattemptingtocombinemodernitywithrurallife.Gore
soughttofindaresolutionbetweenthetwo,asRatcliffehadinthecity,whereas
Cezannecouldonlyseemodernitydestroyingnature.
ThedepictionofGoreslandscapeinTheBeanfieldimmediatelycontradictsthe
traditionalinterpretationofthenaturalistlandscape.Linesarenotusedtoutilise
114Connett,WalterSickert,p.37.115UlrikeMalorny,PaulCezanne1839-1906:PioneerofModernism(London:Taschen,2001),p.20.
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naturalshapes,butformgeometricpatterns,asseeninthezigzagformationthat
constitutesthebeanfield.Thiscontinuesinthetrees,wherelinesformblocksofcolour.
Thesegeometricformsthenmirrortheman-madeformofthechimneysinthe
foreground.ThesechimneysareinfactpartofthebrickworksatBaldock.116Geometric
lineandshapecontinuesintheclouds,completingtheunificationoftheman-made
andnaturalobject.Thefactory,anestablishediconofindustry,typicallysymbolised
negativequalities.AnnBerminghamargues,thatafter1860countryandcitywere
culturallydefined,inthatthecitywasnegativeandthecountrytrueEngland.117
Berminghamnotesthatthiscontinuedintothetwentiethcentury,becomingsignificant
inBritishculturewhenmodernistEnglisharttookmodernismasacentraltheme.The
symbolsofcountryandmodernityhaveinsteadbeenembracedtogetherbyGore,
joiningfieldandfactorytogetheringeometricpatterns.Cezannealsouseslinetoform
blockedshape,asinthedarklinethatcutsacrossthefield,yetcolourisnotrestricted
bylinelikeGore.Linesbecomedisjointed,allowingcolourtointegrateasseenonMont
Sainte-Victorietotheright.WherebyBritainhadbeenabletoaccepttheideaof
industryandnaturetogetherbythe1910s,Francein1870wasstillundergoing
modernisation.NatureistreatedmorenaturallythroughCezannesuseoflineand
form,makingthecutinthehillappearunsettlingandaclearprojectionofhispersonal
anguish.
Thesethemesarefurtherreflectedinscaleanduseofspace.ThescaleofGores
landscapeisfar-reaching,allowingustoseethemajesticscaleofthecountryside,as
116YsanneHolt,BritishArtistsandtheModernistLandscape(Aldershot:Ashgate,2003),p.122.117AnnBermingham,LandscapeandIdeology:TheEnglishRusticTradition1740-1860(Calif:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1989),pp.102-3.
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wellastheplaceofindustry.AlthoughGoreusessimplifiedshapetocreateatwo-
dimensionalspace,theinterplayofpositiveandnegativespacethroughcolourallows
scaletobefelt.Cezannealsoshowsanexpanseoflandscape,projectingthe
magnificentscaleofthecountryside.Thecuttinginthehillisgivenadominantrole
here,alludingtotherailwaywhichisoneofthemostpotentsymbolsofVictorian
progressandindustrialisationatthistime.118ThroughCezannesrenderingofthe
subjectinadeepbloodred,thissymbolofindustrialisationlosesitsconnotationsof
positivity.Thelargescaleofthesubjectthen,representsthelargepersonalgriefthe
artistholdsovertheeventsthatareoccurringinLEstaque.
Gorehascreatedtextureinthespacethroughhisuseofgeometricshape,allowing
thepaintingtoremaintwo-dimensional.Thisismostkeenlyfeltinthebeanfield,where
thetextureofthefieldisexaggeratedintoapattern.Textureinthefieldsbeyondis
renderedobsolete;thefieldsbecomereducedtomereshape,integratingonceagain
theman-madechimneyswiththesurroundingcountryside.YsanneHolthasalludedto
thesymbolicreflectionofLetchworth,throughhisuseofsimplifiedforms:His
approachwassimilartothatofthearchitectsofthenewtownitself.Holtquotesa
townplannerwhoremarked,Wetriedtocombineacertainamountofformalityinthe
plan.119Asaresult,GoreusestheinspirationoftheLetchworthplantocombine
modernandtraditional,thencelebrateitinthelandscape.Ontheotherhand,taking
natureandrenderingitsimplifiedandvisuallyequaltothesplendourofthe
countryside,maybetakenpersonallyasanunhappyscene.Theculturefor
118AidanCruttenden,TheVictorians(London:Evans,2002),p.7.119Holt,BritishArtists,p.122.
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appreciatingruralEnglandwasstillstrongin1912.Eyeslookingupontheworkatthe
time,mayhaveperceivedthisratherasamelancholicrenderingofareveredland.
TextureisfoundmoreearnestlyinTheRailwayCutting,whereCezanneallowsthe
textureofthecanvastocomethrough.Brushstrokesarevisibleacrossthecanvas,
especiallywhereroundedbrushstrokesformcloudstocontrastwiththeflatter
horizontalstrokesformingtheground.Equally,theshapeofthemountainiscarved
throughthevariedlinesheproduces.Cezanneusestexturetoinsteaddistinguishit
frommodernism.Controversyoverthedestructionofcountrysideforrailwaysexisted
inEnglandatthebeginningoftheindustrialrevolutionandnowsuchcontroversy
transcendeduponFrance.CamillePissarrohadpaintedaseriesofdrawingsdepicting
thecityascorruptandthecountryaspeaceful.120.Aslateas1900,poetrywasstill
lockedinRomanticismintheFrenchprovinces.DavidCowardwritesthatthispoetry
withitsevocationsofsea,landscape,customsandpeasantlifeprovided(usually
melancholy)glimpsesoftheprovinces.121Byrepresentingnatureassociety
appreciatedit,Cezannemadethecuttinglookallthemoreintrusiveandmelancholic.
DarknessandlightisformedinTheBeanfieldwithinthecolourpalette.Eventhough
thefactoryinthebackgroundisfurthestaway,itisshowninalightblueshade,
whereasthetreesareindarkergreensandblues.Blueisusedprimarilytoconvey
shadowandagainservestounifynaturewiththeman-made.Intruth,Gores
representationofaunifiedLetchworthdidnotentirelyreflecthowthoselivingthere
feltinreality.ItwasobservedthatsocialclassesatLetchworthsimplydidnotmix;
120JohnHouse,LandscapesofFrance:ImpressionismanditsRivals(London:HaywardGallery,1995),p.56.121DavidCoward,HistoryofFrenchLiteratureFromChansonDeGestetoCinema(Oxford:JohnWiley&Sons,2007),p.487.
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socialdisharmonieswouldnotdisappear.Goreleftoutanyrepresentationofthe
peopleofLetchworth,weseeonlythatharmonycanexistpictorially.122Hispersonal
interpretationmayhavebeenoneofjoy,butresidentsmayhaveseenthisasa
distortion.Inlightofthis,theimagetakesonalonelyandisolatedperspective.In
Cezanneslandscape,blueisusedalsoasaprimarycolourbutgenerallytovaluelight
withintheskyanduponthemountain.Darkred,greenandbrownimpressshadow
uponthepicture.Cezannemakeshispersonalmelancholicthoughtsexplicit,rather
thaneradicatinganyhiddenthemes,asGoredoes,tocreateaharmoniousimage.
ThereforeCezannepresentspersonalmelancholy,whereGoreprefersamorepositive
personalinterpretationtoanyrepresentationofsocialmelancholythatmaylie
beneath.
ThecolourpaletteGoreusesinformsshapeandform,notasatooltoportrayrealism.
Colourfoundinthenaturalformshavebeengroupedintopatterns,allowingvibrant
contrastsofcolours,mostnoticeableinthepastelpinksagainstdarkbrownandearthy
redinthebeanfield.Thesmokerisingfromthebrickfactoryisnotsimplygrey,butis
highlightedinduskypurpleandwhite.Thecolourofsmokebecomesonewiththe
colourofthenaturalclouds,thusbecomingpartofnaturesbeauty.Goreisreversing
thetypicalassociationsoftheiconicityofsmoke.MarroniwritesoftheVictorian
novelistElizabethGaskell,whosebookNorthandSouthspeaksofthenegative
iconicityofindustrialisation.123Literaturewasfullofthesmokingchimneysthat
imposetheirantiecologicalmessageontheVictorianlandscape.124Goreuseshis
122Holt,BritishArtists,p.125.123FrancescoMarroni,VictorianDisharmonies:AReconsiderationofNineteenth-
CenturyEnglishFiction(Newark:UniversityofDelawarePress,2010),p.36.124Ibid.
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Cezanneequallycouldnotreflecthisownsocietysforemostattitude.Hedidnotwant
tobesympathetictowardstheintrusionofmodernisation.Hegivestheskymovement
bybrushstroke,ratherthantheuseofblockedshapes,contrastingwiththewoundin
thelandscape.Thedeepredcolourimpliesithasbeenfreshlycut,withitsblocked
colourmakingitdenseandstill.Thenaturalmovementofthefieldsandmountain
constructedwithhisvariedbrushstroke,havebeendestroyedinthecutting,leavinga
permanentportraitofadamagedhillandthussuggestingachangethatcannotbe
undone.Cezanneismakingclearthattherailwaysareapersonallymelancholicsight.
ItwouldhavebeeninterestingtoseeGoreandCezanneapproacheachothers
subjects;theirpersonalopinionswouldhavebeenmoreaccuratelyreflectiveofthat
societythantheirown.Nevertheless,theirpersonalinterpretationsofmodernisation
uponthecountrysidemakeanintriguingcomparison.MelancholyforCezanne
becomesapersonalpreoccupationinTheRailwayCutting.Itseemsthatwithinsociety,
theopinionsofthose,suchasCezanne,wereintheminority.Theworkthereforetakes
onadeeppersonalsignificance.Hehasprojectedanindividualfeelingwithadeeplove
fornatureandcontrastingitwiththewound.
Gorealsorejectstheprominentfeelingwithinhissocietytochallengethemelancholic
cultureassociatedwithurbanisationandreplaceitwithappreciation.Butbehindthe
faade,LetchworthwasnotthepictureofharmonyGorewantedustobelieve.
Thereforewhatcanbetakenasanoptimisticpicture,becomestingedwithsocial
melancholyinretrospect.YetGoresprimaryaimwastoconsoleasymbolofcultural
melancholy,thefactory,withthepositiveimageofnature,toprovethatbothcanbe
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iii)AnAnalysisofChildhoodNostalgiaandMelancholy
Figure9.RobertBevan,AStreetSceneinBelsizePark,aHouseatHampstead,London,
1917.Oiloncanvas(75x90.3cm)MuseumofLondon.
Figure10.PaulGauguin,TheSacredMountain(ParahiTeMarae),1892.Oiloncanvas(66x88.9cm)PhiladelphiaMuseumofModernArt.
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WellbeforetheCamdenTownGrouphadformed,RobertBevanhadmetPaul
Gauguinwithacommonaim.In1891,BevanhadtravelledtoBrittanytofinda
primitiveandunspoiltenvironmentforinspiration.Gauguinandhimselfwouldwork
together,whereGauguinwouldbecomehischiefinfluence.128Itwouldbetoosimple
however,tomerelyindulgeintheirworkatthispoint.WhenBevanandGauguin
displayfascinatingsimilaritiesisintheirwork,ithappenstooccurwhentheartists
departontheirownseparatepaths;GauguintoTahitiandBevantoLondon.
Itisimperativethatthesepaintingsaretakenwithinthecontextoftheirtime.Bevans
AStreetSceneinBelsizePark[Fig.9]isnotableforitscompletionduringWorldWarI
anditssignificancebecomesmorepoignant.GauguinsTheSacredMountain(ParahiTe
Marae)[Fig.10],waspaintedduringhistimeinTahitifrom1891to1893.However,the
paradisewhichheenvisionedwasshatteredwhenhesawFrenchcolonisationmeant
virtuallynothingnowremainedofthetraditionalreligion,mythologyandart.129What
BevanandGauguinachievedintheirpaintings,wasachildlikenostalgiaforwhathad
beenlostintheirrespectivesubject.Eachistingedwithanostalgiceyethatalso
becomeslayeredwithculturalandpersonalmelancholyunderobservation.
TheuseoflineisveryimportanttoBevansAStreetSceneinBelsizePark.Frances
Stenlakewrites,thatmuchlikeSpencerGore,Bevanusesahorizontalandverticalgrid
toachievecomposition.130Linedoesnotdefinetexture,butratheritformssimple
shapesthatlackdetail.Themotorisedtaxi-cabforexample,lookstwo-dimensionalasa
result.ForGauguin,hisuseoflineachievesasimilargoal,inthatthefenceisformedby
128Connett,WalterSickert,p.61.129AlanBowness,TheGreatArtistsCollection:Gauguin(London:EncyclopaediaBritannica,1971),p.11.130FrancisStenlake,RobertBevan:FromGauguintoCamdenTown(London:UnicornPress,2008),p.146.
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simpleoutlining,renderingittwo-dimensional.BevanadmiredGauguinforhisbold
patterningandclearlyithadalastingimpact.Itservedwellinachievingachildlike
qualitytoBevansworkthatGauguinfoundreflectiveofhissubject.Gauguinwas
consistentinwantingtofindinhisartaconnectiontohischildhoodtimespentin
SouthAmerica.Hereproachedthefast,industriallifestylethatwasencroachingupon
France,asdiscoveredwithinViewoftherooftopsinParisbyVanGogh.Hewasalways
lookingbackwardstowardsmemoriesofchildhood.Hisuseoflineinthiswayandthe
childlikequalityithad,remindsusofGauguinsattemptstoreachhisroots.
ForBevan,usingthistechniquealsobringstomindachildlikeimage.Usingdarker
outlinestoformshapesisreminiscentofachildspicturebook.Gauguinalsousesthis
visiblyonthegreentrees.Bevanisusingthistechniquesymbolicallytoevokeinusthe
feelingsofchildhoodandinnocence.Itbecomesallthemorepoignantanddistant
whenwetakeintoaccountthatinnocencehasbeenlostthroughwar.Bevanis
continuingtheVictoriantendencyforculturalretrospection,whichcontinuedintothe
twentiethcenturyforreassurance.Thetragicimpactofwaronyouthcanbeexpressed
throughthepoemInASoldiersHospitalI:PluckwrittenbyEvaDobell,avolunteer
nurseduringWorldWarI.Shewrites:Achild-sowastedandsowhite,Sobrokewith
pain,heshrinksindread.131Thisisacandidillustrationoftherecruitingracketthat
allowedboysyoungerthantherequisiteagetojoinup;theboyinthispoembeingjust
seventeenandmaimedforlife.132Bevanallowedhisworkachildlikeinnocencewhich
theseboyshadtragicallylost.
131EvaDobell,InASoldiersHospitalI:Pluck(1919),inGeorgeWalter(ed.),ThePenguinBookofFirstWorldWarPoetry(London:Penguin,2006),p.207.132NosheenKhan,WomensPoetryoftheFirstWorldWar(Kentucky:UniversityofKentucky,1988),p.126
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ThelackoftexturetoBevansworkmeansthatthepictorialplainappearsstill.
Brushstrokeisnotobvious,insteaditislineandformwhichdominates.Asaresult,
areasofthespace,includingtheroadandthesky,appearempty.Withoutlookingat
thetimeofthispaintingorknowingitsl