Download - Tvet Policy Review
TR 2010-6-2Sec. level General
TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
UNESCO Regional Center 사업(2010)
Kim, Young-Saing
Chung, Ji-Sun Lee, Sang-Don
Lim, Young-Sub Ryu, Ki-Rak
Foreword
Urgency of cooperation in TVET in conjunction with globalization
in economy and diplomacy such as FTA with EU, ASEAN and other
countries has been intensified because human resources are the most
valuable asset for economic and social development. The Korean
government has emphasized the importance of cooperation between
Korea and Asian countries and enlarged the Korea’s role to play in
TVET development in Asian countries.
Asian countries have recognized the role of HRD to play for
national development, poverty alleviation and community cohesion.
Thus, they are searching for the role model of HRD which they
would follow. The Korean model of HRD would be a prospective
model of HRD for Asian developing countries because Korea went
through extreme poverty, destruction of Korean War and had to
overcome lack of natural resource and becomes a leading country
in Asia. Many Asian countries want to share the model of HRD and
the experiences from Korea and other countries because they have
lots of similarities. However, only little information of Asian
countries’ TVET has been available.
Lack of information is the most critical barrier to improve the
cooperation between Korea and the Asian developing countries. The
TVET policy of government is the centerpiece of the TVET
information. Korean government has played governing roles of
TVET development in providing framework for HRD development.
In most Asian countries, the governments have most valuable human
resources and notable abilities to make a difference. In this regard,
it is most recommendable to share Asian countries’ TVET policies
in order to learn from each other and to make a common ground
of mutual understanding.
CEDEFOP of the EU is the center of TVET policy coordination
and information sharing among the EU countries. It dramatically
increases effective cooperation among EU members. When we look
forward the future of Asia which is the engine of global economic
development, it is the time we need to figure out how to increase
the mutual understanding and learn from each others’ experiences
in TVET which increases HRD. In this regard, KRIVET and
UNESCO decided to conduct the project which collect the TVET
policy data and organize them with comparative perspectives.
We developed the framework of TVET information sharing which
would cover the general information and TVET policy issues. It
should be compatible to make a comparison among Asian counties.
The framework of UNESCO’s TVET policy review was the
reference of developing this framework. UNESCO has a plan to
make the TVET policy database sooner or later. It was expected to
make this paper a part of UNESCO’s TVET database.
This project was conducted as a UNESCO-KRIVET cooperative
project. The project manager of this project is Dr. Kim,
Young-Saing. Dr. Chung, Ji-Sun, Dr. Lee, Sang-Don, Dr. Ryu,
Ki-Rak and Mr. Lim, Young-Sub contributed enormous efforts and
ideas as researchers. Local reporters collected data and organized
them for this project. Three interns, Ms. Gong, Min-Young, Ms.
Kim, Yong-Jeong and Ms. Kueppers, Paula organized the manuscripts
which were not in a consistent format. Ms. Jennifer Govan edited
the manuscript’s language and checked the references. KRIVET
would like to show special gratitude to the researchers, the reporters,
the interns, the editor.
This project paper is not an official view of KRIVET or UNESCO,
but the researcher’s and local reporters’ opinions and the collection
of data.
December, 2010.
KRIVET. President Kwon Dae-Bong
Index i
Index
BANGLADESH
TVET Policy, Experience, and Trends in Bangladesh․3
Introduction․3
Section 1. Context and Background․4
1. Political and Socio-cultural Context․4
2. Population and Demographics․5
3. Population Change․5
4. Demographics of Bangladesh․6
5. Population Growth Rate․11
6. Urban and Rural․12
7. Gender ratio․12
8. Migration․13
9. Poverty Rate․15
10. Economy (GDP): 2004-2009․15
11. Education․17
12. Education Attainment of Population by Gender and Age,Literacy․18
13. National Development Plan and Strategies in General․19
Section 2. Employment and Labor Market․21
1. Bangladesh’s Export Sector․21
2. Labor Market․22
3. Demography and the Labor Market․24
4. Migration and Overseas Employment․24
ii Index
5. Employment and Labor Market Information Table․26
6. Skill Supply and Demand (Overall Marketplace Requisite Skills)․28
7. Country Wise Overseas Employment (1976–2009) :Top 10 countries․29
8. New Demands: Industry and Government Policy․30
TVET Systems by Target Group: Adults, Teachers, Trainers, and
Enterprises․33
Section 1. TVET Systems by Target Group․33
Section 2. TVET for Students by Level of Education․33
1. SSC (Secondary School Certificate) (Vocational)․35
2. Area/Field․36
3. Training Scheme for Non-schooling (Apprenticeship)․37
4. Upper Secondary Level: Entrance Rate and Employment․38
5. Area/Field․39
6. Non-schooling Level: % of Non-schooled Adolescents,Training Scheme for Non-schooling (Apprenticeship)․42
Section 3. TVET for Adults․42
Section 4. TVET and Enterprises․43
1. TVET and Enterprises․43
2. Role of Enterprises․44
3. TVET in SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises)․45
Section 5. TVET Infrastructure․47
1. Certification Standard․47
2. Certification for Instructor and Trainers: (Pre-job and In-job Training)․47
Index iii
3. Course for Trainees (School going student/drop out students, jobless or unemployed)․48
4. National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) System․49
Governance of TVET system․51
Section 1. Institutional Framework․51
1. Governing Structure․51
2. National Vision and Strategic Direction of TVET․52
Section 2. National Development and TVET Policy․53
1. Economic Development and TVET Policy․53
2. Social Partnership and TVET․55
Section 3. Assessment of TVET Policy․56
1. Major Achievements in TVET Ensuring Accessibility․56
2. Quality and Relevancy․57
Financing of TVET․59
Section 1. Financing Regime (Institute) for TVET․59
Section 2. Financial Support System or Mechanism․60
Section 3. Private Funding of Public TVET Institutions․60
Section 4. Funding of Private Providers․61
Section 5. Educational Financing․63
Internationalization of TVET․65
Section 1. Impact of TVET Policy․65
iv Index
Section 2. International Cooperation․66
1. Facility and Equipment․67
New Agenda․69
Section 1. Trends and Needs․69
1. New Needs for New Skills․69
2. Green Job and Occupations․70
Section 2. Future plans․74
References․75
CAMBODIA
THE NATIONAL CONTEXT OF TVET: INTRODUCTION․79
Section 1. Context and Background of Cambodia․79
Section 2. Education System in Cambodia․84
Section 3. Employment and Labor Market․86
TVET SYSTEM BY TARGET GROUPS: ADULTS, TEACHERS AND
TRAINERS, AND ENTERPRISES․95
Section 1. TVET for Adults․101
Section 2. Industrial Relations․106
Index v
GOVERNANCE OF THE TVET SYSTEM․107
Section 1. Governing Structure․107
1. NAME OF INSTITUTION․107
2. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF INSITUTION․108
Section 2. Organizational Structure of DTVETM․110
Section 3. TVET System Overview․111
Section 4. The Two Tracks of TVET Policy․113
Section 5. Policy Development in TVET System․115
Section 6. Vision and Strategic Direction․128
FINANCING OF TVET․131
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF TVET․137
NEW AGENDA AND PLANS FOR THE FUTURE․143
References․148
INDONESIA
Technical Vocational Education and Training in Indonesia․153
Section 1. Indonesia: context and background․153
vi Index
Section 2. The Indonesian Employment and Labor Market․161
Section 3. The Education System in Indonesia․171
Section 4. TVET System in Indonesia․180
Section 5. Vocational Senior Secondary School (SMK-Sekolah Menengah
Kejuruan)․181
Section 6. The Competency Certification as One of the Certification Models
of SMKs' Graduates․192
Section 7. Post-secondary and Adult TVET․196
Section 8. Vocational Training in Enterprises and Small Businesses․205
1. Funding of TVET․206
2. Internationalization of TVET․207
3. New Agenda and Plans for the Future of the Vocational Education and Training in Indonesia․209
References․212
LAO PDR
The National Context of TVET․217
Section 1. Context and Background․217
1. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION․217
2. GEOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHY, POPULATIONGROWTH․218
Index vii
3. Economy․222
4. EDUCATION․223
5. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN AND STRATEGIES․231
6. STRATEGIC PLAN 2006-2010 AND MASTER PLAN 2008-2015 FOR TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN LAO P.D.R․233
Section 2. EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR FORCE․237
1. Employment and Age․237
2. LAO LABOR MARKET INDICATOR․241
TVET System by Target Groups․259
<Executive Summary>․259
Section 1. Issues to be Addressed․261
1. Scope of the Technical and Vocational Education and Training․261
2. Integration of Demand Side in Skills Development and Promotion of TVET․262
3. National Qualification or Certification Framework․264
Section 2. Curriculum Method and Content․266
1. Competency Standards․266
2. Student-Centered Learning․267
3. Practical Experience and Knowledge․268
4. Access and Equity․268
Section 3. Teacher Development․269
Section 4. Cross Cutting Issues․270
Section 5. Labor Market Information․271
viii Index
Governance of the TVET system․273
Section 1. Link with Other Sectoral Developments․273
Section 2. The present Situation of Supply and Demand․275
1. The Rapidly Changing Lao Socio-economic Context․275
2. An Urgent Need for Skills․276
Section 3. General Situation of the TVET Providers․279
Section 4. Specific Situation of the TVET Schools under the MOE․282
Financing of TVET․285
Section 1. The Budget for TVET Reform and Development․285
1. The Regular Government TVET Budget․287
2. The Consequence of Economic Development on the Financial Capacities of Companies․287
3. The Legal Framework to Promote Training in Companies․288
4. The Support Coming through Cooperation with Other Ministries․289
Section 2. Loans for TVET Development․289
1. Possible Foreign and International Assistance for TVET․290
2. Present Situation of Some Donors Concerning TVET․290
Internationalization of TVET․295
Section 1. Lessons Learnt and Recommendations from the International
Experience for TVET Master Plans and Strategies․295
Index ix
New Agenda and Plans for the Future․301
Section 1. Direction of the Master Plan․302
1. Equitable Access Program․302
2. Improvement of Quality․304
3. Continuing Improvement of the Management and Administration․305
Section 2. Conditions to Succeed or How to Limit the Risks․306
MONGOLIA
Policy, Experience, and Trends of Technical and Vocational
Education and Training in Mongolia․311
Section 1. THE NATIONAL CONTEXT OF TVET: INTRODUCTION․311
1. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND․311
Section 2. EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR MARKET․323
1. Employment․323
2. Skill Supply and Demand․325
3. Mismatch․326
4. Data Monitoring․328
5. New Demands: Industry and Government Policy․329
Section 3. Governance of the TVET System․333
1. Institutional Framework․333
Section 4. TVET System by Target Groups․339
x Index
Section 5. TVET INFRASTRUCTURE․342
1. Teachers and Instructors․342
2. Facility and Equipment․343
3. National Qualification Framework․344
4. Current Status of NQF and TVET․345
5. Imperatives in Developing the National Qualification Framework․348
6. Strategy․351
Section 6. National Vision and Strategic Direction of TVET․353
Section 7. Legal Frame for TVET Adults and Lifelong Learning․358
Section 8. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND TVET POLICY․361
1. TVET Policy History and Priority․361
2. Economic Development and TVET: National Development Plan and TVET Policy․362
3. Social Partnership and TVET․364
Section 9. CURRENT STATU from S OF SOCIAL PARTHNERSHIP․369
Section 10. ISSUES AND INNOVATIVE PRACTICES․373
Section 11. FUTURE PLANS FOR SOCIAL PARTHERSHIP․374
Section 12. TECHNOLOGY: ICT, E-LEARNING․380
1. Current Status of ICT in Education․380
2. Best Practices in Teaching and Learning through ICT․381
3. Issues and Challenges in ICT Education․382
4. Future Plans․383
Index xi
Section 13. International Cooperation: Bilateral, Multilateral and
International Organizations․385
1. Donors’ Activity in TVET․385
2. Sustainability․389
Section 14. Future Trends and Objectives of TVETs․389
Section 15. TVET Objectives & Strategies (2006 to 2015)․390
PHILIPPINES
TVET POLICY, EXPERIENCE, AND TRENDS IN THE PHILIPPINES․397
Section 1. The National Context of TVET․397
1 Context and Background․397
2. Employment and Labor Market․420
Section 2. The Philippine TVET System․431
1. TVET Support System․433
2. TVET Delivery․436
3. TVET in Secondary Education․439
4. TVET Quality Assurance․440
Section 3. GOVERNANCE OF THE TVET SYSTEM․444
1. Institutional Framework․444
2. National Development and TVET Policy․454
3. Assessment of TVET Policy․458
Section 4. Financing TVET․461
xii Index
Section 5. Internationalization of TVET․464
1. Impact on TVET Policy․464
2. International Cooperation: Bilateral, Multilateral, andInternational Organization․466
3. Internationalization of TVET․467
Section 6. NEW AGENDA AND PLANS FOR THE FUTURE․468
1. Expanding Access and Equity to TVET Opportunities․468
2. Ensuring Sustainable and Adequate Financing for TVET and Funding the TESDA Development Fund․469
3. Strengthening Industry-TVET Linkage, including Enterprise- based Training․470
4. Institutionalizing the Philippine National Qualifications Framework and a System of Skills/Qualification Progression/ Career Shifts and Lifelong Learning․472
5. Improving Labor Market Information and Addressing the Labor Supply and Demand Gaps and Matching Problems․474
6. Continuing Quality Improvement in TVET Provision․475
7. TVET Trainers’ Development․476
8. TVET for Sustainable Development․476
9. Preparing the Workers for the Knowledge Society․477
References․479
SRI LANKA
TVET Policies and Implementation Process of Sri Lanka․483
Section 1. Political and Socio-Cultural context․483
Index xiii
1. Government and political party system in Sri Lanka.․483
2. Legislative․485
3. Summery of the 2010 Sri Lankan Parliamentary Election․485
4. Civil Service Structure․487
5. Local Government System Provincial council structure․487
6. The Instruments of Devolution․488
7. Functions of Provincial Councils․490
Section 2. Population and Demographics․491
1. Demography․491
2. National Accounts․492
Section 3. Governance of the TVET system․493
1. Institutional Framework․493
2. Government Bodies Responsible for TVET․494
3. Regional Level․501
4. Relationship between Government Bodies․502
5. National Vision and Strategic Direction of TVET.․505
Section 4. Government Policy․508
1. Evolution of TVET Policies․508
2. Assessment of TVET Policies․515
3. Effectiveness․516
4. Efficiency․519
5. Impact․520
Section 5. Legal Framework of TVET for Students and Adolescents․522
Section 6. Qualifications․524
1. National Culture of Skill and the Skilled․524
2. National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) System․526
xiv Index
3. Private Qualification System․526
4. Role of Qualification in Labor Market․528
Section 7. National Development and TVET Policy․529
1. Economic Development and TVET․531
2. Social Development and TVET․532
Section 8. TVET System by Target Groups․534
1. TVET for Students by Level of Education under the Secondary Level Compulsory Education․534
2. Government Schools․535
3. Private School․536
4. Secondary Level, Upper Secondary Level, and Non- schooling Level; Vocational and Academic Rate; and Apprenticeship Enrollment Rate․537
5. Training Scheme for Non-schooling․539
6. TVET and Enterprises․539
7. Self Employment Promotion Initiative (SEPI)․541
8. TVET Infrastructure․542
9. Staff Development & Teacher Training․544
Section 9. Employment and the Labor Market․546
1. Skills supply and demand․551
2. Skills Mismatch, Skill Shortage, and unemployment.․551
3. New Demands․553
Section 10. International Corporation: Bilateral, Multilateral and International
Organization․555
Section 11. New Needs for New Skills․559
Index xv
Section 12. Future Challenges and Opportunities․562
References․565
VIETNAM
TVET POLICY, EXPERIENCE, AND TRENDS․569
Section 1. Context and Background․569
1. Population․569
2. The Vietnamese Economy․570
3. Education System of Vietnam․575
Section 2. Employment and Labor Market․581
1. Employment․581
2. Unemployment․583
3. The number of workers related to jobs․584
4. Employment by industry․585
5. Employment by position-based․587
6. Employment by ownership sector․588
7. Employment by job performed․589
Section 3. The TVET System in Vietnam․590
1. In General․590
2. Implementation of vocational capability development․598
3. Public Vocational Training Development Institution․603
4. Support for Vocational Training by Private Firms․604
xvi Index
Section 4. Governance of the TVET system․605
1. Institutional Framework․605
2. Organizations Involved and Total System (including Functions and Responsibilities of Both Central and Local Governments)․610
3. Financing TVET․617
4. Internationalization of TVET․622
5. New Agenda and Plans for the Future․628
Section 5. Conclusion․632
Table Index xvii
<Table Index>
BANGLADESH
<Table 1-1> Government System of the Country․5
<Table 1-2> Climatic Variations․7
<Table 1-3> Population Change/Year (By Age and Gender) Population․8
<Table 1-4> Population Change/Birth Rate Change:․10
<Table 1-5> Female Migration from Bangladesh․13
<Table 1-6> The migration rate by gender and direction of migration for 2007․14
<Table 1-7> Incidence of Poverty by Locality Over Time (CBN Method)․15
<Table 1-8> Literacy rate (%) of population 7 years and over by gender and age 1995-2007․18
<Table 1-9> Adult Literacy of Population of 15 Years and Over by Gender, 1991-2008․18
<Table 1-10> Adult (15-45 yr old) Literacy Rates․19
<Table 1-11> MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS : BANGLADESH PROGRESS AT A GLANCE․19
<Table 1-12> Employment in RMG sector․22
<Table 1-13> Year Wise Overseas Employment (1976–2010 Aug)․25
<Table 1-14> Labour force aged 15 years and over by sex and locality, 1995-2006․27
<Table 1-15> CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE․27
<Table 1-16> SECTOR WISE EMPLOYMENT (Age : 15+)․27
<Table 1-17> GROWTH RATE OF LABOR FORCE BY LOCALITY (YEAR 2002-03).․28
<Table 2-1> GROSS ENROLLMENT RATE FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL BY SEX AND LOCALITY․34
<Table 2-2> Passing rates and growth rates of the SSC․35
xviii Table Index
<Table 2-3> Number of Institutes․35
<Table 2-4> Dhakil (Vocational)․36
<Table 2-5> Certificate in Vocational Education․36
<Table 2-6> Computer Training Program․37
<Table 2-7> Basic Trade Course (360 Hours)․37
<Table 2-8> Comparison of General & Vocational Education at Secondary Level:․37
<Table 2-9> Diploma in Technical Education (Course Duration 1 Year)․39
<Table 2-10> Diploma in Vocational Education (Course Duration 1 Year)․39
<Table 2-11> Diploma in Engineering (Course Duration 4 Years)․39
<Table 2-12> Diploma in Textile Engineering (Course duration 4 Years)․40
<Table 2-13> Diploma in Forestry․40
<Table 2-14> Diploma in Animal Health and Production․40
<Table 2-15> Diploma in Health Technology and Certificate in Health Technology․41
<Table 2-16> HSC(Higher Secondary School Certificate) Business Management․41
<Table 2-17> HSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate) Vocational․41
<Tabel 2-18> The TVET Scenario of Bangladesh at a Glance:․42
<Table 2-19> The list of the public and private institutions․43
<Table 2-20> Number and Share of TVET Institutions by Program (2009; source: BTEB):․45
<Tabel 2-21> Bangladesh Vocational Qualification Framework(present):․49
<Table 4-1> Budget Allocation (Revenue & Development) for DTE (Directorate of Technical Education)․63
<Table 6-1> Fields Green-job Under Studies․74
CAMBODIA
<Table 1-1> Employment, by Sector, Age and sex․88
Table Index xix
<Table 1-2> Employment Structure․88
<Table 1-3> Unemployment and Participation Rate By Sex and Region (Aged 15+)․90
<Table 1-4> Share of Employed Persons by Educational Level in Each Sector․91
<Table 1-5> Level of Education․93
<Table 2-1> Students in technical and vocational education and training․96
<Table 2-2> The Number of Graduated Students in TVET Institutions 2003–2008․98
<Table 2-3> Number of Graduates by Subject in MOLVT Formal Training Institutes, Academic Year 2007/2008․98
<Table 2-4> The Number of Teachers in TVET Institutions: Fiscal Year 2007–2008․100
<Table 2-5> Unemployment Rate․105
<Table 4-1> Number of Graduates from the Prime Minister’s Special Fund (2008-2009)․136
<Table 4-2> Number of Graduates from Program Budgeting(2008-2009)․136
<Table 5-1> External Assistance․139
INDONESIA
<Table 1-1> Indonesia General Statistics․154
<Table 1-2> Major Country Destination of Indonesia Migrant Workers․157
<Table 1-3> School Participation Rate, 2009․158
<Table 1-4> Unemployment Rates by Gender, BPS (Statistics Indonesia), and the Ministry of Manpower․164
<Table 1-5> GDP Contributor by Industry, 2008-2009․168
<Table 1-6> Certificate Level I-VI․175
<Table 1-7> Certificate Level VII-IX․176
xx Table Index
<Table 1-8> Student Enrollment by Education Level․177
<Table 1-9> Numbers and Percentage of Drop Outs Including Those Who Do Not Pursue Higher Education․178
<Table 1-10> Central Government Budget, 2010․179
<Table 1-11> Number of Vocational Students, Schools, and Teachers by Province, 2009․182
<Table 1-12> Challenges Faced by Vocational Senior Secondary Schools (SMKs) in Indonesia․186
<Table 1-13> Number of SKKNI in Each Sector․201
<Table 1-14> Various Types of BLK․202
<Table 1-15> Number of Courses and Instructors by Province․203
<Table 1-16> Major TVET Funding․206
LAO PDR
<Table 1-1> Fertility Rates by Location․220
<Table 1-2> Population and TVET and Upper Secondary Technical Enrolments to 2020․221
<Table 1-3> Annual Percent Growth Rate of GDP․222
<Table 1-4> General Education․224
<Table 1-5> Vocational Education and Higher Education․225
<Table 1-6> Educational Attainment of Population 6+ Years by Sex, Lao PDR (Percentages)․226
<Table 1-7> Children out of school․227
<Table 1-8> Public Education Expenditure․227
<Table 1-9> Literacy (Definition: Age 15 and Over Can Read andWrite)․227
<Table 1-10> School Enrollment․228
<Table 1-11> Ratio of Female to Male․228
<Table 1-12> Primary Education․228
Table Index xxi
<Table 1-13> Secondary Education․229
<Table 1-14> Population Aged 10 and Above, by Economic Activity․239
<Table 1-15> Number & Percent of Children and Youth Employed, byAge & Location․240
<Table 1-16> Children and Youth Employed, by Age, Gender, and Location․240
<Table 1-17> Employed and unemployed population aged 15+ years, Lao PDR, 2001-2003․242
<Table 1-18> Labor Force Aged 15+ Years, Lao PDR, 2001-2003․242
<Table 1-19> Employment-to-Population Ratios, Labor Force Participation Rates, Unemployment Rates and Inactivity Rates for Lao PDR, 2001-2003․243
<Table 1-20> Age-Specific Labor Force Participation Rates by Urban and Rural, Lao PDR, 1995․244
<Table 1-21> Unemployment rates by region and sex, 2001-2003․246
<Table 1-22> Unemployed Population by Educational Attainment, Lao PDR, 2001-2003․247
<Table 1-23> Employment by Sector, Lao PDR, 2001-2003․248
<Table 1-24> Employed Population by Status in Employment, Lao PDR․250
<Table 1-25> Hours of Work Per Week, Lao PDR․251
<Table 1-26> Comparative Labor Market Indicators, Southeast Asia․252
<Table 1-27> Lao Labor Market Indicators․253
<Table 4-1> Budget Item․286
MONGOLIA
<Table 1-1> Primary School Enrollment, Pupils in Grades 1-5, Literacy Rate․318
<Table 1-2> TVET Enrollment․318
xxii Table Index
<Table 1-3> Types of Vocational Education/Training and Graduation Documents․337
<Table 1-4> Summary of TVET institutions․340
<Table 1-5> TVET Subject․341
<Table 1-6> Training Subject․341
<Table 1-7> Connection between the Training Types of Vocational Education and Qualifications for the Beginning and Intermediate Levels․346
<Table 1-8> Public Expenditure on Education, 1991, 2002 and 2007․377
<Table 1-9> Current donor commitments for education sector by level․379
PHILIPPINES
<Table 1-1> Philippine Population by Census Year․399
<Table 1-2> Population by Age Group, by Sex and 2000 by Region:2000․400
<Table 1-3> Birth Rate, 2001-2005; 2015/2020․401
<Table 1-4> Household Population 5 Years Old and Over by Highest Educational Attainment 1990, 1995, 2000․402
<Table 1-5> Functional Literacy Rate of Population 10-64 Years Old by Highest Educational Attainment and Sex: Philippines 2008․403
<Table 1-6> Incidence of Poverty, Philippines: 2003 and 2006․404
<Table 1-7> Overseas Filipino Workers: 1991-2009․405
<Table 1-8> Number and Percentage Distribution of Overseas Filipino Workers by Selected Characteristics, Philippines: 2008 and 2009․406
<Table 1-9> OFWs by Major Occupation and by Place of Work: 2008-2009․407
<Table 1-10> Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate 1994-2009․409
<Table 1-11> Gross National Product and Gross Domestic Product By
Table Index xxiii
Industrial Origin: Annual 2008 and 2009 at Current and Constant 1985 prices, in Million Pesos․410
<Table 1-12> Gross National Product and Gross Domestic Product by Industrial Origin: 2nd Quarter 2009 and 2nd Quarter 2010, in Million Pesos․411
<Table 1-13> Key Performance Indicators in Basic Education Basic Education Performance Indicators, 2004-2009․414
<Table 1-14> Elementary and Secondary Enrollment: SY 2000-01 to SY 2008-09․415
<Table 1-15> TVET Enrolled and Graduates: 2001 to 2009․416
<Table 1-16> Higher Education Enrollment: SY 2000-01 to SY 2005-06․416
<Table 1-17> Household Population 15 and Over by Employment Status: 1995-2010․420
<Table 1-18> Employment Rate by Sex, By Age Group: 2000-2010․421
<Table 1-19> Employed Persons by Industry, Occupation, Class of Worker and Hours Worked, Philippines: July 2009 and July 2010 (in Percent)․423
<Table 1-20> Unemployed Person by Age Group, Sex, and Highest Grade Completed, Philippines: July 2009 and 2010․424
<Table 1-21> Persons Assessed and Certified by Priority Sector: 2005-2009․425
<Table 1-22> Enrolment and Graduates of Degree Program by Discipline: 2007-2009․426
<Table 1-23> Hard-to-Fill and In-Demand Occupations․428
<Table 1-24> TESDA Foreign Assisted Projects (‘000 pesos): 2005-2009․462
SRI LANKA
<Table 1-1> Summery of the 2010 Sri Lankan Parliamentary Election․485
<Table 1-2> Population․491
xxiv Table Index
<Table 1-3> Demography․491
<Table 1-4> National Accounts․492
<Table 1-5> The system awards qualifications of seven levels as given below.․526
<Table 1-6> Enrollment rate (2006-2009)․536
<Table 1-7> Student enrollment and output statistics․538
<Table 1-8> Particulars of teaching and training staff in major organizations functioning under the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training at the end of 2009․544
<Table 1-9> Statistics for 2009․547
<Table 1-10> Historical Table of Labor Force Status (Current) of the Household Population. 10 Years of Age and Over–Both Sexes․547
<Table 1-11> Historical Table of Labor Force Status (Current) of the Household Population. 10 Years of Age and Over–Male.․549
<Table 1-12> Historical Table of Labor Force Status (Current) of the Household Population. 10 Years of Age and Over–Female.․550
VIETNAM
<Table 1-1> Population in 2000-2008․570
<Table 1-2> Gross Domestic Product at Current Prices by EconomicSector․571
<Table 1-3> Gross Domestic Product at Current Prices by Ownership and by Kind of Economic Activity․573
<Table 1-4> Number of Schools and Classes of General Education as of 30 September․576
<Table 1-5> Number of Teachers & Pupils of General Education (Dec)․577
<Table 1-6> University & College Education․579
<Table 1-7> Labor Force in 2000-2008․583
Table Index xxv
<Table 1-8> Number of Employment 2000-2008․585
<Table 1-9> Employment by Industry on 1/7/2008․586
<Table 1-10> Employment by Kind of Job in 2000-2008․587
<Table 1-11> Employment by Position-Based in 2000-2008․588
<Table 1-12> Structure of Workers by Ownership in 2004-2008․589
<Table 1-13> Employment by Occupation Performed in 2008․590
<Table 1-14> Vocational Training Enrollment Targets and Scale in 2001-2008․599
<Table 1-15> Number of Vocational Training Schools, Vocational Training Centers, and Others, as of 30 June 2009.․600
<Table 1-16> Number and Structure of Vocational Training Trainers by Qualification in 2008․601
<Table 1-17> Number and Qualification of Vocational Training Managerial Cadre in 2000-2008․602
<Table 1-18> State Budget Spending on Vocational Training in 2001-2008․618
xxvi Figure index
[Figure Index]
BANGLADESH
[Figure 1-1] Population change from 1960 to 2009․6
[Figure 1-2] Demographic evolution of the territory of Bangladesh (1900-2010)․11
[Figure 1-3] Gross Domestic Product․16
[Figure 1-4] Year wise overseas employment․26
[Figure 1-5] Country-wise migration․29
[Figure 2-1] Year Wise Enrollment in SSC (Voc)․35
[Figure 4-1] Overview of the Funding Sources of Public and Private Institutions․62
CAMBODIA
[Figure 1-1] The Annual Population Growth Rate․80
[Figure 1-2] Cambodia’s Real GDP Growth Rate․83
[Figure 1-3] Student Plan after higher school․92
[Figure 1-4] How high school students make decision for highereducation․92
[Figure 1-5] Reasons for not continuing after high school․93
[Figure 2-1] Population Age Pyramid 2008․102
[Figure 2-2] Labor Force Participation Rate, for Workers Aged 15 and Older․103
[Figure 2-3] Employment-to-Population Ratios for Workers Aged 15 and Older․104
[Figure 3-1] MOLVT Organizational Structure․109
[Figure 6-1] The Rectangular Strategy for Growth, Employment, Equity, and Efficiency in Cambodia․145
[Figure 6-2] Proposed TVET System․146
Figure index xxvii
[Figure 6-3] The TVET System 25 Year Development Plan in Cambodia 1996-2020․147
INDONESIA
[Figure 1-1] Indonesia Population by Age Group and Gender, 2005․155
[Figure 1-2] Indonesia Economic Growth 1997-2009․159
[Figure 1-3] Informal Workers, Urban and Rural․162
[Figure 1-4] Workers by Industry, 2009․163
[Figure 1-5] Number of Unemployed Higher Education Graduates․167
[Figure 1-6] The Future Trend of Manufacturing Industries․169
[Figure 1-7] The Indonesian Education System․173
[Figure 1-8] Indonesia’s National Qualification Framework․174
[Figure 1-9] SMK Roadmap․185
[Figure 1-10] Wage Ration SMK/SMU by Main Occupation․188
[Figure 1-11] SMK Teaching Industry Scheme․190
[Figure 1-12] SMK Student Enrollments by Study Program․191
[Figure 1-13] Competency Certification Scheme in TEVT․195
[Figure 1-14] Three in One Scheme․197
[Figure 1-15] Lifelong Learning Scheme․200
LAO PDR
[Figure 1-1] Population Pyramid, 2005․220
[Figure 1-2] Population and TVET & Upper Secondary Technical Enrollments to 2020․221
[Figure 1-3] Proportion of the Population Aged 15+ That Cannot Read or Write by Residence and Sex, 2002-2003․230
{Figure 1-4] Labour force participation rates․245
[Figure 1-5] Distribution of GDP and Employment, Lao PDR, 2003․249
[Figure 1-6] Status in Employment, Lao PDR․251
xxviii Figure index
MONGOLIA
[Figure 1-1] GDP Growth․316
[Figure 1-2] Percentage of Enrollment in Post Secondary Education․319
[Figure 1-3] Percentage distribution of education enrollment of 5-to 29-year-olds among levels of formal education․320
[Figure 1-4] Educational Pyramid․321
[Figure 1-5] Labor Market Demand Ratio by Education Level (prepared by the State Employment Agency)․328
[Figure 1-6] Framework of the Mongolian Education System․334
[Figure 1-7] Mongolia’s Education System․335
[Figure 1-8] TVET System․336
[Figure 1-9] TVET Professional Development Training System․338
[Figure 1-10] TVET TEACHERS 2009-2010․343
[Figure 1-11] Financing of TVET․375
[Figure 1-12] 2006 revenue sources by sector (%)․376
[Figure 1-13] Percentage of TVET budget in the Total budget foreducation․378
PHILIPPINES
[Figure 1-1] Philippine Education System․412
[Figure 1-2] The TVET Development Loop to Employability․432
[Figure 1-3] Average Annual Education Budget, 2005-2009․462
SRI LANKA
[Figure 1-1] The Education and Training System of Vietnam․575
[Figure 1-2] Labor Force 2000-2008 (In Millions of Persons)․581
[Figure 1-3] Structure of Workforce by Region and Sex․582
[Figure 1-4] Unemployment Rate 2002 - 2009 (%)․584
BANGLADESH
BANGLADESH 3
Chapter 1
TVET Policy, Experience, and Trends in Bangladesh
Introduction:
Bangladesh is one of the world’s most densely populated
countries. More than 159 million people (2007) live in this country.
90% of Bangladeshis are Muslim, and the remainder is Hindu,
Buddhist, and Christian. About 45 percent of the population is under
the age of 15. Natural disasters, such as cyclones and severe
flooding, occur with regular frequency, causing damage, disease, and
loss of food crops. Yet during the last 12 years, Bangladesh has
made important development gains. Both population growth and the
incidence of poverty have steadily declined, and the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) has averaged a 6 percent growth rate per year. The
proportion of the population living below the national poverty line
has fallen to 40 percent in 2005, from 59 percent in 1991. Considerable
progress has been made toward achieving the Millennium Development
Goals (MDG), especially in the health and education sectors.
4 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Section 1. Context and Background
The territory constituting Bangladesh was under Hinduism before
1200 AD. From 1201 to 1751, over five and half centuries,
Bangladesh was under Muslim (Mohammedan) rule. The British
ruled the Indian sub-continent including this territory from 1757 to
1947 for nearly 190 years. In August 1947, with termination of
British rule, the sub-continent was partitioned into the nations of
India and Pakistan (based on religion). Bangladesh was a part of
Pakistan and was known as East Pakistan. On December 16, 1971,
after much bloodshed in the war of liberation, an independent
“Bangladesh” and sovereign state, declared her presence on the
world map.
1. Political and Socio-cultural Context
Bangladesh is democratic country. Multiparty democracy is
practiced in Bangladesh. The socio-cultural context of Bangladesh
may be characterized by the low status of women, and the low
literacy rate. The constitution of Bangladesh states that there will
be no discrimination on the basis of gender. The government has
also signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and ratified
the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination.
The female economic activity rate is 36 percent in the country, as
compared to the South Asian average of 43 percent (UNDP, 2004).
The literacy rates for women are 31.8% and for men, 53.9%.
BANGLADESH 5
Education expenditures represented 2.7% of GDP in 2005.
<Table 1-1> Government System of the Country
Government System Parliamentary DemocracyHead of State PresidentHead of Government Prime Minister (PM)
2. Population and Demographics
The country’s population is almost evenly distributed throughout
its 64 districts, except for the three Hill Tracts districts which are
rather sparsely inhabited. Regionally, the eastern districts have a
slightly higher density than the western ones. On average, a district
has a population of about 1.8 million; an upazila/thana, 230,000; a
union, 25,000; and a village, 2,000. There are 490 upazila/thana;
4,451 unions; and 59,990 villages. There are 4 metropolitan cities
and 119 municipalities in the country. The level of urbanization is
low at 20%. This leaves 80% of the country’s total population of
about 120 million to live in the rural areas which primarily depend
on a poorly developed agricultural system for livelihood. The capital
city of Dhaka has an estimated population of 8.58 million.
3. Population Change
The population of Bangladesh is 162,220,762, i.e. approximately
162 million. (Source: World Bank, 2009). The population change is
shown in the following graph.
6 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
[Figure 1-1] Population change from 1960 to 2009
4. Demographics of Bangladesh
1. Official Name: The People’s Republic of Bangladesh
2. State Religion: Islam, other religions practiced in peace and
harmony.
3. State Language: Bangla (Bengali)
4. National Anthem: The first line of national anthem is “Amar
Sonar Bangla ……”.
5. National Flag: Red colored circle at the center of a green
rectangle. The length to width ratio of the rectangle is 10:6, and
the circle has a radius of one fifth of the length of rectangle.
6. National Emblem: The national flower “Shapla” (nymphea-
nouchali) resting on water and having on each side pair of
paddy ships surmounted by three connected Jute leaves that are
adorned with two stars on each side.
7. Capital: Dhaka
200M
100M
01960 2009
BANGLADESH 7
8. Nationality: Bangladeshi
9. Name of Currency: Taka (TK.),
Notes: Taka 1000, 500, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 & 1
Coins: Taka 5, 2, 1 and Paisa 50, 25, 10, 5, 2 &1
10. Geographical Location: Between 20o34' and 26o38' north
latitude and between 88o01' and 92o41' east longitude.
11. Boundary: North: India
West: India
South: Bay of Bengal
East: India and Myanmar
12. Area: 56977 sq. miles or 1,47,570 sq. km.
13. Territorial Water: 12 nautical miles.
14. Main Seasons: Summer (March-May), Rainy Season (June-
September) and winter (December-February)
15. Climatic Variations (Average):
<Table 1-2> Climatic Variations
Season Temperature Rainfall RelativeHumiditymaximum minimum
Pre MonsoonMonsoonPost MonsoonWinterAnnual
32.6℃31.5℃30.5℃26.5℃30.4℃
22.4℃25.5℃21.4℃13.9℃21.2℃
453㎜1733㎜210㎜44㎜
203㎜
74%86%80%73%78%
16. Standard Time: GMT+6 hours
17. Main rivers: The Padma, Meghna, Jamuna, Brahmaputra,
Teesta, Surma and Karnaphuli (Total 230 rivers)
8 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
18. Main Seasonal Crops and Fruits: Paddy, Jute, Wheat, Tobacco,
Pulses, Oil seeds, Tea, Spices, Vegetables, Jack-fruit, Banana,
Mango, Coconut.
In Bangladesh population size has been increasing continuously,
although there is decline in the annual growth rate of the population.
There are fewer women then men, creating a gender gap that has
persisted over the decade. The distribution of population from
1990-2010 is shown in the table below.
<Table 1-3> Population Change/Year (By Age and Gender) Population
(in Millions):
Year Age group (years) Women Men Total(millions) Source
1990 All Age group - - 109.8200 “Populstat”website
1991 All Age group - - 107.9921 〃
1992 All Age group - - 112.8320 〃
1993 All Age group - - 116.7020 〃
1994 All Age group - - 117.7870 〃
1995 All Age group - - 121.1010 〃
1996 All Age group - - 123.0630 〃
1997 All Age group - - 123.6330 〃
1998 All Age group - - 125.6290 〃
1999 All Age group - - 127.6690 〃
2000 All Age group 63.0000 66.3000 129.3000 SVRS
2001
<15 24.2794 26.9071
130.0000Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
15-49 32.0790 32.275150+ 06.5415 07.9178
Total 62.9000 67.1000
BANGLADESH 9
Year Age group (years) Women Men Total(millions) Source
2002
<15 24.6507 26.3252
132.9000
Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics and SVRS
15-49 33.1264 33.349850+ 06.9229 08.2550
Total 64.7000 68.2000
2003
<15 24.8346 26.5344
134.8000
Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics and SVRS
15-49 33.7698 33.859050+ 07.0956 08.7066
Total 65.7000 69.1000
2004
<15 24.9750 26.7782
136.7000
Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics and SVRS
15-49 34.3656 34.419150+ 07.2594 08.9027
Total 66.6000 70.1000
2005
<15 25.2014 27.1015
139.4315
Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics and SVRS
15-49 34.8051 35.303350+ 08.1053 08.9149
Total 68.1118 71.3197
2006
<15 24.7646 26.6400
140.6000
Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics and SVRS
15-49 35.6720 36.000050+ 08.1634 09.3600
Total 68.600 72.000
2007
<15 23.8385 26.0236
142.6000
Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics and SVRS
15-49 3690.45 37.207950+ 08.7570 09.8685
Total 69.5000 73.1000
2008
<15 - -
144.5000 SVRS15-49 - -50+ - -
Total 70.5000 74.0000
2009
<15 23.5339 24.9580
147.3653 From Wikipedia
15-64 45.9176 47.862865+ 02.3614 02.7316
Total 71.8129 75.5524
2010
<15 - -
153.4370 “Populstat”website
15-64 - -65+ - -
Total - -
10 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
The following table lists various recent estimates of the population.
The baseline for population studies on Bangladesh is the official
census which is conducted every 10 years, the last being in 2001.
<Table 1-4> Population Change / Birth Rate Change:
LocalityYear
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004National 19 18.9 20.1 20.9 20.8
Rural 20.8 20.7 21 21.7 21.6Urban 13.7 13.6 16.6 17.9 17.8
Year Life at Birth(ex°) by GenderBoth Sex Male Female Male-Female
1991-Base year 56.1 56.5 55.7 (+) 0.81992 56.3 56.8 55.91993 57.9 58.2 57.71994 58.0 58.2 57.91995 58.7 58.4 58.11996 58.9 59.1 58.61997 60.1 60.3 59.71998 61.5 61.7 61.21999 62.7 63.0 62.42000 63.6 63.7 63.52001 64.2 64.0 64.52002 64.9 64.5 65.42003 64.9 64.3 65.42004 65.1 64.4 65.72005 65.2 64.4 65.82006 66.5 65.4 67.82007 66.6 65.5 67.9
2008-Current Year 66.8 65.6 68.0 (-) 2.4
BANGLADESH 11
Source Year Population (millions)National Census 1991 112National Census 2001 129UN Population Fund 2003 150UN Dept Economic and Social Affairs 2005 142US State Dept 2005 144Population Reference Bureau 2005 144CIA World FactBook 2006 147UN Population Fund 2006 144CIA World FactBook 2007 150UN 2007 159World Bank 2008 160CIA World FactBook 2010 156World Population Reference 2010 164
5. Population Growth Rate
Bangladesh had one of the highest rates of population growth in
the world in the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, however, it has seen
a marked reduction in its total fertility rate. Over a period of three
decades it dropped from 6.2 to 3.2%, according to UNDP figures
from 2003. [Figure 1-2] Demographic evolution of the territory of Bangladesh (1900-2010)
12 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Pop. growth rate:1.292% (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 104
Birth rate:24.68 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 71
Death rate:8 deaths/1,000 population (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 82
Net migration rate:-2.53 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 145
Total fertility rate:2.74 children born/woman (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 82
6. Urban and Rural
The sprawling mega-city of Dhaka has a huge population, but the
majority of the people nonetheless still live in villages in rural areas.
Urban population: 27% of total population (2009 est.)
Rate of urbanization: 3.5% annual rate of change (2005-2010 est.)
7. Gender ratio
At birth: 1.04 male(s)/female
Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 0.9 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.94 male(s)/female
BANGLADESH 13
8. Migration
Migration Scenario of Bangladesh:
Overseas Employment officially started in 1976. Now migration
extends to 132 countries. Women’s migration is 5%; skilled and
semi-skilled migration is 47%. Remittance was US $ 10.72 b in
2009. It is 13% of GDP & 5 times of ODA.
<Table 1-5> Female Migration from Bangladesh
Year Number Year Number1991 2189 2001 6591992 1907 2002 12161993 1793 2003 23531994 1995 2004 112591995 1612 2005 135701996 1994 2006 180451997 1762 2007 190941998 939 2008 208271999 366 2009 222242000 554
Source: BMET
The migration rate by gender and direction of migration for 2007
is presented in the table below. The reasons for migration by gender
are included.
14 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-6> The migration rate by gender and direction of migration for 2007Figures in Percentages
Year Direction Reason Women Men2007 Rural In-migration Total 100.0 100.0
Marriage 33.8 1.3Education 2.0 3.8Looking for job 7.9 24.1Getting job 1.1 3.5Others 55.3 67.3
Rural to Rural Total 100.0 100.0Marriage 33.8 1.3Education 2.0 3.8Looking for job 7.9 24.1Getting job 1.1 3.5Others 55.3 67.3
Urban to Rural Total 100.0 100.0Marriage 18.7 1.0Education 3.1 4.7Looking for job 12.1 30.7Getting job 1.5 4.8Others 64.6 58.8
Urban In-migration Total 100.0 100.0Marriage 6.9 0.7Education 2.1 2.3Looking for job 8.3 21.2Getting job 1.4 4.0Others 81.3 71.8
Urban-Urban Total 100.0 100.0Marriage 12.8 1.6Education 0.9 0.8Looking for job 5.2 12.4Getting job 0.6 1.9Others 80.5 83.3
Rural-Urban Total 100.0 100.0Marriage 5.7 0.5Education 2.3 2.6Looking for job 8.8 23.0Getting job 1.6 4.4Others 81.4 69.5
source: SVRS, 2007, BBS(Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics)
BANGLADESH 15
9. Poverty Rate
With regard to financial means and options, it should also be taken
into account that poverty is still persistent, since 40% of the
population lives below the poverty line (MoF, PPP-paper, 2009) and
many more citizens, just above. There is a growing East-West
difference in poverty; while poverty rates are declining in eastern
and southern Bangladesh, they are persistent in western and northern
areas. Poverty is particularly declining in the Dhaka division,
followed by Chittagong and Sylhet (World Bank 2008, p.13).
Although polytechnic education has a relatively high share of the
TVET students in these divisions, particularly in the latter two,
TVET probably does not contribute a lot to this development, due
to modest numbers.
<Table 1-7> Incidence of Poverty by Locality Over Time (CBN Method)
Poverty Level/Locality 1991-92 1995-96 2000 2005 Target-2015
Upper Poverty line: Rural Urban
58.742.7
54.527.8
52.335.2
43.828.4
28.3
Lower Poverty Line: Rural Urban
43.723.6
39.413.7
37.920.0
28.614.6
20.5
Data source: SIES, BBS (Bangladesh bureau of statistic)
10. Economy (GDP): 2004-2009
Bangladesh’s GDP is expected to grow by 5.7% in 2010,
following 5.9% growth in 2009. The global economic downturn has
16 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
reduced demand for Bangladesh exports. Merchandise exports
decreased 7.7% year on year as of November 2009. In April 2009,
the government announced a $500 million stimulus package to spur
economic growth and placed emphasis on public-private partnerships.
The United States and Bangladesh have had discussions over the
possibility of a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA),
or a U.S.-Bangladesh Economic and Trade Cooperation Forum
(UBETCF). Bangladesh would like to increase market access for its
products in the United States. There are an estimated 6 million
Bangladeshis working abroad. They are estimated to have sent $9.7
billion to Bangladesh in 2008-2009, making Bangladesh one of the
world’s largest sources of overseas workers. This represents an
increase of 22.4% year to year. Remittances are a significant source
of revenue and are expected to decline in 2009-2010, due to the
global economic downturn.
[Figure 1-3] Gross Domestic Product
BANGLADESH 17
11. Education
Literacy
Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
Total population: 43.1%
Male: 53.9%
Female: 31.8% (2003 est.)
Education expenditures
2.7% of GDP (2005)
country comparison to the world: 151
Education is the priority sector, for which the Bangladesh
government plays a significant role. Essential for the nation’s
development, education has been considered one of the most
important and effective strategies for human resource development,
poverty alleviation, and socioeconomic health. It is critical at this
time to transform the huge population into a productive human
resource through human communication and coordination, with
education and training linked to new and emerging technologies. The
government, with this goal in mind, has sustained development
endeavors through educational expansion and quality improvement
in different sub-sectors of education.
18 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
12. Education Attainment of Population by Gender and Age, Literacy
<Table 1-8> Literacy rate (%) of population 7 years and over by gender and age
1995-2007
Years National Rural UrbanWomen Men Women Men Women Men
1995 28.5 50.4 26.4 40.8 54.9 69.61997 37.5 53.6 35.3 44.5 60.6 70.21999 39.0 53.7 36.1 46.2 62.4 70.32000 40.7 53.9 37.9 48.0 62.5 71.32001 40.8 49.6 36.7 44.4 54.8 64.92002 44.5 52.8 41.0 49.3 58.8 67.32003 44.9 53.1 41.4 49.7 58.8 67.32004 46.2 53.7 42.9 50.2 60.2 68.12005 48.8 55.4 45.0 51.6 60.0 67.02006 49.1 55.8 45.3 51.9 60.5 67.52007 52.7 59.4 48.7 55.5 64.5 71.1
Adult literacy rates are given as follows:
<Table 1-9> Adult Literacy of Population of 15 Years and Over by Gender,
1991-2008
Year Adult Literacy of Population of 15 Years and Over by GenderBoth sexes Female Male
1991 37.2 43.3 25.81995 45.3 55.6 38.11997 51.2 59.4 42.21998 52.6 59.4 42.51999 52.7 60.7 42.82000 52.8 61.0 43.22001 47.5 53.9 40.82002 49.6 55.5 43.42003 50.3 56.3 44.22004 51.6 57.2 45.82005 53.5 58.3 48.62006 53.7 58.5 48.82007 58.3 63.1 53.52008 59.1 63.4 54.7
Target-2015 100 100 100Data Source: SVRS, BBS
BANGLADESH 19
Goals, Targets and Indicators (revised) Base year1990/1991
CurrentStatus
Targetby 2015
Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty & HungerTarget 1.A: Halve, Between 1990 & 2015, the Proportion of People Below the Poverty Line1.1 : Proportion of population below national upper poverty line (2122 k.cal.), percent
56.6 40.0(2005)
29.0
1.2 Poverty Gap Ratio, percent 17.0 9.0(2005)
8.0
1.3 Share of poorest quintile in national consumption, percent
6.5 5.3(2005)
Na
It is estimated that there are around 40 million illiterate adults in
the 11-45 age range in the country. As shown in the following table,
only half the population is considered literate.
<Table 1-10> Adult (15-45 yr old) Literacy Rates
Sex Rural(%)
Urban(%)
Total(%)
Male 46.1 56.7 48.6Female 46.7 57.1 49.1Total 46.4 56.9 48.8
* Source: NFE Mapping Report-2009
The implication is that a huge expansion of NFE (Non-formal
Education), offering both literacy and skills’ development, is
required to address the challenge of facilitating improvements in the
livelihoods of this huge group of citizens.
13. National Development Plan and Strategies in General
<Table 1-11> MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS :
BANGLADESH PROGRESS AT A GLANCE
20 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Target 1.B: Achieve Full & Productive Employment & Decent Work for All, Including Women & Young People1.1 Employment to population ratio, Percent 48.5 58.5
(2005)for all
Target 1.C : Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the Proportion of People Who Suffer from Hunger1.2 Prevalence of underweight children under five years
66.0 47.8(2005) #
33.0
1.3 Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption, percent
28.0 19.5(2005)
14.0
Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary EducationTarget 2.A : Ensure That, by 2015, Children Everywhere, Boys & Girls Alike, Will Be Able to Complete a Full Course of Primary Schooling2.1 Net enrollment in primary education, percent 60.5 91.1
(2007)100
2.2 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5, percent
40.7 79.8(2009)
100
2.3 Adult literacy rate of 15+ years old population (proxy), percent
Adult literacy rate of 15-24 years old population (Female), percent
37.2 59.1(2008)
72.0(2009)
-
-
Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality & Empower WomenTarget 3.A : Eliminate Gender Disparity in Primary & Secondary Education, Preferably by 2005, & in All Levels of Education No Later than 20153.1a Ratio of girls to boys in primary education (Gender Parity Index=Girls/Boys)
0.83 1.03(2009)
1.0
3.1b : Ratio of girls to boys in secondary education (Gender Parity Index=Girls/Boys)
0.52 1.17(2009)
1.0
3.1c : Ratio of girls to boys in tertiary education (Gender Parity Index=Girls/Boys)
0.37 0.61(2006)
1.0
3.2 Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector, percent
19.1 14.6(2005)
50
3.3 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament, percent
12.7 19.0(2009)
33
(Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics)
BANGLADESH 21
Section 2. Employment and Labor Market
Employment provides the key link between economic growth and
poverty, making it the major tool for poverty reduction in
Bangladesh. Bangladesh experienced a steady rise in GDP growth
during the last five years (2003-2007), when it grew at an average
annual rate of more than 6 percent, compared with 5 percent over
the previous five years.
1. Bangladesh’s Export Sector
Recent studies indicate that women in Bangladesh constitute the
majority of the incremental labor absorption in the country’s export-
oriented manufacturing enterprises. It is also generally believed that
cheap and readily employable female labor underpins the competitive
advantage of Bangladesh’s export sector.
To understand the nature of women’s employment in Bangladesh,
we need to examine the factors that contributed to the feminization
of manufacturing employment. Is it the gender gap in the effective
wage structure that underpins the growth of female labor in
Bangladesh? Are they paid less than men for similar jobs, even when
productivity differentials are accounted for? Why do entrepreneurs
prefer employing young, single, literate women? Does this preference
stem from supposedly lower wages of women, or other non-wage
factors, such as their social docility and amenability to repetitive
22 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
processes? Available information suggests that conventional measures
of gender bias, such as wage gaps, access to employment, and lack
of job security, are relatively less conspicuous in more organized
segments of Bangladesh’s manufacturing sector.
Let us test the above context though a case study. New Age Group
is a leading exporter of RMG (ready made garments) from Bangladesh
that employ over 4000 people, 70% of whom are women. The table
below outlines employment in their three production facilities,
broken down into varying skill groups. The last column of the table
shows the discrimination index of average wages of the various
groups of employees, as compared with their male counterparts.
<Table 1-12> Employment in RMG sector
Employment Gender Discrimination indexGroup Male Female Male Female
Supervisors 183 10 100 79Sewing Dept 308 1370 100 97
Finishing Dept 241 205 100 88Cutting Dept 174 23 100 89
QC Dept 174 53 100 95Helpers 152 1087 100 100
2. Labor Market
The Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS 2008) has recently
published the Labour Force Survey (LFS) 2005-06, which provides
insight into several relevant issues. In relative terms, employment
is shifting from agriculture to industry and, particularly, to services
BANGLADESH 23
sector jobs, though employment in the agricultural sector is still
growing at a rate of 0.7%. Yet, job growth rates in the industry and
services sectors are higher, with 3.9 and 5.4% respectively. In the
industry sector, construction, in particular, is the job driver (+7.5%),
while growth in manufacturing (+2.8%) is lower. Actually, the share
of agricultural jobs is 46%, while that of the services sector is largely
unchanged (23%). Service sector employment increased to 31%. The
LFS 2005-06 (p. 53) clearly indicates that the share of the labor force
engaged in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, and fishing) is
almost unchanged, though slightly diminishing. Of some interest is
the gender difference; women get more involved, and men, less.
Most industry areas, such as manufacturing (average growth rate:
+6.4%), wholesale, retail, and vehicle repair (+5.2%) show higher
labor force numbers, as well as shares and are, therefore, growing,
while construction (-0.4%), electricity, gas, and water supply (-8.1%)
are decreasing. Almost all service areas, except public administration
and defense (-3.7%) and health and social work (-10.4%), are of
increasing importance. Hotels, restaurants (+8.1%), logistics (9.7%),
real estate (7.2%) and, particularly, financial intermediation (+31.5%)
are growing labor market segments. Yet, it should be noted that the
size of these segments is different. For example, while 23 million
people are employed in agriculture, hunting and forestry, financial
intermediation accounts for 220,000 jobs. Finally, it should be noted
that Bangladesh is a big exporter of labor force. Remittances from
overseas employment are currently higher than the export income of
any one industrial sector.
24 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
3. Demography and the Labor Market
One of the biggest challenges for the labor market is the increasing
number of young people. Due to demography, the size of the labor
force will increase strongly over the next years. Between 2005 and
2015, the working age population will grow by about 22 million
people (p. 20f). Thus, to cope with this growth of unskilled,
semi-skilled and (highly)-skilled labor, the job market will have to
increase at a substantial rate. This demographic growth will surely
affect all areas of education, though at different levels and times.
Given the different qualification levels required in the economy, this
pattern suggests a well-structured strategy covering the whole range
of skills, from basic vocational, to highly-skilled vocational and
technical. As far as it can be established, the delivery of basic
vocational and technical skills is far more prevalent in other
ministries than education.
4. Migration and Overseas Employment
Although migration is considered an option for coping with the
demographic challenge, this is only one side of the coin. At the
moment, the number of Bangladeshis working abroad seems to be
relatively modest, with less than 560,000 estimated to be working
overseas in April 2009 (Byron 2009). Prior to the economic crisis
which began in early 2008, the number was 875,000 (BMET). On
the other side of the coin is the potential risk that, in the long run,
particularly the better educated will leave the country to work abroad.
BANGLADESH 25
With regard to the ambitious goal of achieving growth rates of
10% and more within 10 years, an increasingly skilled labor force
is required. In fact, the strategy of increasing skill levels should not
be to look at the formal education sector only, but also at the
non-formal, as well as the informal sector of education, including
technical and vocational education and training.
Bangladesh is a small country of around 1,47,570 sq. km., with
76 per cent of total population living in rural areas. Despite the
significant effort undertaken by the GOB to reduce poverty, around
half of the rural population is still poor. To make the country
economically sustainable, manpower export is very essential. Year
wise overseas employment (1976 – 2010 Aug) is shown below.
<Table 1-13> Year Wise Overseas Employment (1976 – 2010 Aug)Year Number Year Number Year Number1976 6087 1988 68121 2000 2226861977 15725 1989 101724 2001 1889651978 22809 1990 103814 2002 2252561979 24495 1991 147173 2003 2541901980 30073 1992 188124 2004 2729581981 55787 1993 244508 2005 2527021982 62762 1994 186326 2006 3815161983 59220 1995 187543 2007 8326091984 56714 1996 211714 2008 8750551985 77694 1997 231077 2009 4752781986 68658 1998 2676671987 74017 1999 268182
Source: BMET Up to August 2010: 2,62,000
26 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
[Figure 1-4] Year wise overseas employment
0100000200000300000400000500000600000700000800000900000
100000019
9819
9920
0020
0120
0220
0320
0420
0520
0620
0720
0820
09
Series1
5. Employment and Labor Market Information Table
According to the Labor Force Survey (LFS) by Bangladesh Bureau
of Statistics, the labor force aged 15 years and over by sex and
locality 1995-2006 is shown in the following table (numbers in
millions).
BANGLADESH 27
<Table 1-14> Labour force aged 15 years and over by sex and locality,
1995-2006(in Million)
Period &Source
National Rural UrbanWomen Men Women Men Women Men
1995-96 LPS 5.4 30.6 3.8 23.9 1.6 6.71999-2000 LPS 8.6 32.2 6.4 25.1 2.2 7.12002-03 LPS 10.3 35.0 7.7 27.3 2.7 8.62005-06 LPS 12.1 37.3 9.3 28.4 2.8 8.9Source: Labour Force Survey, 2002-2003 and 2005-2006, BBS
<Table 1-15> CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE
EmploymentStatus
Year1999-2000 2002-2003
Total 45043 46324Employed 42818 44322Unemployed 2225 2002Source: Labor Force Survey, BBS. (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics)
<Table 1-16> SECTOR WISE EMPLOYMENT (Age : 15+)(Million)
Major Industry Total Urban RuralTotal 47324 10722 33599Agriculture, Forestry. 21887 2777 19109Fisheries 1044 108 936Mining & Quarrying 82 8 73Electricity, Gas, Water 98 49 49Construction 1541 558 983Trade, Hotel, Restaurant 9671 2449 4222Transport, Storage and Communication 3015 1000 2015Bank, Insurance & Finance 223 155 68Manufacturing 4343 1505 2838Community Personal Service, 2549 827 1722Household Sector & Others Real Estate, Rent, Business Activities 194 106 87Public Administration 988 529 459Education Service 1185 434 751Health & Social Work 504 217 287Source : Labour Force Survey 2002-03, BBS. (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics)
28 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-17> GROWTH RATE OF LABOR FORCE BY LOCALITY
(YEAR 2002-03).
Locality Both Sex Male FemaleBangladesh 4.4 3.8 6.5
Urban 6.9 6.7 7.6
Rural 3.6 2.9 6.2
Source : Labour Force Survey 2002-03, BBS. (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics)
6. Skill Supply and Demand (Overall Marketplace Requisite
Skills)
In the globalization era, it is necessary for us all to survive in
an international environment. Therefore, Bangladeshi Human Resources
seeks to constantly improve current skills and acquire new ones.
Twenty-first century skills require the acquisition and evaluation of
data; the organization and maintenance of files; and the interpretation,
communication, and use of computerized information. An understanding
of social, organizational, and technological systems; monitoring and
correcting performance; and designing or improving systems are the
skills that vitalize an evolving workforce. Technology has become
unavoidable, so much so that selecting equipment and tools; applying
technology to specific tasks; and maintaining and troubleshooting
technological devices are necessary skills for an average employee.
These significant skills are discussed under the following categories.
1. Technical skills
2. Analytical skills
BANGLADESH 29
3. Communication skills
4. Multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary skills
7. Country Wise Overseas Employment (1976 – 2009) : Top 10 countries
[Figure 1-5] Country-wise migration
Skill Mismatch / Skill Shortage:
Bangladesh is struggling to respond to the skills’ needs of their
workforce. The skill mismatch and skill shortage are caused by
numerous factors, outlined below:
1. Increasing globalization;
2. New technology/changing technology;
3. Changing patterns of work;
4. Mismatch between training and skills required;
30 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
5. Mismatch between demand and supply;
6. Lack of adequate industry participation;
7. Recognition of qualification;
8. Inadequate number of trainers;
9. Inadequate vocational training infrastructure;
10. Low employment outcome of graduates;
11. Resources (who will fund and maintain);
12. Upgrading of tools and equipment;
13. Poor relationship with industry/employer and institutions; and
14. Lack of tripartite (government, employer and worker) approach.
8. New Demands: Industry and Government Policy
The demand for workers from Bangladesh in the coming years will
depend on many factors, among them: the prospect of economic
growth of the labor receiving countries, especially in the gulf region,
the principal destination of short term Bangladesh workers; availability
of cheap labor in Bangladesh; the skill development program of the
government; and, of course, government initiatives to introduce
discipline and transparency in the migration process.
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the
world. The agricultural sector employs approximately 63% of the
workforce and accounts for 19.9% of GDP, while industry employs
11% and contributes 20.6% of GDP. Services account for 26% of
the labor force and 59.5% of GDP. The major crop is rice, in which
Bangladesh is nearly self-sufficient. Industry is centered mainly on
BANGLADESH 31
cotton textiles, jute manufacturing, and food processing. Ready-made
garments and knitwear are important exports for Bangladesh. Foreign
exchange earnings from remittances by Bangladeshis working abroad
are another key source of income for Bangladesh.
BANGLADESH 33
Chapter 2
TVET Systems by Target Group: Adults, Teachers,
Trainers, and Enterprises
Section 1. TVET Systems by Target Group
Access to education, training, and lifelong learning will be
promoted for people with nationally identified special needs, such
as youth, low-skilled people, people with disabilities (PWD),
migrants, and internally displaced people, older workers, indigenous
people, ethnic minority groups, the socially excluded; and/or workers
in small and medium-sized enterprises, the informal economy, rural
sector, and self-employment.
Section 2. TVET for Students by Level of Education
Levels of education in Bangladesh are categorized as follows:
34 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
(a) Primary level
(b) Secondary level
(c) Higher Secondary level
(d) Higher level
Primary education in Bangladesh ensures the children acquire the
four basic skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. But the
reality is that 9 out of 100 children never enroll in any primary
schools. 45% of the enrolled children do not complete primary cycle.
Learning achievements are very poor.
<Table 2-1> GROSS ENROLLMENT RATE FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL BY SEX
AND LOCALITY
Locality GER (Gross Enrolment Rate) 2004 2003 Boys Girls Boys Girls
National 104.8 102.30 106.90 104.80Rural 106.2 103.10 107.90 105.60Urban 99.3 98.70 101.20 100.60
Source : SVRS 2004, BBS.
In the existing education system there is scope for vocational
education for the primary level student.
Secondary Level: Vocational and Academic School Rate,
Apprenticeship, Enrollment Rate
Enrollments and Passing Rates of the SSC Vocational
Examination are given below:
BANGLADESH 35
<Table 2-2> Passing rates and growth rates of the SSC
Year No ofInstitute
No of Student appearingSSC (Voc)
Pass rate(%)
Growth rate(%)
2000 427 14560 61.85 -2001 535 20055 57.16 37.742002 680 25590 43.45 27.602003 687 31627 38,92 23.592004 870 31452 51.16 -0.552005 950 35779 51.44 13.762006 1227 48309 61.37 35.022007 1338 64637 51.08 33.802008 1463 82375 62.88 27.77
[Figure 2-1] Year Wise Enrollment in SSC (Voc)
1. SSC (Secondary School Certificate) (Vocational):
<Table 2-3> Number of Institutes
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
129 1597 1726 125,000
36 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
2. Area/Field:
Audio Video System(Electronics), Agro Based Food, Automotive,
Building Maintenance, Civil Construction, Computer, Drafting (Civil),
Drafting (Mechanical), Dress Making & Tailoring, Farm Machinery,
Fish Culture & Breeding, Fruit & Vegetable Cultivation, Food Processing
& Preservation, General Mechanics, General Electrical Works,
Livestock Rearing & farming, Poultry Rearing & Farming, Refrigeration
& Air Conditioning, Welding Works, Electrical Maintenance Works,
Dying Printing & Fishing, Glass, Wood Working, Ceramic, Machine
Tools Operation, Knitting, Plumbing & Pipe Fitting, Weaving, Welding
& Fabrications, Architectural Drafting With AutoCAD, Electrical
Machine Maintenance, Industrial Electronics, Nursing & Mid-wifery,
Hotel Management & Catering, Foundry Works, Shrimp Culture &
Breeding.
<Table 2-4> Dhakil (Vocational)
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
- 100 100 6,000
<Table 2-5> Certificate in Vocational Education
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
01 - 01 120
BANGLADESH 37
<Table 2-6> Computer Training Program
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
03 472 475 14,000
<Table 2-7> Basic Trade Course (360 Hours)
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
09 160 169 8,275
<Table 2-8> Comparison of General & Vocational Education at Secondary
Level:
YearSSC Examinee % of Vocational
EducationTotal Vocational2003 1084241 31627 2.922004 964507 31452 3.262005 944015 35779 3.762006 995123 48309 4.862007 1024537 64637 6.312008 1006569 82375 8.182009 1058674 75057 7.08
3. Training Scheme for Non-schooling (Apprenticeship)
The TVET system covers formal, non-formal, and informal
education programs, though the general education covers particularly
the formal and, to some extent, the non-formal TVET system, including
apprenticeships in the informal economy. Mainly apprenticeships or
on- the- job training are provided by employers.
38 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Apprenticeships can take place in the formal economy, as well as
in the informal economy. It is appropriate to also include the
informal economy; otherwise 80% or even 90% of the economy
would be excluded.
The extent of apprenticeships in the Bangladesh training system
is considerable. As far as formal apprenticeships are concerned, the
number is obviously very small. However, in the informal sector it
is clear that there is a well established system that provides
opportunities for thousands of young Bangladeshis (ILO, 2009).
Aiming at an extension of this kind of skills development, and
having a (more) formalized system of skills’ assessment in place,
(for major parts of non formalized apprenticeships), an apprenticeship
voucher can be introduced, equipping apprentices with a certain
amount of money, e.g. to cover some of the employer’s costs and,
possibly, also some of the apprentice’s costs of living (either directly
to the apprentice or indirectly via the employers paying a small
salary to the apprentice). The voucher also can flexibly cover the
duration of training with, for example, a fixed amount of money,
say Tk 1,000 per month.
4. Upper Secondary Level: Entrance Rate and Employment
For diploma level institutes, including polytechnics and similar
type institutes, the following criteria are described:
BANGLADESH 39
∙ These types of institutes conduct a 4 years diploma course in
Engineering, Survey, Glass, Ceramic, Graphic Arts and Printing.
∙ The pre-requisite qualification is: SSC, SSC (voc) and equivalent.
<Table 2-9> Diploma in Technical Education (Course Duration 1 Year)
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
1 - 1 120
<Table 2-10> Diploma in Vocational Education (Course Duration 1 Year)
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
1 - 1 80
<Table 2-11> Diploma in Engineering (Course Duration 4 Years)
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
47 128 175 35,832
5. Area/Field:
Architecture, Automobile, Chemical, Civil, Civil (Wood), Computer,
Electrical, Electronic, Food, Mechanical, Power, Refrigeration and
Air-Condition, Offset Printing, Graphic Reproduction Printing, Ceramic,
Glass, Marine, Shipbuilding, Aircraft Maintenance (Aerospace), Aircraft
Maintenance (Avionics), Computer Science, Data Telecommunication
and Networking, Surveying, Architecture and Interior Design,
Construction, Electro medical, Environmental, Garments Design and
40 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Pattern Making, Instrumentation and Process Control, Mechatronics,
Mining and Mine Survey, Telecommunication.
<Table 2-12> Diploma in Textile Engineering (Course duration 4 Years)
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
03 - 03 150
Area/Field: Yarn Manufacturing, Fabric Manufacturing,
Wet Processing, Garments & Clothing.
<Table 2-13> Diploma in Forestry
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
06 20 26 2,280
<Table 2-14> Diploma in Animal Health and Production
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
03 - 03 300
BANGLADESH 41
<Table 2-15> Diploma in Health Technology and Certificate in Health
Technology
No of Institutiona. M/O Healthb. M/O Education
IntakeCapacity
TotalIntake
CapacityPublic Private Total
a. 5 29 34 4100b. 0 52 52 1920
Certificate in Health TechnologyPublic Private Total
a. 0 67 67 2180b.
<Table 2-16> HSC(Higher Secondary School Certificate) Business
Management
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
- 1327 1327 119,250
Area/Field: Computer Operation, Secretarial Science, Accounting,
Banking, entrepreneurship.
<Table 2-17> HSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate) Vocational
Number of Institutes IntakeCapacityPublic Private Total
64 - 64 16,740
42 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
6. Non-schooling Level: % of Non-schooled Adolescents,
Training Scheme for Non-schooling (Apprenticeship)
Non-schooled adolescents:
For non-schooled adolescents there is limited access to formal
skills training, as their education level is not equivalent to Grade
VIII / Junior Secondary (e.g. UCEP graduates are allowed to appear
for SSC vocational and can therefore access formal education
options).
<Tabel 2-18> The TVET Scenario of Bangladesh at a Glance:
Total Enrollment in Technical and Vocational Education
(TVE)
Total Enrollment Secondary Education
Enrollment in TVE as % of Total Secondary
Enrollment124,000 10,691,000 1.2
Section 3. TVET for Adults
There is no access to formal skills training, as the education level
is not equivalent to Grade VIII/Junior Secondary level. There is no
access to formal education/opportunity for advancing education level
beyond Post Literacy. In Bangladesh there are public (government)
training institutes and private (non-government) training institutes.
Very poor linkage is seen between public and private training
institutes.
BANGLADESH 43
Section 4. TVET and Enterprises
To improve linkages between TVET and enterprises, the government
will take such initiatives as:
∙ Ensuring that employers’ and workers’ representatives participate
in the national VET Policy Development Committee;
∙ Ensuring that employers’ representatives are appointed to Skills
Standards Drafting committees and Qualifications Development
committees
1. TVET and Enterprises:
Both private and public enterprises exist in Bangladesh. The list
of the public and private institutions is given as follows:
<Table 2-19> The list of the public and private institutions
Public (Government) Private (Non Government)1. Technical Training Center (TTC),
under the Ministry of Labor2. Technical School & College
(TSC) & Polytechnic Institute, under the Ministry of Education
3. Youth Training Center, under the Ministry of Youth & Sports
1. UCEP (under the Privileged Children Education Program)
2. MATWS (Mirpur Agricultural 3. Bangladesh Technical Education
Board (BTEB) affiliated Vocational & Technical School/Training Institute.
4. Private Polytechnic Institute
44 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
2. Role of Enterprises
2.1 Role of Government in educational development
The government has the following duties:
∙ Establish new educational institutes on regular basis from a
central fund;
∙ Prepare syllabi through its agencies;
∙ Conduct examinations;
∙ Prepare education policy;
∙ Contribute full funding for state educational institutes and 90%
of salaries for non-governmental educational institutes; and
∙ Assist international organizations in improving the quality of
Technical and Vocational Education.
2.2 Role of Community Participation in Education
Here the role of the community is described:
∙ Industry people are involved in preparing syllabi to make the
curriculum market oriented;
∙ Industry linkage is being maintained with educational institutes,
and students are granted opportunities for industrial attachment
program in the industries;
∙ At present some non-government organizations are conducting
Technical and Vocational Education programs; and
∙ Some private organizations are conducting diploma and degree
courses in TVET.
BANGLADESH 45
Absolute Numbers/ Share of TVET Institutions by Program:
<Table 2-20> Number and Share of TVET Institutions by Program (2009;
source: BTEB):
TVET Institutions by ProgramAbsolute Numbers Share
Private Public Total Private Public TotalComputer only 261 261 8.2% 8.2%Short courses only 33 33 1.% 1.%Computer & Short courses 18 18 0.6% 0.6%SSC only 1,359 54 1,413 42.7% 1.7% 44.4%HSC only 1,067 2 1,069 33.5% 0.1% 33.6%SSC & HSC 145 63 208 4.6% 2.0% 6.5%Diploma only 83 44 127 2.6% 1.4% 4.0%Computer & SSC 4 4 0.1% 0.1%Computer & HSC 20 20 0.6% 0.6%Computer & Diploma 4 1 5 0.1% 0.0% 0.2%Short courses & SSC 2 2 0.1% 0.1%Short courses & HSC 2 2 0.1% 0.1%Short courses & Diploma 3 2 5 0.1% 0.1% 0.2%Computer & Short courses & Diploma
2 2 0.1% 0.1%
SSC & HSC & Diploma 2 2 0.1% 0.1%HSC & Diploma 10 10 0.3% 0.3%Total 3,013 168 3,181 94.7% 5.3% 100.0%
3. TVET in SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises)
3.1 SME Policy
The SMEs are recognized worldwide as engines of economic
growth. The SMEs are relatively more predominant in the developing
countries, like Bangladesh. Because of the various socio-economic
backgrounds, SMEs enhance employment and create opportunities
46 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
for poverty alleviation. Important to SME development, the
government has also adopted an SME policy.
The PRSP (National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction)
provides a policy framework for reducing poverty and pursuing
equitable development. It synthesizes a wide range of law and policy
initiatives and aims to reduce poverty through four strategic channels:
(1) economic growth initiatives, including private sector investment,
employment generation, and trade; (2) pro-poor sector initiatives,
including agriculture and rural development, SME development,
infrastructure development, and development of information and
communication technologies (ICT); (3) strengthening of social safety
net programs; and (4) human development programs related to
Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET), health care
and food safety, and water and sanitation. To ensure that these
initiatives produce equitable and sustainable results, the PRSP also
includes several supporting strategies, such as women’s rights and
advancement.
Key elements of the SME Policy include: (1) surveying SMEs to
identify industries with growth potential; (2) strengthening the role
of public agencies, such as BSCIC, to provide more effective support
to SMEs; (3) providing tax incentives to SMEs; (4) simplifying relevant
laws and regulations; (5) fostering subcontracting and other linkages
between SMEs and larger enterprises; (6) promoting e-commerce to
support SME production and marketing; and (7) establishing an
BANGLADESH 47
information bank to improve marketing and trade opportunities.
External agencies such as ADB, the World Bank, USAID, and DFID
are supporting elements of the new policy through various projects
and programs. For example, ADB and the World Bank have provided
loans to the government for SMEs through the Small Enterprise
Fund. The SME Sector Development Program supported by ADB
also includes a gender action plan, which provides for (a) representation
of women entrepreneurs in the preparation and implementation of the
SME policy; (b) inclusion of sex disaggregated data in the SME
information bank; (c) earmarking of at least 10% of the Small
Enterprise Fund for women borrowers; and (d) targeted training
programs designed to meet the specific needs of women entrepreneurs.
Section 5. TVET Infrastructure:
1. Certification Standard:
Certificates are issued by BTEB, Ministry of Labor, Dhaka
University, and Islamic
University of Technology (IUT).
2. Certification for Instructor and Trainers: (Pre-job and
In-job Training):
The following credentials are granted by BTEB and the Ministry
of Labor:
48 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
1. Certificate in Vocational Education and Training (CVET)
2. Diploma in Vocational Education (DVE)
3. Diploma in Technical Education (DTE)
4. Diploma in engineering
5. B. Sc. in Technical Education (B.Sc. TE )
6. Post graduate Diploma in Technical Education (PGDTE)
7. M. Sc. in Technical Education (M. Sc. TE)
3. Course for Trainees (School going student/drop out
students, jobless or unemployed):
1. Basic Skill, 360 Hours (Certificate is issued by BTEB)
2. National Skill Standard – 3, (NSS-III), 1 Year (Certificate is
issued by BTEB)
3. National Skill Standard – 2, (NSS-II), 2 Years (Certificate is
issued by BTEB)
4. National Skill Standard – 1, (NSS-I), 4 Years (Certificate is
issued by BTEB)
5. Self Employment Training Program (3 Weeks to 1 Year)
(Certificate is issued by Ministry of Labor)
6. Apprenticeship Training (Certificate is issued by Ministry of
Labor/related organization/enterprises)
7. In-Service Training (Certificate is issued by related organization/
enterprises)
8. On-the-Job Training (Certificate is issued by related organization/
enterprises)
BANGLADESH 49
4. National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) System:
<Tabel 2-21> Bangladesh Vocational Qualification Framework (present):
NSS Basic Basic Skill 360 hours Basic trade courseNSS III Semi-skilled SSC (Voc) Class IXNSS II Skilled SSC (Voc) Class XNSS I Highly skilled HSC (Voc) Class XI & XIINSS Master Master Craftsman Industry Assessed
** NSS – National Skill Standard
BANGLADESH 51
Chapter 3
Governance of TVET system:
Section 1. Institutional Framework
1. Governing Structure
In principle, the TVET system covers formal, non-formal and
informal education programs, though general education covers
particularly the formal and, to some extent, the non-formal TVET
system, including apprenticeships in the informal economy. This
report caters mainly to the formal institution-based stream of TVET,
whose programs are accredited by BTEB and where institutions are
operating under the Ministry of Education and the Bureau of
Manpower Employment and Training (BMET). Yet, it should be
understood that several other ministries are also engaged in
non-formal TVET, and they are not covered by this report. The focus
on financial support and programs of the Directorate of Technical
Education (DTE); the Ministry of Education (MoE); and/or the
52 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training (BMET) meets
general education requirements, as all the figures mentioned in other
studies pertain to state financing for state institutions, i.e.
polytechnics, Technical Schools and Colleges (TSC), and Technical
Training Centers (TTC) which are funded either through the
Directorate of Technical Education (Ministry of Education) or the
Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training (BMET).
2. National Vision and Strategic Direction of TVET
The vision or TVET shared by the government, industry, workers
and civil society is expressed as follows:
“TVET in Bangladesh will recognized and supported by
government and industry as a coordinated and well planned strategy
or national and enterprise development. The TVET system will
empower all individuals to access decent employment and ensure
Bangladesh’s competitiveness in the global market through improved
skills, knowledge, and qualifications that are recognized for quality
across the globe.”
TVET will:
(a) Enhance individual’s employability (wage/self employment)
and ability to adapt to changing technologies and labor markets;
(b) Improve the productivity and profitability of enterprises; and
(c) Strengthen national competitiveness and reduce poverty.
BANGLADESH 53
Section 2. National Development and TVET Policy
1. Economic Development and TVET Policy
1.1 TVET and Economic Development and Future Priorities
The government has a clear vision of achieving GDP growth rates
of about 10% over the next 8 to 10 years (MoF 2009). Even in recent
years, growth rates are quite substantial and much higher than
international (world-wide) levels at 6.2 and 6.4% in 2008/09 and
2007/08, respectively. This is slightly less than the growth rates of
China, but well ahead of India, whose economic development is
greater than that of Bangladesh. The drivers of economic development
in Bangladesh are the industry and services sectors whose growth
rates are well above the agricultural sector. However, even the
growth rates of the agricultural sector were above 4%, mostly.
1.2 Social Development
Social development is government-targeted to meet the demand of
market-driven skills. In the same vein, there is no social dialogue
in skills development for a greener economy. Two major arguments
are responsible for strong public intervention and financing. The
most important issue is that education and training is linked to
(large) social benefits, which cause an externality and are linked to
under-investment, if decisions on education and TVET are made by
individuals and companies only. The second need is to ensure social
equity for those who cannot afford to bear the costs education or
54 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
TVET on their own. Since public spending reduces the individual
costs, it is suitable to support special training opportunities for
socially disadvantaged groups.
Vocational education institutes, in particular, provide training
courses that have been initiated as mediums for deep social
responsibility. The overall vision should be an integrated national
skills development system which promotes economic and
employment growth and social development through a focus on
education, training, and employment services.
1.3 Social Status of TVET:
1. The value and status of TVET need to be upgraded;
2. A new partnership between government, employers, workers,
and the social partners under the PPP is required in Bangladesh; and
3. Representatives of government, employers and worker
organizations must jointly promote the development of TVET.
1.4 TVET Policy Priority:
∙ Review and strengthen TVET policies, systems, and legislation
at the central and decentralized levels;
∙ Enhance flexibility, quality, and relevance of TVET;
∙ Strengthen TVET institutions through improved knowledge and
skills of managers and teachers; and
∙ Develop the National Technical and Vocational Qualification
Framework (NTVQF)
BANGLADESH 55
2. Social Partnership and TVET
Firstly, the public allocations for private institutions shall be taken
into account. Private educational institutions can receive public
funding through so-called MPOs (Monthly Payment Orders),
covering 100% of the teacher salaries. In total, 1,100 out of 15,500
private MPO-funded institutions deliver TVET program, i.e. a share
of 7.1%. According to statistical figures, only 1.9% of all MPO
allocations are for private TVET-courses.
The most important ministries as far as formal TVET is concerned
are the Ministry of Education (MoE) and the Ministry of Expatriates,
Welfare & Overseas Employment (MoEW&OE). Both ministries
have special units which are responsible for the operation of TVET,
i.e. the Directorate of Technical Education (MoE) and Bureau of
Manpower Employment and Training (BMET). However, several
other ministries are also engaged in technical and vocational
education. A third reason is that non-formal programs do not need
to be accredited through BTEB.
Sustainability of achievements:
Priorities to sustain achievements include:
1. Keeping pace with new technologies;
2. Increasing women’s participation in TVET;
3. Continuing to update syllabi as per market demand;
4. Linking to industries for the enhancement of practical skills;
56 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
5. Increasing training facilities for teachers and trainers; and
6. Internationally linking and cooperating in the share and
exchange of technical knowledge
Section 3. Assessment of TVET Policy
The skills development system must be responsive to present and
future industry needs and will move to implement a competency-
based training and assessment (CBT&A) system to achieve that end.
1. Major Achievements in TVET Ensuring Accessibility:
∙ New institutes are established to enhance enrollment. With 18,320
students registered, capacity increased over the last three years.
∙ Special quota facilities are provided for tribal (2/4 each institutes);
dependant freedom fighters (2 each group of each department);
women (10%); and students with vocational back ground (15%).
∙ Four separate polytechnic institutes for women are established,
with an intake capacity of 680 (enrollment= 680*; 4 years course
=2,720).
∙ Dual shift program are launched with the existing infrastructure;
30% of basic salaries are paid, so that capacity doubles those
institutes where dual shift programs are in place; in so doing,
the increased intake capacity number escalates to 14,630.
BANGLADESH 57
2. Quality and Relevancy:
To ensure quality and relevancy of programs,
∙ Syllabi are updated according to market needs and demands;
∙ Monitoring tools are designed, and monitoring is done
effectively;
∙ Industrial linkage enhances practical experience;
∙ New equipment is supplied for the updating of skills;
∙ Training facilities are arranged for teachers and staff, both home
and overseas; and
∙ Linkage is maintained with international agencies for exchanging
technical knowledge.
BANGLADESH 59
Chapter 4
Financing of TVET
Section 1. Financing Regime (Institute) for TVET
Skills development brings returns to individuals, enterprises, and
society as a whole. Therefore all stakeholders, including government,
public and private enterprises, and individuals, as direct beneficiaries,
should contribute to the national investment in education and skills
training.
The financial institutes supporting TVET at present are as follows:
1. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh (GOB)
2. World Bank
3. ILO
4. UNESCO
5. UNICIEF
6. ADB
60 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
7. KOICA
8. JICA
Section 2. Financial Support System or Mechanism
The financing of TVET institutions covers two issues: at the
micro-level, it concerns the sources and mechanisms of institutional
funding; at the macro-level it deals with overall funding levels and
their distribution between public and private sources. In Bangladesh,
several financiers support both the public and the private providers.
The public and private sources and the level of funding received
from them differ for public and private TVET-institutions. The public
TVET providers are mostly funded from the GoB’s (Government of
Bangladesh) budget allocation via a corresponding ministry.
Section 3. Private Funding of Public TVET Institutions
Although students who are enrolled in formal programs of public
TVET-institutions pay a nominal fee of about TK 20 per semester,
these funds flow into the public revenue. In addition, public
providers can also run the so-called ‘self-supporting’ short courses,
conducted usually in the afternoon or evening. Students and
sometimes employers finance these courses through fees. The funds
BANGLADESH 61
will have to be spent mainly for teacher salaries and for those items
required to run the courses, i.e. teaching and raw materials.
Section 4. Funding of Private Providers
Private institutions can be divided into three segments. The first
group receives its basic funding in the form of so-called MPO
(Monthly Payment Order) from the government. This MPO covers
100% of the teachers’ salaries. Other recurrent expenditures are
financed mainly through student fees. Donations from public or
private sources may also cover part of the expenditures. The second
group of private training centers/schools does not receive any public
support and is dependent on the fees collected from students or
donations, etc.
It should be noted that MPO-funding is related to certain programs,
so private schools can run MPO as well as non-MPO programs,
sometimes in general education, as well as in TVET. It appears that
some cross-subsidization occurs between MPO and non-MPO funded
classes, possibly resulting in misuse of public funds. Finally, a third
group of public and private TVET-providers can be identified; they
receive endowments from national or international donor agencies,
and some of them also collect student fees. The public institutions
in this group receive their recurrent budgets from the GoB (Govt.
of Bangladesh). For example, UCEP or MAWTS are private
institutions, while Bangladesh-German TTC (BGTTC) and Bangladesh
62 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Korean TTC (BKTTC) are public institutions. The figure below
provides an overview of the funding sources of public and private
institutions.
[Figure 4-1] Overview of the Funding Sources of Public and Private
Institutions
BANGLADESH 63
Section 5. Educational Financing
<Table 4-1> Budget Allocation (Revenue & Development) for DTE
(Directorate of Technical Education) (Amount in taka and in millions)
FiscalTotal Budget for
Ministry ofEducation (MOE)
Budgetallocation for
DTE
Percent(%)share by DTE out
of total MOE2003-04 48899.1 1522.0 3.112004-05 50113.7 2113.2 4.222005-06 69150.6 2023.4 2.932006-07 82390.0 1775.4 2.152007-08 85861.9 2651.3 3.092008-09 90530.5 2200.9 2.43
BANGLADESH 65
Chapter 5
Internationalization of TVET
The entire world is now a global village. Globalization of national
economies, as well as globalization of knowledge, technology, and
skills requires the worker to be aware of international standards. This
is not only the case with respect to the design, production, marketing,
and distribution of goods and services. For the promotion of workforce
development, it is equally important to be aware of internationally
agreed-upon standards for technical and vocational education and
training. Such standards serve, inter alia, to ensure a proper balance
between the economic dimension of education and training on the
one hand, and personal, social, and human development on the other.
Section 1. Impact of TVET Policy
Skills, knowledge, and innovation are important driving forces of
economic growth and social development in any country, and those
66 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
countries with higher levels of education and skills adjust more
effectively to challenges and opportunities in the global economy.
ICT in Bangladesh:
Information Communication Technology (ICT) is a subject of
widespread interest in Bangladesh. There are around 100 software
houses; 35 data entry centers; thousands of formal and informal IT
training centers; and numerous computer shops. The government has
declared IT as a thrust sector.
Summarized here is the current state of ICT in Bangladesh:
Ⅰ. Only 0.1% homes of Bangladesh has Internet;
Ⅱ. There are 250,000 registered dial-up users accounts;
Ⅲ. There are 15,000 Broadband accounts;
Ⅳ. There are 1.8 million mobile phones operated by four private
companies;
Ⅴ. There is a total ISP of 62;
Ⅵ. Internet users represent 2 million people; and
Ⅶ. 90% of ISPs use OSS.
Section 2. International Cooperation
The government of Bangladesh is taking some initiatives for
internationalizing TVET. Examples include:
BANGLADESH 67
1. Linkage is being maintained for technical knowledge with
international agencies;
2. Contributions are made to international organization for
improving the quality of Technical Vocational Education; and
3. International Linkage and cooperation is in place for sharing
and exchanging technical knowledge and skills.
1. Facility and Equipment
Lack of facility and equipment is a serious problem that hampers
the provision of international skills’ levels through TVET, since most
of the instruments and equipment are not suitable for modern work.
To boost TVET in Bangladesh to an international standard,
infrastructure, tools, and equipment must be upgraded. Teacher
training for new technology is also essential.
Bangladesh is struggling to respond to the skill needs of its
workforce. Pressures arise due to increasing globalization; new and
emerging technology; changing patterns of work; mismatch between
training and required skills; mismatch between supply and demand;
lack of adequate industry participation; inadequate numbers of
trainers; an inadequate vocational training infrastructure; low
employment outcomes of graduates; uncertain resources (who will
fund and maintain?), poor gradation of tools and equipment; poor
relationships with industry and institutions; and lack of tripartite
(government, employer, and worker) approach. Most of the migrant
68 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
workers have no proper technical skills. They are often forced to
return home, having no language skills. Necessary facilities are
lacking that allow people to engage in meaningful, successful TVET
programs.
BANGLADESH 69
Chapter 6
New Agenda
The government has a clear vision of achieving GDP growth rates
of about 10% over the next 8 to 10 years. Even in recent years,
growth rates are quite substantial and much higher than international
(world-wide) levels, at 6.2 and 6.4% in 2008/09 and 2007/08,
respectively. This is slightly less than the growth rates of China, but
well ahead of India, whose economic development is well ahead of
Bangladesh.
Section 1. Trends and Needs
1. New Needs for New Skills
A careful balance must be orchestrated to maximize economic
growth without compromising environmental protection and safety.
Bangladesh needs a strategic policy and program for climate-resilient
70 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
sustainable development. These environmental issues drive the green
policy response in Bangladesh and affect the economy, employment,
and the labor market.
The main occupations in building construction include: architect,
engineer, mason, assistant, and site manager. But for greening
buildings, the architect has a central role to play because he is
responsible for the building design. New skills, therefore, include
training for green architects, green town planners, green civil
engineers, green supervisors, and green masons. The Bangladesh
Labor Law 2006 accords special importance to occupational safety
and the health of the workers in the workplace buildings.
In various sectors, such as energy production and consumption,
there remains the need to develop green jobs and occupations.
2. Green Job and Occupations
Main greening shifts in the economy and the labor market of
Bangladesh have taken place greatly in energy, but rather weakly
in materials management, telecommunication, and transport. But
these greening shifts remain ineffectual, primarily because of
inadequate policy and institutional support. With the right policies,
institutional framework, commitment, and immediate reinvestment,
it is possible to bring about the changes needed for greening the
economy.
BANGLADESH 71
The structural transformation that is taking place in Bangladesh
is derived not merely from economic growth, but also from
spontaneous green structural change. However, current and future
employment shifts and trends are likely to take place, due to
anticipated green structural change — notably in renewable energy
and telecommunication. The green employment shift to renewable
energy has huge potential for growth and is gaining momentum.
Certain change is anticipated by green structural innovation,
especially in energy, manufacturing, waste management, construction,
transport, telecommunication, and trade.
Eight case studies illustrate anticipated change and provision of
skills in different occupations. Skills for green jobs are instrumental
in bringing about the desired change for sustainable development.
But the policy response and institutional support to overcome
existing skill gaps in different occupations remain very weak.
At the policy making level, there is inadequate appreciation of the
need for a policy targeting the identification and development of
skills for green jobs. Although Bangladesh has embarked on several
policies and programs for adaptation to climate change and mitigation
of its adverse impact, it has no policy for the formation and
development of skills for greening the economy. In this regard,
isolated and sporadic efforts are taking place with very little impact
on greening the economy.
72 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
In the absence of any strategic policy agenda and support, the
delivery mechanisms of the existing institutions for developing skills
for green jobs remain inadequate. Shortage of skills and poor
institutional framework largely explain the weak delivery mechanisms
of these institutions.
A coherent policy for the formation and development of skills for
green jobs should be formulated and put in place within the overall
framework for HRD. For greening the economy, the policy should
target the implementation of the programs for meeting existing skills
needs for green jobs in various sectors, as identified by the present
study, and incorporate them into the occupational profiles,
curriculum design, and education and training provision for greening
existing occupations and for developing emerging and new green
occupations. The policy should embody strategic interventions and
adequate guidelines for overcoming critical skill gaps for green jobs.
Existing education and training policies have inadequate provisions
for environmental education at all levels. At the primary level, it
should be made mandatory. Synergy among the existing policies and
institutions (both public and private) for greening the economy is
virtually non-existent. The existing TVET system has virtually no
environment-driven curriculum and courses targeted towards establishing
and improving the skill base for green jobs. Curriculum for greening
the economy should be incorporated in the existing education and
training programs down from the primary level.
BANGLADESH 73
The National Skills Development Council (NSDC), in collaboration
with the Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training (BMET);
Department of Technical Education (DTE); Bangladesh Technical
Education Board (BTEB); Ministry of Labor and Employment
(MoLE); Department of Environment (DoE); Department of Forest
(DoF); Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF); Ministry of
Education; IDCOL (Infrastructure Development Company Limited);
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), employers and workers
associations, should play the central role in the formation and
development of skills for green jobs in Bangladesh. The proposed
SEDA, as a focal point for development and promotion of sustainable
energy, should be put in place to steer the country towards a cleaner
environment through developing skills for green jobs.
Bangladesh should develop an information and technological
knowledge base and conduct research on GHG emission to combat
the impacts of climate change and search for suitable strategies to
cope with the changing environment. In order to improve upon the
ongoing policies and programs relating to greening HRD, further
research and regular data collection should be undertaken, with a
view to updating the knowledge and progress in greening the
economy.
74 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 6-1> Fields Green-job Under Studies
Criteria Selected case studies(i) Retraining needs deriving from identification of skills and occupations that become obsolete as a result of structural changes on the labor market and major employment shifts within and across sectors due to climate change and demands for greening the economy.
1: Refuse/Waste Collectors andDumpers
2: Agricultural Workers and Inspectors in Organic Farming
(ii) New green collar occupations which emerge in the context of adaptation to climate change and mitigation of negative impacts in the country.
3: Carbon Trading4: Solar Energy Engineers/Technicians
5: Mechanical Engineers and CNG Conversion Technicians
(iii) New types of skills, competences and skill gaps which need to be incorporated into existing occupationalprofiles (greening existing occupations).
6: Architects, Civil Engineers, Designers and Masons in Greening Buildings
7: Supervisors and Machine Operators in Tannery
8: Brickfield Managers in BrickManufacturing
Section 2. Future plans
A future plan represents a key commitment to the strengthening
and further growth of TVET in Bangladesh. The government has
already made commitments in PRSP, so that by 2020:
1. TVET students shall comprise 20% of all secondary students
(currently 3%);
2. Enrollment in TVET will increase by 50%; and
3. Women’s enrollment will increase by 60%.
BANGLADESH 75
References
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Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training (BMET),
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CAMBODIA
CAMBODIA 79
Chapter 1
THE NATIONAL CONTEXT OF TVET:
INTRODUCTION
Section 1. Context and Background of Cambodia
CAMBODIA is located in South East Asia and shares its borders
with Vietnam, Thailand, the Gulf of Thailand, and Laos; it is a
country with a rather shifting history. It experienced a zenith in the
Angkorian Period or the Khmer Empire (9-13 century). It was colonized
by the French for almost a century (1863-1954), and has experienced
many regime changes. Cambodia transitioned from the Khmer
Republic, to Democratic Kampuchea (known as Pol Pot regime), the
People’s Republic of Kampuchea, the State of Cambodia, and finally
the Kingdom of Cambodia.
According to the 2008 population census, Cambodia’s population
reached 13,395,682. A large portion of the population, 80.5 percent,
80 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
resides in rural areas, and relies on farming as the main source of
employment. The annual population growth rate is 1.54 percent.
[Figure 1-1] The Annual Population Growth Rate
(World Bank 2009)
As the graph shows, for nearly one decade, the early 1970s to the
1980s, the population growth rate plunged to below 0 due to the
country’s upheavals. The worst period in its history is from 1975
to 1979 (3 years, 8 months and 20 days, a time etched in the memory
of every Cambodian) when the Khmer Rouge, also known as Pol
Pot, took power and committed large-scale genocide, causing the
death of nearly 2 million Cambodians.
During this period, all social, political and economic infrastructures
were completely destroyed. This period is also know as YEAR
ZERO for Cambodia. After the fall of the Pol Pot’s regime due to
intervention by the Vietnamese troops, Cambodia started to rehabilitate
its country from the ground up. With assistance from the Soviet and
Eastern Block, Cambodia managed to stand straight and walk slowly,
CAMBODIA 81
with one hand rebuilding the country and, the other, fighting the
Khmer Rouge’s gorilla war (civil war) which lasted until 1997.
Thanks to the UN role in Cambodia in 1993 and the government’s
win-win policy in 1998, there was an end to the civil war and
complete peace and development was brought to all sectors. Cambodia
is a multi-party democracy under a Constitutional Monarchy with the
King as the head of state, and Prime Minister as the head of
government. The Royal Government of Cambodia is led by two main
parties: Cambodia’s People Party and National United Front for an
Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia, known
as FUNCINPEC in French.
There is a promising path for the future of Cambodia. The royal
government of Cambodia has set out Rectangular Strategies for
Growth, Development, Efficiency and Effectiveness in its reform
efforts, focusing on 4 main areas: (1) Fighting corruption; (2) legal
and judicial reform; (3) public administration reform, including
decentralization and deconcentration; and (4) reform of the Royal
Cambodian armed forces. In line with this master plan, various
strategic action plans at the national level have been put in place
within all the ministries. Because there is a short history of
development, starting after the restoration of complete peace in 1998,
a great deal of effort is needed to catch up with fast-developing
world. Tasks would be most difficult without assistance from the
international community, donor countries, international organizations,
82 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
non-governmental organizations, individuals, and other stakeholders
— local, regional and international.
Simultaneously, Cambodia has become a member of different
international organizations worldwide, from WTO, to UN-led
peacekeeping organizations. It joined the International Labour
Organization (ILO) in 1969, the year when the organization was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for its outstanding activities, and the
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), in 1999. In the
international arena, Cambodia is now recognized as a peaceful and
serene destination for tourism, with more than one thousand ancient
temples, some of which have been recognized in UNESCO’s Top
World Heritage.
Cambodia has a comparatively small, open, and dollarized
economy. Thus, its development has relied on the global economic
climate and foreign capital. At present, Cambodia has been working
to establish a stock market as a source for mobilizing capital to
finance economic development, but the process is slower than
expected. However, the Cambodian government has plans to
diversify its growth pillars and upgrade its industry.
Cambodia had experienced a leap-frogging, two-digit economic
growth in the early and late 2000s and, like other countries in the
world, has been hit by the economic downturn in 2008, with its
economy currently being recovered with 0.1 of GDP growth in 2009,
CAMBODIA 83
and around 5.0 in 20101. The main engine of economic development
is agriculture, constructions, garments, and tourism. The garment
sector has been established and developed for more than 10 years,
but its prospects remain uncertain. Therefore, the government pays
particular attention to the agricultural sector, since it is more stable
and appropriate, given the country’s geographical setting and the
world market demand for agricultural goods.
[Figure 1-2] Cambodia’s Real GDP Growth Rate
(Ministry of Economy and Finance 2010)
However, the agricultural sector alone may not solve the poverty
issue, or drive the country’s economy in this globalized and
knowledge-based world. Since Cambodia joins competition, it has to
be on similar footing with other countries in the region. Thus,
Cambodia has resorted to other measures; among which are
high-level skills and human resource development among its
workforces, from the rural commune, through to the central urban
environment.
84 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Section 2. Education System in Cambodia
Cambodia’s education system is greatly influenced by the French
in almost all aspects. The schooling system has been changed over
time to match the country’s environment and development. Before
1975, it was 7 + 3 + 3 = 13 years, 1979 (4 + 3 + 3 = 10 years),
1986 (5 + 3 + 3 = 11 years) and 1996 (6 + 3 + 3 = 12 years).
There are three main streams in the system: academic, technical and
vocational, and non-formal and informal. The formal academic
stream has had a longer history and, thus, it has received
comparatively greater attention than the others. The development of
technical and vocational education started in 1960s, whereas
non-formal education came into being only quite recently. Although
higher education gained some good ground in the 1960s, less
attention was paid until quite recently when the World Bank invested
a few million dollar grants and then expanded its funding to over
30 million dollars in grants and loans for TVET.
Like other countries, Cambodia has invested a great deal of its
resources in education. The national budget for education has been
increased to over 20%, focusing mainly on primary and secondary
education in order to respond to the country’s Millennium Development
Goals (MDG-2015) and Education for All (EFA). Nine-year basic
(compulsory) education has been set. To realize this goal, the
Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport (MOEYS) has set out two
main policy documents: the Education Strategic Plan (ESP) and the
CAMBODIA 85
Education Sector Support Program (ESSP), outlining clear action
plans and strategies. The ESSP is further implemented by the Annual
Operational Plan (AOP), which nicely integrates and coordinates not
only the activities of all Ministry’s departments, international
organizations, and NGOs, but also their funding support and
government’s budgets.
Despite the effort, many adults, especially those living in the rural
areas, have no education, and there are serious rural–urban and
gender disparities in access to education. According to the World
Bank, nearly 60% of women and 40% of men in the provinces of
Mondolkiri and Rattanakiri have no education, compared with fewer
than 15% of women and 5% of men in Phnom Penh. In the province
of Svay Rieng, girls are almost three times less likely to attend
school than boys. This reflects gender and rural–urban disparities in
access to education in Cambodia. In 2007, fully 61% of the literate
population in Cambodia 25 years of age and over had not completed
primary school, while only 23% had completed primary level. Those
who had completed the lower secondary level of education
comprised only 9% of the age cohort, while those who had a
secondary level qualification constituted 3%. Fewer than 1% had
qualifications higher than secondary level. (ADB, Proposed Asian
Development Fund Grant Kingdom of Cambodia: Strengthening
Technical and Vocational Education and Training Project, October
2009).
86 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Section 3. Employment and Labor Market
Poverty in Cambodia is characterized by, as described by the
World Bank, low income and consumption; poor nutritional status;
low educational attainment; poor access to public services, including
school and health services; poor access to economic opportunities;
and vulnerability to external shocks. Poor access to quality education
has led to a low adult literacy rate of 69.4% (80.5% for males and
58.2% for females). The highest poverty rates are found among
farmers and those households whose heads have little or no formal
education. The poorest households are asset-less. Agricultural productivity
is low and food insecurity is still a serious problem for people who
are poor. Agriculture remains the backbone of the Cambodian
economy, with 68% of the labor force earning their livelihood from
farming. Cambodian women play an active role in the country’s
economy and civil society. They represent 53% of the active labor
force, compared with 32% for economically active men, and are
usually classified as “unpaid family labor,” primarily in agriculture.
Apart from agriculture, women work in the informal sector, particular
commercial activities. The garment industry provides the principal
source of formal sector employment for women, but young women
are employed there only as semi-skilled workers with almost no
opportunities to move into supervisory or management positions.
Women outnumber men in the labor force from age 15 to 54, with
the exception of the 25 to 29 age group. The shortage of skilled
labor and the lack of adequate investment in formal vocational skill
CAMBODIA 87
formation represent key development constraints for Cambodia and
have been a persistent theme in recent assessments by the ADB and
the World Bank. (ADB, Proposed Asian Development Fund Grant
Kingdom of Cambodia: Strengthening Technical and Vocational
Education and Training Project, October 2009)
As over 80% of Cambodian people live in rural areas, the
employment structure is made up of 72.3% agriculture (mostly
self-employed and unpaid), 8.5% industry (mainly garment production
and construction), and 19.2% services (tourism, trade, transport,
communication, education1). However, service sector contributes the
most (39%) to the GDP, followed by agriculture (30%), industry
(25%) and others (6%)2). The country total work force is around 8
million with approximately 300,000 new entrants every year. During
the healthy economic growth, mainly 2004-2007, only up to 50,000
jobs were created annually.
1) General Population Census of Cambodia 2008 Final Census Results Figures at a Glanc
2) Cambodia’s Labor Market and Employment Economic Institute of Cambodia December 200
88 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-1> Employment, by Sector, Age and sex
Sex, sectorand age
1998 200815+ 15-24 25+ 15+ 15-24 25+
Both sexes 4,773,488 1,114,189 3,659,299 6,841,272 1,736,962 5,104,310Primary Sector 77.0 79.1 76.4 72.1 68.6 73.3Secondary sector 4.2 6.5 3.5 8.6 15.5 6.2Tertiary sector 18.3 13.7 19.7 19.3 15.9 20.5Not reported 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Male 2,330,301 502,134 1,828,167 3,345,926 828,975 2,516,951Primary Sector 71.1 75.7 69.8 69.2 70.6 68.7Secondary sector 5.0 6.2 4.7 8.1 11.9 6.9Tertiary sector 23.4 17.2 25.1 22.7 17.5 24.4Not reported 0.5 0.8 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Female 2,443,187 612,055 1,831,132 3,495,346 907,987 2,587,359Primary Sector 82.7 81.9 82.9 75.0 66.9 77.8Secondary sector 3.5 6.8 2.4 9.0 18.7 5.6Tertiary sector 13.5 10.8 14.3 16.0 14.4 16.6Not reported 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Source: NIS/MOP. General population census of Cambodia 1998.
NIS/MOP. General population census of Cambodia 2008.
<Table 1-2> Employment Structure
Classification Percentage of workforce Total NumbersAgriculture, hunting, forestry 66. 4,123,888Fishing 4.2 261,062Mining and Quarrying 0.2 13,525Manufacturing 8.7 544,832Electricity, gas, water 0.1 3,795Construction 1.5 94,077Wholesale, retail, repair 10.3 644,307Hotels and restaurants 0.2 10,412Transport, storage and communications 2.7 169,307Financial 0.1 6,119Real estate, renting 0.3 16,374Public Admin and Defence 2.4 149,382Education 1.4 88,446Health, Social Work, community services 1.3 80,241Household staff 0.4 28,019Foreign NGOs and Agencies 0.2 6,800
Total 100 6,243,329Source: NTDP, 2008 7,051,764 (Census 2008) around 8 million (2010)
CAMBODIA 89
The unemployment issue in Cambodia is contradictory. On the
supply side, it is reported that the job market is so tight, but on
the demand side, there is not enough workforce to meet the demand.
There is clearly a mismatch which has existed for many years
between supply and demand in the job market.
The mismatch between demand and supply in employment is
reduced in the TVET sector when the government works closely with
ADB and ILO (with the establishment of National Employment
Agency, job centres, industry advisory groups, among others). To
deal with rural-urban employment disparity, the government, in its
National TVET Development Plan, has allocated 60% of its
resources for rural development through the provision of new skills
to farmers.
However, it will be a big challenge for the higher education sector
to deal with this issue; the number of graduates with bachelor
degrees is projected to be 220,000 with only around 86,000 jobs
available in 20143). Recent intervention by the World Bank will
focus on quality improvement and capacity building of higher
education institutions, but not much on narrowing the market
mismatch between supply and demand. As jobs accumulate only in
urban areas, especially in Phnom Penh, the unemployment rate in
those areas is relatively high. It is reported that, on average,
3) Higher Education and Skills for the Labor Market in Cambodia (p60)
90 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
graduates with degrees spent at least 9 months seeking employment.
The overall unemployment rate in Cambodia is 1.68 (General
Population Census 2008).
<Table 1-3> Unemployment and Participation Rate By Sex and Region
(Aged 15+)
Cambodia Phnom Penh Other U rban Other Rural2004 2007 2004 2007 2004 2007 2004 2007
ILO Definition: Without Work, Available for Work, and Seeking Work
UnemploymentRate
Total 1.05% 0.90% 3.60% 2.32% 1.48% 2.60% 0.64% 0.53%Male 1.01% 0.91% 3.05% 2.60% 1.31% 2.13% 0.68% 0.55%
Female 1.09% 0.88% 4.20% 2.03% 1.66% 3.17% 0.60% 0.51%
ParticipationRate
Total 79.93% 81.06% 67.71% 67.39% 77.18% 75.34% 82.38% 83.80%Male 85.43% 88.35% 73.93% 75.74% 81.77% 82.56% 88.01% 91.00%
Female 75.00% 74.61% 62.04% 60.15% 72.84% 68.09% 77.41% 77.53%Broad Definition: Without work and Available for Work
UnemploymentRate
Total 5.85% 3.06% 11.17% 5.37% 6.12% 5.73% 5.10% 2.47%Male 4.10% 1.89% 9.62% 3.85% 3.93% 4.38% 3.37% 1.33%
Female 7.58% 4.26% 12.80% 6.96% 8.34% 7.33% 6.78% 3.61%
ParticipationRate
Total 83.94% 82.88% 73.47% 69.56% 80.96% 77.91% 86.16% 85.48%Male 88.15% 89.27% 79.31% 76.72% 83.97% 84.51% 90.41% 91.77%
Female 80.17% 77.24% 68.16% 63.34% 78.12% 71.27% 82.41% 80.00%Source: Cambodia’s Labor Market and Employment
Economic Institute of Cambodia December 2008
CAMBODIA 91
<Table 1-4> Share of Employed Persons by Educational Level in Each
Sector
Level of EducationAgriculture Industry Service
2004 2007 2004 2007 2004 2007Never/Some Education 0.7% 0.7% 0.3% 0.0% 0.5% 0.2%Primary 71.0% 69.5% 60.1% 58.4% 43.1% 39.2%Lower Secondary 22.8% 24.3% 30.7% 32.1% 32.2% 31.2%Upper Secondary 4.5% 5.0% 7.5% 8.7% 17.9% 19.5%Technical/Vocational Training 0.2% 0.0% 0.3% 0.1% 2.8% 3.1%
Post-Secondary 0.1% 0.1% 0.5% 0.6% 3.0% 6.6%Other 0.8% 0.3% 0.6% 0.1% 0.7% 0.2%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%Source: Cambodia’s Labor Market and Employment
Economic Institute of Cambodia December 2008
This issue will remain a problem if the current trend continues.
Students’ perception of employment and their selected fields of
study, as well as the lack of market information, curriculum, and
course materials, are part of the problem. According to a study by
CAMFEBA and MOEYS’ statistics, around 80% of high school
leavers proceed to higher education, resulting in only a small
proportion entering the TVET sector where over 60% of new jobs
are created. Many of the high school graduates do not have enough
information about the demands of the job market when choosing
their specializations. Alternatively, some choose courses based on
fancy names, like “management and leadership,” “business administration,”
and so on, without much attention to their employability. On top of
that, when they are in the degree programs, they are usually taught
92 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
with outdated curriculum and teaching materials, whose content lacks
relevance to the required skills of the job market.
[Figure 1-3] Student Plan after higher school
[Figure 1-4] How high school students make decision for higher education
Source: Youth and Employment: Bridging the Gap―A Study about Youth and Employer Perspectives on Education, Skills, Opportunities and Future.
CAMBODIA 93
<Table 1-5> Level of Education
Level of EducationPaid Employee Employer Own Account
WorkerUnpaid Family
Workervice2004 2007 2004 2007 2004 2007 2004 2007
Never/Some Education 0.4% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.7% 0.8% 0.6% 0.3%Primary 46.3% 47.2% 52.8% 31.8% 65.5% 64.8% 65.6% 61.1%Lower Secondary 30.1% 27.7% 16.5% 1.2% 26.0% 26.6% 25.5% 28.7%Upper Secondary 16.1% 15.3% 30.7% 53.7% 6.2% 6.9% 7.3% 8.9%Technical/Vocational Trainings 3.0% 3.2% 0.0% 6.8% 0.3% 0.2% 0.4% 0.0%
Post-Secondary Education 3.5% 6.4% 0.0% 6.5% 0.2% 0.3% 0.2% 0.9%
Other 0.6% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 1.2% 0.4% 0.5% 0.1%Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Source: Data compiled from CSES 2004 and CSES 2007Source: Cambodia’s Labor Market and Employment
Economic Institute of Cambodia December 2008
[Figure 1-5] Reasons for not continuing after high school
Source: Youth and Employment: Bridging the Gap―A Study about Youth and Employer Perspectives on Education, Skills, Opportunities and Future.
CAMBODIA 95
Chapter 2
TVET SYSTEM BY TARGET GROUPS: ADULTS,
TEACHERS AND TRAINERS, AND ENTERPRISES
There are many types of TVET providers: TVET institutions under
MOLVT and other ministries; those provided by small and large
enterprises; and NGOs. Currently, there are 59 public TVET
institutions, 38 of which are under the management of MOLVT; 76
associations/NGOs; and 181 private training institutions. Among
public TVET institutions, 11 are polytechnics and institutes offering
formal courses from certificate to Master degrees. There are 25
provincial training centers offering non-formal programs whose main
aims are to provide people in rural areas with supplement farming
skills and other related skills in those provinces.
Textiles and garments, crafts, agricultural techniques, computing,
English, driving, auto repair and electrical maintenance are the most
common skills provided by NGOs and private businesses. The
96 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
duration of training lasts from one week, to one or two months, and
is mostly available in Phnom Penh. Since 1991Don Bosco, one of
the main NGOs, has played the most important role in providing
this kind of training.
<Table 2-1> Students in technical and vocational education and training
Level 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009Both sexes, No. 24,587 27,894 47,986 88,367 113,648 168,630Post-graduate and graduate 0.0 3.7 2.3 1.3 1.2 0.79Public technical diploma/technician 7.0 4.4 4.6 2.5 2.8 1.75Public primary long-term training 8.1 2.1 1.0 1.8 1.3 0.72Public primary short-term training 24.4 38.3 36.9 73.5 59.1 69.52Private/NGO, international org. 60.5 51.4 55.1 20.9 35.5 27.21
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Male, No. 12,777 15,574 27,999 56,494 59,745 80,743Post-graduate and graduate 0.0 5.3 2.9 1.5 1.9 1.33Public technical diploma/technician 9.1 5.3 5.4 2.6 3.7 2.37Public primary long-term training 13.7 3.5 1.7 2.2 2.1 1.01Public primary short-term training 26.8 36.0 31.0 68.1 54.4 61.73Private/NGO, international org. 50.4 49.9 59.0 25.5 37.9 33.56
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Female, No. 11,810 12,320 19,987 31,873 53,903 87,887Post-graduate and graduate 0.0 1.7 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.29Public technical diploma/technician 4.8 3.4 3.5 2.2 1.7 1.19Public primary long-term training 2.1 0.4 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.45Public primary short-term training 21.8 41.2 45.3 83.1 64.3 76.68Private/NGO, international org. 71.4 53.2 49.6 12.8 32.9 21.38
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Source: Department of Technical Vocational Education and Training Management, MOLVT
Compared with the academic stream, admission to technical and
vocational training is more lenient, accepting students from as low
as grade 5, to a non-formal basic course; grade 9, to a certificate
or diploma course; and grade 12, to a diploma or degree course.
CAMBODIA 97
However, for a basic short course, such as farming method, the
admission is open for all. Unfortunately, trainees receive no
certificate for their training. In the formal sector, graduates can
receive certificates (less than one year), diploma (one to two years),
bachelor (4 years) and Master (4+2 years).
At present, there is no National Qualification Framework within
education in Cambodia, but the pathway within and between each
stream is flexible and case-based. For example, after completion of
their basic education (grade 9), students can take formal TVET
courses (three levels: Level one (one year), Level two (2 years) and
Level three (3 years), which is equivalent to grade 12. So, if they
wish, they can continue to TVET undergraduate degrees for 2 years
(Associate Degree); 4 years (Bachelor Degrees); or 6 years (Master
Degree). Students can also enter the academic stream after finishing
Level 3 of the TVET stream,
Although TVET plays an important role in economic growth and
offers more than 60% of job availability in this sector, it has failed
to attract high school leavers. In the last few years, especially after
the establishment of MOLVT, however, there have been some
changes to the trend. In the 2008-2009 academic year, there were
168,630 (87,887 female) graduates from both non-formal (majority)
and formal, public, and private TVET institutions. To some extent,
though, the provision of formal training at TVET institutions are
supply-driven and in comparatively low quality.
98 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Subject Certificate Diploma Bachelor's Master's Total Percentageof Total
A. TechnicalMechanicalElectricalElectronicsAir ConditioningConstruction Subtotal (A) Percentage of TotalB. ComputingInformation TechnologyCADCAM Subtotal (B) Percentage of TotalC. BusinessManagementBusiness AdministrationAccountingMarketing Subtotal (C) Percentage of Total
75159726066
432
463026132
195636
291241
2116222382
15955
154368
30
30
212
10549
366
9
1120
109
109
121629188
92426
1,456
591271
34216
12772
557
66.8
3.3
25.6
<Table 2-2> The Number of Graduated Students in TVET Institutions 2003–2008No.
2003 - 2004 2004 - 2005 2005 - 2006 2006 - 2007 2007 - 2008Total Fem. Total Fem. Total Fem. Fem. Fem. Total Fem.
1 Bachelor/Master Degree - - 1,041 212 1,126 306 1,158 313 1,408 2772 Diploma 1,724 565 1,237 416 2,201 701 2,172 692 3,151 938
3 Certificate (I,II&III)(Long Course) 1,999 245 594 51 503 21 1,562 307 1,524 255
4 Certificate(Public Short Course) 5,998 2,570 1,0692 5,081 3,426 1,923 18,586 595 67,178 34,679
Grand Total 9,721 3,380 13,564 5,760 7,256 2,651 23,478 1,907 73,261 36,149
(MOLVT 2009)
<Table 2-3> Number of Graduates by Subject in MOLVT Formal Training
Institutes, Academic Year 2007/2008
CAMBODIA 99
Subject Certificate Diploma Bachelor's Master's Total Percentageof Total
D. OtherTourismEnglishGraphic Design Subtotal (D) Percentage of Total
5959
531
36
5315995
4.4Total
Percentage of Total491
22.5795
36.5764
35.1129
62,179100.1 100.1
Source: ADB, Proposed Asian Development Fund Grant Kingdom of Cambodia: Strengthening Technical and Vocational Education and Training Project, October 2009, page 33
Pedagogical training for teachers/instructors of TVET is conducted
at the National Technical Training Institute (NTTI). Up to 80% of
the teachers at TVET institutes are trained at NTTI for one year
before their services at various polytechnics, institutes, and
provincial technical centers. One third of them hold Master degrees.
However, their salary is limited; they lack industry experience; and
their curriculum and teaching materials are not up to date, In turn,
the effectiveness and efficiency of program delivery at TVET is
generally low and fails still to respond to market demand.
100 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 2-4> The Number of Teachers in TVET Institutions: Fiscal Year
2007 – 2008No. Type of Training
LevelNumber of Institution
Number of Teachers
Number of Under Graduated Students
Number of Graduated Students
Total Female Total Female Total Female1 Bachelor/Master Degree 09 376 73 5,472 1,124 1,408 2772 Diploma 19 705 168 5,448 1,280 3,151 938
3 Certificate (I,II&III) (Long Course) 12 279 81 1,414 404 1,524 255
4 Certificate(Public Short Course) 37 555 253 60,315 32,594 67,178 34,679
Grand Total 77 1,915 573 72,649 35,942 73,225 36,149(MOLVT 2009)
The Voucher Skills Training Program (VSTP), however, has
proved a greater success. VSTP is a piloted model for delivering
large-scale non-formal programs to communes and villages in skills
that they identified and requested, with over 46,000 participants in
2008 alone. Most of this training was delivered in the communities.
The VSTP also encompasses short, more structured courses delivered
in the PTCs (e.g., motorcycle repair, small engine maintenance,
weaving, and hairdressing), as well as enterprise-based training,
under which enterprises are contracted to provide on-the-job training
to individual trainees for about 4 months. Under the pilot VSTP,
60% of training was community-based, 10% was delivered as short
courses in PTCs, and 40% was enterprise- based. (ADB, Proposed
Asian Development Fund Grant Kingdom of Cambodia:
Strengthening Technical and Vocational Education and Training
Project, October 2009, page 33)
CAMBODIA 101
Section 1. TVET for Adults
According to the United Nations’ definition, “youth” refers to
persons aged 15–24, and “adults” are persons aged 25 or older. The
youth population has increased, from 2.1 million (18.3 percent) in
1998, to 2.99 million (22.3 percent) in 2008; of them, males
increased from 1.02 million (18.5 percent), to 1.5 million (23.1
percent), while the females increased from 1.07 million (18.1
percent), to 1.48 million (21.6 percent).
The adult population also increased in absolute numbers, from 4.45
million (38.9 percent) in 1998, to 5.9 million (44 percent) in 2008;
among them, males increased from 1.99 million (36.2 percent), to
2.7 million (41.4 percent), whereas females increased from 2.46
million (41.5 percent), to 3.2 million (46.5 percent). The increase
of both the youth and adult populations means an expansion of the
country’s labor supply engaged in or available for economic activity.
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[Figure 2-1] Population Age Pyramid 2008
Source: NIS/MOP. General population census of Cambodia 2008.
Among the total labor force, youth represented more than a
quarter, at 25.8 percent. The youth labor force participation rate
decreased slightly, from 60.7 percent in 1998, to 60.1 percent in
2008. This possibly indicates a positive trend of youth staying longer
in the education system. In general, female youth seem to enter and
exit the labor force at an earlier age than males. The female
economic activity rate continued to be a little higher than that of
males during the decade.
The adult labor force participation rate increased from 84.7 percent
(nearly 3.8 million) in 1998, to 87.5 percent (5.2 million) in 2008.
The adult labor force participation rate was considerably higher
among males, and that rate remained constant throughout the decade.
Compared with 1998, the absolute number of adult males increased
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by almost 668,000 in 2008. The number of female adults increased
by 722,000, or 4.8 percentage points. Thus, the gender gap in the
adult labor force participation rate shrunk over the decade (from a
16.8 percentage point difference in 1998, to a 12.1 percentage point
difference in 2008).
[Figure 2-2] Labor Force Participation Rate, for Workers Aged 15 and Older (%)
By 2008, the youth employment-to-population ratio had increased
by 4.8 percentage point, to 58.1 percent. When compared with the
1998 data, the absolute number in 2008 had increased by nearly 623,000
people. In general, the female youth employment-to- population ratio
was larger than the male ratio in both years. This may be due to
the large proportion of young women engaged in unpaid household
work. It seems that females enter the labor force sooner than many
males, who are encouraged to stay in school longer.
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The adult employment-to-population rate also increased, from 3.7
million (82.2 percent) in 1998, to 5.1 million (86.6 percent) in 2008.
The adult employment ratio in 2008 was considerably higher among
males than females. But in terms of growth, the adult male ratio
increased marginally, by 1.5 percentage points; the female adult ratio
increased much more, at 6.5 percentage points.
[Figure 2-3] Employment-to-Population Ratios for Workers Aged 15 and Older(%)
In looking at the age-specific unemployment rates, the largest
proportion is found among the youth. The youth unemployment rate
is 3.3 percent, compared to the adult unemployment rate of 1.1
percent. However, over the decade, the unemployment rate for both
sexes among the youth declined significantly, from 12.3 percent, to
3.4 per cent among males, and 12 percent to 3.3 percent among the
females. There is a similar pattern among the adult population trend,
although the decline is marginal.
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Among the unemployed people aged 15 or older in 2008, 80.7
percent were considered literate. Of them, 3.7 percent had no
educational qualifications; 28.5 per cent had not completed the
primary level of school; 25.2 percent had completed it; and 19.4
percent had finished through the lower secondary level. Only 3.9
percent of the unemployed had gone beyond the lower secondary
level. The proportion of unemployed youth and adults considered
illiterate, or who had not completed the primary level, declined for
both males and females over the decade. But there was a
considerable increase in the unemployed literate males and females
who had completed the primary level, lower secondary level, or
beyond.
<Table 2-5> Unemployment Rate
Age group 1998 2008Both sexes
15+ 5.3 1.615-24 12.2 3.325-64 2.9 1.165+ 2.9 1.0
Male15+ 4.6 1.515-24 12.3 3.425-64 2.3 0.865+ 2.0 0.8
Female15+ 5.8 1.815-24 12.0 3.325-64 3.6 1.365+ 3.9 1.3
Source: NIS/MOP. General population census of Cambodia 1998.NIS/MOP. General population census of Cambodia 2008.
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Section 2. Industrial Relations
Industrial relations, and in particular the garment industry, are
characterized by a high level of disputes, which may be considered
normal in any young system. Unions and employers typically do not
have the knowledge or the tools to engage in dialogue and dispute
prevention measures, including collective bargaining. Employers
have noted that multiple and competing unions in the workplace and
strikes that do not follow procedures create challenges for good
industrial relations in the garment sector. Unions complain about low
or unpaid wages, anti-union discrimination, and abuse of short-term
contracts. This has gradually changed over time as workers and
employers have increasingly resorted to working together to improve
industrial relations. As noted in section 3.2.9, several initiatives have
provided a solid institutional basis for improved industrial relations.
However, it is still a major challenge.
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Chapter 3
GOVERNANCE OF THE TVET SYSTEM
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in
Cambodia is managed by the Ministry of Labor and Vocational
Training (MOLVT) (see the organizational chart below), which is
steered by the National Training Board, comprising the Deputy
Prime Minister as president; senior government officials from various
ministries; and representatives from international organizations, donors,
industries and other stakeholders as members. At the regional level,
there is the Provincial Department of Labor and Vocational Training,
directed by the Provincial Training Board, with representatives from
different areas. The same structure applies at the district level.
Section 1. Governing Structure
1. NAME OF INSTITUTION
Department of Technical Vocational Education and Training
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Management (DTVETM)
Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training (MOLTV)
2. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF INSITUTION
2.1 Vision
To participate in poverty reduction through the Rectangular
Strategy, as recommended by the Royal Government of Cambodia,
for the labor and Technical Vocational Education and Training
sectors in Cambodia.
2.2 Mission
To achieve the above vision, the Ministry of Labor and Vocational
Training states its mission to improve the growing workforce,
promote equity, and raise the living standards of the people.
• Duties and responsibilities of the Ministry of Labor and
Vocational Training
- Establishment and Development of Employment Policy
- Establishment and Development of National Policy on Technical
Vocational
Education and Training
- Monitor the TVET institutions and classes;
- Coordinate with all relevant ministries to develop TVET;
- Establish and Develop of a standard testing and accreditation
CAMBODIA 109
system; and
- Monitor the implementation of apprenticeship training duty and
the apprenticeship training fund as determined by labor law.
[Figure 3-1] MOLVT Organizational Structure
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Section 2. Organizational Structure of DTVETM
Services in the Department of Technical Vocational Education and
Training Management are divided into 6 offices, and they are
outlined below:
❍ The Management Institution office is responsible for:
- Formal Technical Vocational Education and Training sectors;
- Non-formal Technical Vocational Education and Training
sectors; and
- Preparing a system for monitoring quality evaluation.
❍ The Planning and Statistics office is responsible for:
- Cooperation;
- Staff development;
- Monitoring, Evaluation and Management Information System;
and
- Clearing.
❍ The Relations office is responsible for:
- Personnel;
- Financial;
- Building material maintenance and supply material;
- Administration; and
- Building Security.
❍ The National Training Fund office is responsible for:
- Review and evaluation;
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- Grants and Loans; and
- Accounting.
❍ Self-Employment Generation Fund Office
❍ Special Needs and Gender Office
Section 3. TVET System Overview
The National Training Board (NTB) is the APEX body of TVET.
It approves policy; sets program objectives; and establishes measurable
targets. The NTB has a coordinating function and a leadership role
in linking the national training program to the needs of the economy,
as defined in the National Strategic Development Plan 2006-2010.
The 32 members of NTB have representatives from the ministries,
as well as from the private sector, employees, training providers, IO,
and NGO’s.
The Directorate of TVET (DG.TVET) within the Ministry of
Labor and Vocational Training (MLVT) is responsibile for
supporting the NTB in policy development and in implementing its
policies once approved. With 138 staff members, DG.TVET has
three operating departments. It is responsible for developing national
competency standards for all skills and a labor market information
system, as well as supporting, expanding, and assuring the quality
of public and private provision of TVET.
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Mission of DG.TVET
Under the policy direction of the NTB, DG.TVET’s mission is to:
(i) develop and sustain a quality assured, demand driven TVET
system that meets the needs of Cambodia for economic and social
development, as expressed in the Rectangular National Development
Strategy; (ii) provide Enterprise with a skilled and adaptable
workforce; and (iii) respond to the life long needs of individuals for
decent jobs or self-employment by supporting appropriate training.
The key player within the MOLVT is the General Directorate of
Technical and Vocational Education and Training, whose obligations
are defined in Chapter 2, Article 3b-TVET, by the Royal Government
of Cambodia Sub-Decree No. 52:
To study and develop a national policy on occupations to review
the needs of the employment market;
To prepare and develop an occupational policy based on the
national policy for TVET;
To prepare and develop a National Policy for TVET;
To prepare a policy and manage the TVET system;
To screen proposal for the establishment of institutions, centers,
and schools providing TVET services;
CAMBODIA 113
To control, monitor, and evaluate public and private TVET
institutions;
To coordinate communication with ministries, institutions, and
organizations in the region and in the world to promote TVET in
cooperation with the MFA and international organizations;
To cooperate with enterprises and institutions to strengthen and
promote TVET;
To prepare and develop occupation or work standards that meet
national and international market needs;
To prepare and manage testing or examinations that assess levels
of competence in all occupations and award or remove licenses or
certificates acknowledging the level of competence based on the
results; and
To manage the training of apprentices and the financial aspects
of apprenticeship training.
Section 4. The Two Tracks of TVET Policy
As noted in the first National TVET Development Plan, TVET
has two major and often competing directions. First, TVET needs
to respond to social equity issues by assisting the poor to master
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skills which will enhance family income through better farm
productivity or basic self-employment. Secondly, TVET must meet
the needs of enterprise for a skilled and adaptable workforce as those
needs arise. Both tracks are demand-driven — one by the villagers
and micro enterprise at the district and provincial level, and the
second, by large enterprise at the national level.
The first track is primarily linked to social policy, the second,
largely to economic policy. The first tract has an immediate urgency;
the second track can be developed over a number of years, so that
when Enterprise expresses a need for labor force development
assistance, TVET is ready to respond.
The second track can be largely addressed using either public or
private partnerships, with government providing the coordination;
standards enforcement; and assured access for the poor.
Policy Implications for TVET
This second National TVET Development Plan continues to
place maximum emphasis on rural poverty alleviation
(TVET Track 1), while continuing to prepare for the gradual
growth in demand for a much higher level of work force
skills. It adds to the policies of the previous year the new
concept of a bridging program to help school leavers
without basic entry credentials to master the academic
requirements in math, science, and language to allow
them to enter the TVET stream.
CAMBODIA 115
Section 5. Policy Development in TVET System
A first National TVET Development Plan (NTDP) was approved
by the NTB in February 2006. That document outlined a twenty-five
year development plan. (see Appendix 1. Fourteen policies were
approved to form the foundation for the planning of programs and
activities for TVET, and a general commitment to demand-driven
TVET was made.
This present document reports on achievements in implementing
the NTB policies over the past year. It updates the NTDP for the
year 2007 with new targets. It begins the process of adjusting the
policies set out in the previous year using the lessons learned and
achievements of the past 12 months. With newly available labor
market data, it strengthens targeting skills’ investment in areas of
economic growth. It builds on success and gives clear program
direction as the basis of the new program- based budget process for
2008, which replaces previous budgetary processes by connecting
finances to a clear policy-driven program plan.
As will be seen, substantial progress has been made in implementing
the Two Tracks TVET Development Policy which was adopted in
2006.
Track 1 activities strengthened the focus on both poverty reduction
and decentralization of decision-making over the course of the year,
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by targeting both Government Priority Action Program (PAP) funds
and Asian Development Bank- ESDP II resources.
Track 2 is the longer-term plan linking our skills development
programs to the needs of employers. The development of the capacity
to manage this demand-driven system was a continuing activity of
DG.TVET over this past year, and progress has been made in our
competency-based training system. Cambodian institutions, too, are
learning to respond to the market for training by expanding their
fee-based activities, when that is possible and desirable.
However, much remains to be done, and more ambitious targets
will be outlined in this document for the year ahead.
For the near future, it remains clear that the greatest and quickest
gains in poverty alleviation and growth will be possible in rural areas
where most of the poor live. The National Strategic Development
Plan (NSDP) “will therefore direct 60% of resources to rural areas
with increased attention to productive activities, like agriculture,
rural development, and to health and education, to increases and
enhance human capital and better contribute to overall development.”
The following guideline for the Policy Framework Development
for TVET focuses on six core elements: quality, better citizenship,
research, flexibility, sustainability, and lifelong learning. The Ministry
of Labor and Vocational Training will continue to implement the
CAMBODIA 117
following policy guidelines:
Policy 1: Target Poverty Reduction through TVET
Implement Voucher Program Pilot Project Targeted National
Training Fund
• Policy: Target TVET programs at poverty reduction by developing
a program for the poorest communes that will provide basic
income generating skills based on local needs and opportunities.
• Strategy: Select the 210 poorest Communes in 7 representative
provinces. Train PTC staff in participative community development.
PTC staff will assist each commune in writing a 3 year training
plan to bring skills that will help it be more economically
successful. Provide funding for the training, and find trainers
who can give most of the training in the commune. Use the
7 provinces and their PTCs as training for the remaining 17
provinces.
• Status: The program was implemented in 7 provinces and is
functioning well. An impact study is underway; funding is
required to extend to the program to all provinces as a regular
TVET program.
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Policy 2: Decentralization of Decision Making to Improve the Fit
between Training and Demand for Training by Involved
Partners
Build Provincial Teams Under National Training Board /DGTVET
to identify and respond to demand for training from local communes
and Enterprise.
• Policy: Selecting the required TVET training is best done in
communes where the training will take place and where local
markets and village skills are understood. It is the government’s
policy to move decision making as close as possible to those
most affected.
• Strategy: The skills, knowledge, and abilities in the Directorate
General of TVET, among the PTC directors, deputy directors
and community development specialists, will be expanded
through training to strengthen decentralization. NTTI will be
strengthened to provide and sustain this training.
• Status: Seven provincial training boards are established. PTB
involvement in PTC planning is in place in these provinces for
the VSDP and should be expanded to NTF courses, as well.
Policy 3: Expanding Post Secondary TVET (Diploma and Degree)
Development of Regional Polytechnics or Regional TVET Centers;
CAMBODIA 119
Expansion of the capacity of the Phnom Penh based TVET post
secondary institutions to provide demand driven diploma and degree
programs. Strengthen National Technical Training Institute to
improve the quality of trainers and curriculum prepared for the
system.
• Policy: Support for short term training is determined by the
communes; delivered in the communes using existing facilities;
and provided by NGOs with experience or existing involvement
in the communes.
• Strategy: Provide funding for communes and enterprise-based
training to be assisted by PTC staff. PTCs will receive 10% of
the value of this training in return for assisting with the
development and recruitment of trainers who implement the
program. Ensure that NTF funds are allocated to support training
that is demand-driven and community/enterprise-responsive.
• Status: Commune-based training is well established in 7
provinces under PTC cooperation. Over 50,000 commune residents
have been trained in skills that they identified as giving them
new income opportunities. Enterprise-based training is slowly
expanding, as more PTC staff learn how to work with small
enterprises.
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Policy 4: Commune and Enterprise-based training
Voucher System and targeted National Training Fund
Policy 5: Out of School Youth
Target voucher and National Training Fund training
• Policy: In the poorest communes, target TVET at reducing the
number of unemployed, out of school youth. Develop from the
7 pilots a national program to assist youth in gaining basic
employment and self employment skills applicable to a rural
setting. Develop a bridging program to help this group gain
access to training that leads to further education in TVT
institutions up through the degree level.
• Strategy: Target commune-based training at unemployed youth
and, in so doing, ensure a gender balance. Use family-based and
informal apprenticeship and very brief training inputs to expand
the number of trainees. It is best to identify skills that improve
productivity in farming or lead to self or local employment.
• Status: An analysis of commune/enterprise training participants
is now underway. A bridging program has been recommended
to DG. TVET to bring more school leavers up to a standard
where they can qualify for NTQF level 3 and 4 training.
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Policy 6: Self Employment as Part of All Training in TVET
• Policy: Commune-based skills training will include training in
micro enterprise management.
• Strategy: A list of self employment ideas will be taken to the
communes. An assessment of local market opportunities will be
made. Communes will be advised to use enhanced farm
productivity, self employment, and family-based employment in
achieving their planned outcomes.
• Status: The recommendation to train PTC staff so that they can
include small business development and management in all
training will be implemented when resources are available.
Policy 7: Micro Credit
Link micro credit providers to all trainings
• Policy: Communes and individuals require information on micro
credit providers and costs during any given training. Access to
micro credit should be included in most training at the commune
level.
• Strategy: PTCs will assist each PTB to develop a provincial
association of micro credit providers who commit to a statement
of ethical behaviour and offer a simplified process to assist
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clients with a range of interest rates. PTCs will give a list to
the commune councils during the training plan design process
and invite member micro credit providers to present information
to training participants on voucher-based training. PTCs will
ensure that all NTF supported trainees receive training in micro
credit access and management.
• Status: The recommendation to train PTC staff so that they can
include small business development and management in all
training will be implemented when resources are available.
Micro credit access will be part of this training.
Policy 8: Small Enterprises
Assist SMEs to identify training needs for growth and provide
Vouchers/National Training Fund to support training.
• Policy: TVET will develop a program to assist small, rural
enterprises to expand training through informal apprenticeship
programs. The program will assist in introducing appropriate
technology where it can expand the opportunities for small
enterprises. Vouchers and micro credit may be a part of this
program.
• Strategy: Community development specialists in each PTC will
be trained to assist small enterprises in developing informal
apprenticeship programs and in developing training plans that
CAMBODIA 123
accept applications for vouchers. A proportion of the voucher
VSTP budget will be allocated to this activity (current estimate,
30%).
• Status: In the 7 VSTP provinces, progress has been made with
753 trainees in small businesses. When NTTI trains more PTC
staff in enterprise-based training, this will improve.
Policy 9: Public-Private Partnerships and the Financing of TVET
Introduce basic benefit/contribute model of finance. Revenue base
programs in Provincial Training Centers and Entrepreneurial
institutions
• Policy: TVET will be funded by beneficiaries. These include
government, trainees, enterprises, and communities.
• Strategy: Develop an employer-based levy on payroll or payroll
taxes to enable support by enterprises for TVET and develop
TVET centers that are co-managed by enterprises.
• Status: Communes provide training site and food for trainers,
trainees are not paid in VSTP. Small enterprises are absorbing
some training costs in enterprise-based training in VSTP. A levy
grant proposal has been made and is under review by the
government.
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Policy 10: Public-Private Partnerships, Enterprise Involvement in
TVET
NTB-Enterprise Involvement, sector councils, enterprise management
of higher skills and technician levels
• Policy: Increase the participation of enterprises in the design,
decision making, and provision of TVET.
• Strategy: Involve enterprises in TVET through their membership
in the National Training Board; the establishment of an advisory
enterprise council; and the inclusion of enterprises in provincial
training boards.
• Status: The employment sector council concept was tested with
the garment industry. The industry is formulating its own
standards which will become national standards over time.
Policy 11: Public-Private Partnerships
Expanding the provision of TVET National Training Fund
/Voucher as incentives for private sector trainers.
• Policy: Expand the provision of TVET by private sector training
providers. Concentrate in overall provision of TVET, not on
government provision.
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• Strategy: Training will be purchased from qualified private
sector training providers by the NTF and by the commune/
enterprise voucher system. Each PTC will develop a list of
private sector and NGO training providers in the province. They
will be asked to register with their provincial branch of national
training in the voucher program. The list of training providers;
the training they will provide; and course length and course cost
will be given to the commune councils to assist in their
planning.
• Status: The number of private sector training providers is
increasing, as needed, but there is no quality assurance or
regulatory framework. The need continues for a national TVET
qualifications framework (NTQF) and for industry-driven
competency standards as the basis for quality assurance.
Policy 12: Quality Assurance of TVET Provision
National Association of TVET Providers (NATP). Meet standards
to be eligible for NTF/Vouchers
• Policy: DGTVET has the central responsibility for ensuring the
quality of TVET provision. Training providers must meet and
continue to meet an agreed standard to be eligible for access
to any state training funds.
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• Strategy: The establishment of a National TVET Trainers
Network (NTTN), built on provincial branches, with agreed
financial and ethical standards, is an early step. Development
of training standards in core skills area which are audited by
government is another important step. NTTI will assure
continuity and sustainability of the quality assurance process.
Training vouchers can only be used at approved training
providers who are members of the NTTN provincial office. Only
NTTN members are eligible for NTF support of training.
• Status: No action has been taken on this policy.
Policy 13: Quality of TVET Leadership, Management,
and Coordination
NTTI as a staff college for TVET, capacity building on training
needs analysis.
• Policy: Improve the quality and consistency of TVET leadership,
management, and administration in the public and private sector.
• Strategy: Ensure transfer of capacity building training by
consultants and others to NTTI, so that new inputs from each
project are not lost when the consultants from that project leave,
but are supported by a continuing staff development plan for
all DG TVET staff by a professional body of trainers at NTTI.
CAMBODIA 127
• Status: No action has been taken on this policy.
Policy 14: Labor Market Information
Provincial/PTB basic data system and enterprise surveys
• Policy: NTB is mandated to oversee the national labor market
in the TVET area. Balancing the market for skills requires
information on both the supply and demand of skills. The
further development of a labor market information system is a
priority.
• Strategy: Involve PTCs and PTBs in gathering basic labor
market information in each province. Involve enterprise councils
in providing labor market demand information. Gather available
information from other ministries. Include market opportunity
information when possible.
• Status: A LMIS Department has been established, and a proposal
has been developed for a national employment agency as a
mechanism to gather data.
Policy 15: Competency Standards
Adopt regional standards with ILO/ASEAN support. Implement the
National Quantity System
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• Policy: National skills standards will be established and a
national competency assessment system set in place.
• Strategy: Use existing competency standards and, where needed;
acquire international competency standards from other Asian
countries; and validate them with enterprise councils. Work
closely with ILO and ASEAN in this task and in the development
of a regional national qualification framework.
• Status: Substantial capacity building continues with Korean
assistance. The garment industry is writing its own standards.
The development of standards will be a priority again as
institution-enterprise training begins to grow. (MOLVT, 2009)
Section 6. Vision and Strategic Direction
TVET has gained strong support from the highest level down to
the local authority. In the government’s two main documents, the
Rectangular Strategy for Growth, Employment, Equity, and
Efficiency and the National Strategic Development Plan (2006-2010),
technical and vocational training is recognized as one of the
instruments for economic development. Therefore, a concrete agenda
has been set. First, there is the development of TVET programs that
respond to the labor market demands, while they also strengthen the
management and provision of job-seeking services. Second, a TVET
CAMBODIA 129
system with flexible entry and exit points will be put in place. Third,
the National Training Board (NTB) with a sub-technical committee
of accreditation; standards’ development; testing and certification;
and labor market information will be established. Fourth, an advisory
Industrial Technical Committee (AITC), National Employment
Agency, and job centers will be created.
As evidenced, the government has established the steering committee
(National Training Board chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister),
together with funding support. National TVET Development Plan
(NTDP) has 15 main policies, 3 of which are at a macro level; 5
at a supporting level; and 7 at a sustainable and demand-driving
level. The plan was adopted by the NTB in 2006. It has two tracts
― first, aiming at alleviating poverty through provision of basic
skills to rural households (more at provincial and district level), so
that more productive farming can be cultivated and extra income can
be generated via basic self-employment; second, offering high-level
skills (mostly conducted at national level in urban areas) responsive
to industry and service need.
The national socioeconomic planning framework for Cambodia is
the Rectangular Strategy for Growth, Phase II, which was launched
in September 2008. Its strategies include improvements to productivity
and diversification of agriculture, private sector development,
employment generation, and human resource development. The
National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP), 2006–2010, based on
130 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
the Rectangular Strategy, reiterates the importance of capacity
building and human resource development. Stated strategies include
(i) promotion of vocational and skills training; (ii) creation of jobs
in both formal and informal sectors; (iii) an increase in agricultural
productivity to increase rural employment; and (iv) the establishment
of TVET and training networks to assist both men and women,
especially the poor, disabled and vulnerable, to respond to labor
market needs.
The NSDP is implemented through detailed plans from each
ministry. The Strategic Plan of the MOLVT, 2006–2010 identifies
ways to strengthen the economy and reduce poverty, including the
development of technical and vocational skills. The MOLVT plan
aims to (i) establish TVET links with enterprises; (ii) establish
mechanisms for labor market information; (iii) service both formal
and informal sectors; (iv) upgrade TVET through a NVQF, competency
standards and testing, training of trainers, and accreditation of TVET
programs and institutions; (v) modernize training facilities and
equipment; (vi) strengthen local planning for local training needs;
(vii) establish new centers in unserved provinces; (viii) expand
TVET provision through the NTF to reduce poverty more widely;
(ix) encourage certificate-based TVET programs in all provinces and
municipalities; and (x) encourage TVET institutions to generate their
own income (ADB, Proposed Asian Development Fund Grant
Kingdom of Cambodia: Strengthening Technical and Vocational
Education and Training Project, October 2009).
CAMBODIA 131
Chapter 4
FINANCING OF TVET
In the second phrase of its Rectangular Strategy, the government
puts more emphasis on employment generation. This strategy allows
stronger support from government budgets, as well as international
organizations, donors, and other stakeholders. The government has
increased its funding annually up to 2.55 million USD in recent years
to MOVLT through the National Training Fund, the most well-
known one, which was envisaged as a medium and long-term
mechanism for the financing of training from both government and
non-government funds. Initially, the NTF served as a means for
providing project-financed support for demand-oriented training,
such as training programs relevant to employment needs, and in
accordance with the training policy and strategy of the National
Training Board (NTB). In the longer term, the NTF was expected
to evolve into the main mechanism for funding of employment-
related training, including enterprise-based training. It aimed at
132 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
becoming an instrument for providing incentives to training
institutions, enterprises, and the private sector to upgrade and extend
their provision of training.
The NTF was established in December 1997. All of 1998 was
spent identifying and designing the programs; developing systems
and procedures; and training staff. The NTB eventually developed
and approved three financing facilities:
(i) The Training Grant Fund (TGF), a grant facility for training
providers contracted to do training for certain group of trainees in
certain skill areas;
(ii) The Innovative Skills Investment Assistance Fund (ISIAF), a
loan facility for private training providers offering innovative
training to their own target clientele for a fee; and
(iii) The Self-employment Generation Fund (SEGF), a micro-credit
loan facility for small entrepreneurs in both urban and rural areas
(Richard Johanson, 2009).
The Training Grant Fund trained a total of 13,100 beneficiaries
from 24 provinces/cities in 53 skill areas at a cost of $1.9 million,
or an average of $147 per trainee. The TGF beneficiaries comprised
the poorest people (38.1%), school leavers (25.2%), orphans
(15.1%), widows (9.9%), crippled demobilized soldiers (6.3%), and
handicapped (5.5%). Half of the beneficiaries were women. Based
CAMBODIA 133
on a tracer study on training outcomes, the average employment rate
among graduates was 66 percent, including 75 percent for women
and just 59 percent for men. Categorized by type of beneficiary, the
employment rate ranged from a low of 55 percent among school
leavers, to full employment among demobilized soldiers. An
estimated 80 percent of those who found employment did so in the
informal sector. The average income of those who found
employment ranged from $32-$73 per month. This may not seem
like much, but when benchmarked against the $25 per month average
salary of public servants, the impact of TGF was significant on the
income of beneficiaries. The TGF had no cost recovery. Training
fees could not be charged because the beneficiaries were very poor
and had to be provided assistance in transportation and food during
the training period. But, in terms of employment generation, the TGF
was efficient, requiring only an average investment of $222 per
employed beneficiary.
The Self-employment Generation Fund (SEGF) was a micro-credit
program patterned after the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh. Loan
amounts generally ranged from $200–$3,000. By December 2002 the
SEGF, through the provincial training centers, had disbursed $1.4
million (including re-lending) to 5,650 members in 1,750 groups in
15 provinces; 65% were women. The SEGF beneficiaries engaged
in a wide variety of micro-enterprises such as algae and seaweed
growing, bamboo basket making, animal raising, food processing,
hairdressing, motorbike repair, onion growing, television and radio
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service and repair, silk weaving, masonry, stone carving, worm
raising. Selection of eligible businesses was preceded by a training
and employment needs assessment (TENA) conducted by the
provincial training centers, and by rudimentary feasibility studies.
The high collection rates (around 92 percent) indicated that the
SEGF businesses were doing well. The average income from such
businesses ranged from $400 to $900 per annum, a significant amount,
especially in the countryside.
The experience of the two NTF programs, the TGF and SEGF,
was encouraging. Their impacts on the poor were direct, concrete,
and substantial, and with relatively small investments. The TGF
proved to be an efficient way to empower the poor by providing
employable skills, either for wage or self-employment. The SEGF
provided concrete opportunities for TGF graduates to apply acquired
skills for self-employment. However, the operations of both programs
would need to be scaled up to reach more target beneficiaries.
The National Training Fund continued to operate using government
funds (program budget) after closure of the project. The procedures
for the competitive award of contracts, and use of unit costs for
pricing the training are still in use. Thus, the institutional
development gains from the project appear to be sustained. There
were several limitations, however. The use of low unit costs in the
competition for contracts effectively excluded private training
providers. Only government institutions and NGOs that have already
CAMBODIA 135
sunk costs in teacher salaries could afford to compete. Some
adjustments need to be made to provide incentives for private
providers to compete. Red tape makes it difficult to spend fully the
government program budget allocated to the NTF. As a result, some
of the intended programs could not be financed (Richard Johanson,
2009).
ADB, a major funding agency in the sector, began assisting
Cambodia in 1992 from the Basic Skills Project, to the first and
second Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) and
currently the Strengthening Technical and Vocational Education and
Training Project (See full list of donors of TVET in Section 5). Other
funding schemes include Samdech Decho, the Prime Minister’s
Special Fund, and the National Social Security Fund. The Directorate
General of TVET, within the Ministry of Labor and Vocational
Training, has a self employment generation fund to help graduates
start their own business.
136 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 4-1> Number of Graduates from the Prime Minister’s Special Fund (2008-2009)
No Description Training Provider were Accepted Skills/course
Total TrainingGraduates
Total Female
1 Support TrainingInstitutions
32 training providers(public)
Service 271Agriculture 524 21,140 12,222
2 National Training Fund
64 training providers(public 35, association 15, & NGO 14)
Service 200Agriculture 500 19,000 10,364
Total 40,140 22,586(MOLVT 2009)
<Table 4-2> Number of Graduates from Program Budgeting
(2008-2009)
No Description Training Provider were Accepted Skills/course
Total Training Graduates
Total Female
1 Support TrainingInstitutions
32 training providers(public)
Service 180Agriculture 5 3,750 1,687
2 NationalTraining Fund
64 training providers(public 34, association 15, & NGO 14)
Service 54Agriculture 392 12,540 5,121
Total 16,290 6,808(MOLVT 2009)
CAMBODIA 137
Chapter 5
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF TVET
There has been continuous support from international organizations,
funding agencies, NGOs, and other stakeholders in the development
of TVET in Cambodia: The World Bank has outlined all major
contributors in this sector.
Other external organizations support ADB’s initial assistance to
TVET, building on support from the United Nations Development
Program and ILO that began in the early 1990s and initially focused
on basic employment training for returnees, the displaced, demobilized
soldiers, and female heads of household. Subsequent initiatives
supported the development of skills for training needs assessment,
curriculum and program development, and instructor training.
Assistance to MOEYS was provided by German development
assistance through GTZ to develop recommendations for a national
training framework and staff training, and to plan an integrated
national TVET system. ADB’s broad support for general education
138 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
and TVET over the following decade has been further enhanced by
specific support from other donors. This included (i) Japan International
Cooperation Agency support (1990–2000) for an automotive training
and auto repair center, and ongoing provision of specialist volunteers
across several of the MOLVT training institutions; (ii) Republic of
Korea development assistance (2005–2009) for skills standards and
the establishment of the National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia;
and (iii) grant assistance for the support of the Cambodia–India
Entrepreneurship Development Center from the India Technical and
Economic Cooperation, 2004–2007. A National Garment Training
Institute, proposed for funding by the Garment Manufacturers'
Association of Cambodia and Agence Francaise de Developpement,
may provide a model for future public–private TVET initiatives in
key sectors (ADB, Proposed Asian Development Fund Grant
Kingdom of Cambodia: Strengthening Technical and Vocational
Education and Training Project, October 2009).
CAMBODIA 139
Project Name Value and Years Focus of AssistanceILO EmploymentGeneration ProgramVocational Training forEmploymentGeneration(VTEG)UNDP/ILO Grant
$18 millionPhase 1(1992-1997)Phase 2(1997-1998)
Promoted and provided direct employment skills for rural and urban poor (including returnees, displaced persons, demobilized soldiers, disabled and female heads of households) through short vocational training programs for identified employment opportunities. Developed skills for training needs assessment, curriculum and program development and instructor training.
ILO EmploymentGeneration ProgramVocational Training forPoverty Alleviation(VTAP)UNDP/ILO Grant
$12 million1994-1998
Further development of systems and support mechanisms for skills training and implementation through development of a national training framework and training of officers from the MOEYS. Assistance to MOEYS for planning an integrated national TVET system.
National Strategy Planfor TVETUNDP/ILO/ GTZ
1994-1996 Assessment of existing TVET system; involvement of other ministries and stakeholders; identification of training needs for employment, self-employment and income generation; training technologies; system structures
Basic Skills ProjectADB loan
$20 million1996-2002
Established (initial) National Training Board (NTB); National Training Fund (NTF) and the National Vocational Training Center (now National Technical Training Institute, NTTI). Assistance to provincial training centers and women’s training centers, and support for system training and development)
Education SectorDevelopment ProgramADB loans and linkedadvisory assistance, 2004
$20 program loan and $18 million project loan 2002-2004
For TVET: established and continued upgrading to PTCs. Technical assistance for TVET staff upgrading and development of skills standards.
<Table 5-1> External Assistance
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Project Name Value and Years Focus of AssistanceSecond Education SectorDevelopment ProgramADB loan
$20 program loan and $25 million project loan and TA (0.5 million) 2005-2008
For TVET: development and support of the Voucher Skills Training Program (VSTP) as a community-based basic-skills demand-driven training scheme in trial provinces. Equipment and technical assistance for staff and system development through provincial training center upgrading, staff training and management support for implementation of VSTP.
Japanese VocationalCenter Workshop and Technical SchoolJICA grant assistance
1990-2000 Assistance for the establishment and continuing operation of an automotive training and commercial auto repair center, including senior staffing, equipment, programs and in-Japan staff training. (Initially under Ministry of Public Works and Transport, now MOLVT).
Japanese OverseasCooperation VolunteersProgramJICA
ongoing Assistance through volunteers for training and development in air conditioning, automotive, dressmaking, computer graphics, engineering, systems engineering in DGTVET institutions, plus supporting training equipment and supplies.
Korean DevelopmentAssistance(Korean Research Institute forVocational Training)Grant
$1.2 million2005-2009
Assistance for the establishment of a national qualifications framework and testing centers.
Technical Assistancefor the Support of theCambodia-IndiaEntrepreneurshipDevelopment Center,(CIEDC)ITEC grant
2004-2007 Provision of technical advisor, fellowships, and in-country staff development, for management and program development in entrepreneurship, SME development, accounting and business.
CAMBODIA 141
Project Name Value and Years Focus of AssistancePiloting the Post-Harvest Technologyand Skills BridgingProgramADB grant
JFPR Grant$2 million2009
TVET skills bridging for out-of-school rural poor youth for income-earning activities in market-linked post-harvest employment, including basic education upgrading initiatives which will impact directly on the proposed Strengthening TVET project.
National GarmentTraining InstituteAFD, GMAC, MOLVT
€3.8 million loanto GMAC.Not yet finalized
Establishment of an independent (public-private partnership) garment industry training and development center for: (i) skills training for access to employment; (ii) professional development; and (iii) advice and technical assistance.
AFD = Agence Française de Dévelopment; GMAC = Garment Manufacturers Association in Cambodia; GTZ = German Agency for Technical Cooperation; ILO =International Labor Organization; ITEC = Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation; JICA = Japan International Cooperation Agency; MOEYS = Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport; MOLVT = Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training; PTC =Provincial Training Center, TVET = Technical and Vocational Education and Training; UNDP = United Nations Development Programme.Source: Asian Development Bank.
(ADB, Proposed Asian Development Fund Grant Kingdom of
Cambodia: Strengthening Technical and Vocational Education and
Training Project, October 2009, page 37 & 38)
CAMBODIA 143
Chapter 6
NEW AGENDA AND PLANS FOR THE FUTURE
Emerging from a period of social unrest in its recent history (since
early 1970s), Cambodia has encountered many challenges, but has
simultaneously moved many steps forward. If compared to other
countries in the region, there is much that Cambodia must commit
to catch up. In its future course, Cambodia will experience both
challenges and opportunities ― challenges: there are so many things
that Cambodia has to do, and do fast; opportunity: there are plentiful
of lessons from other countries that Cambodia can learn from, which
is sometimes a shortcut (to success).
Since its adoption of free market economy in the 1990s, Cambodia
has undertaken numerous reforms. Besides agriculture, the Royal
Government of Cambodia recognizes the important roles of industry
and services in economic growth. Thus, from its 4th mandate, the
government has invested a great deal in technical and vocational
education and training. MOLVT is prioritized and assisted by
144 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
international organizations, development partners, funding agencies,
private partners, and other stakeholders in implementing its future
plan.
The 15 policies set by MOLVT will be further translated by ADB’s
major project ― Strengthening Technical and Vocational Education
and Training. This project outlines a concrete blueprint for the future
path of TVET in Cambodia, which includes 1) upgrading technical
and vocational education and training teacher training, skills
standards, testing and assessment; curriculum and training materials;
and institutional management and upgrading; 2) expanding the
Voucher Skills Training Program (VSTP) to all 24 provinces; and
3) developing and implementing skills standards. Another direction,
which stated by the Minister of TOLVT, is to make market
information more accessible to he public so that right decision for
jobs needed by the industry can be made.
CAMBODIA 145
[Figure 6-1] The Rectangular Strategy for Growth, Employment,
Equity, and Efficiency in Cambodia
146 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
[Figure 6-2] Proposed TVET System
CAMBODIA 147
[Figure 6-3] The TVET System 25 Year Development Plan in Cambodia
1996-2020
148 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
References
Asian Development Bank. 2009. Proposed Asian Development Fund
Grant Kingdom of Cambodia: Strengthening Technical and
Vocational Education and Training Project. October 2009.
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
BDLINK Cambodia Co., Ltd. 2008. Youth Employment and Social
Dialogue Project YEP Project–CAMFEBA. Youth and Employment:
Bridging the Gap. June 2008, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Economic Institute of Cambodia. 2008. Cambodia’s Labor Market
and Employment. Background paper prepared for the World
Bank. December 2008.
Ministry of Planning. 2010. General Population Census of Cambodia
2008: Final Census Results. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training (MoLVT). 2010. Annual
Report on Achievements (2009) and Implementation Goals
(2010) (in Khmer). Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training (MoLVT). 2008. National
TVET Development Plan 2008. Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport. 2010. Education Strategic
Plan (2009-2013). Phnom Penh.
Ministry of Economy and Finance. 2010. Recent Macro-economic
Performance: Cambodia’s real GDP Growth Rate.
http://www.mef.gov.kh/ [accessed 02 November 2010].
Ministry of Planning. 2010. National Institute of Statistics. Labour
and Social Trend in Cambodia 2010. September 2010. Phnom
CAMBODIA 149
Penh, Cambodia.
Richard Johanson. 2009. A Review of National Training Funds.
Social Project and Labour. The World Bank. November 2009.
Royal Government of Cambodia. National Strategic Development
Plan (2006-2010). Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Sandra Daminco. 2010. Higher Education and Skills for the Labor
Market in Cambodia, Jan 2010.
UNESCO. 2010. Good Practices in TVET Reform. February 2010.
UNESCO. 2010. National Education Support Strategy. May 2010.
INDONESIA
INDONESIA 153
Chapter 1
Technical Vocational Education and Training in
Indonesia
Section 1. Indonesia: context and background
Previously occupied by the Dutch, the Republic of Indonesia
proclaimed its independence in 1945 with the end of Japanese
occupation. Sukarno remained the first president of Indonesia until
1967, when Suharto took power and named his cabinet the New
Order. With the style of dictatorship, the New Order ruled Indonesia
for more than three decades, before President Suharto gave up his
position in 1997. There was mass desire for reformation due to social
instability driven by the severe economic crisis in Asian countries.
Indonesia was among the countries which had been most strongly
affected, revealing the fragility of her economic and social foundations.
Habibie as the Vice President remained in office for approximately
two years; since then, Indonesia has experienced significant changes
154 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
in its political climate, retreating from the umbrella of a few political
parties in 1999 (three political parties where the Government party
always won the general election), into a multi-party system (more
than 20 political parties competed in the general elections in 1999,
2004, and 2009). Since 2004, the President has been elected directly
by the people, indicating a strong demand from the people for better
democratization.
<Table 1-1> Indonesia General Statistics
General Statistics Population (2009) 230 millionArea (square kilometres) 1.9 millionEmployment by sector (%) (2009) Agriculture 43 Industry 13 Services 44GDP per capita (2009) $ 2,200Literacy rate (%) 93Unemployment (%) Year 2008 9.7 Year 2009 9.0
Indonesia is among the most densely populated countries in the
world. With more than 230 million, Indonesia ranks fourth from the
top in terms of the world’s population. The growth rate of the
population was 1.1 in 2010, showing continuous decline over
previous years. From 1970-1980, the growth rate was 2.31; from
1980-1990, it was 1.98; and from 1999-2000, it was 1.49.
The age structure of the population reveals that youth dominate
the population, creating both opportunities and challenges for the
INDONESIA 155
country. Many people are in school and of productive age. While
youth offer abundant labor opportunities for the local and global
labor market, they face significant challenges in receiving good
education and skills, and in creating jobs.
[Figure 1-1] Indonesia Population by Age Group and Gender, 2005
0
2,000,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
8,000,000
10,000,000
12,000,000
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20 -24 25-29 30 -34 3 5-39 4 0-44 45-4 9 50-54 55-59 60 -6 4 6 5-69 70 -74 75+
Age
Num
ber o
f pop
ulat
ion
Male Female
There is no comprehensive data on the migration pattern of the
population. The available data from the Indonesian Bureau of
Statistics (BPS) only reveals the estimated migration of population
age 5 years and over and, thus, there is no specific data on the
migration of the labor force. The BPS classifies migration into three
categories, which include:
1. Lifetime migration, in which migrants live in provinces different
from their birthplace;
156 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
2. Recent migration, in which migrants have moved to a new
province within the last five years; and
3. Total migration, in which migrants never lived in different
provinces before data was taken.
The most recent data available on the migration is from the 2000
Population Census which may be compared with the 1995 SUPAS
data. There is an increasing trend towards the interprovincial
migration of persons age 5 years and over, recorded at 2.4% from
1990-1995, to 3.1% from 1995-2000. Eight provinces have become
the most popular destinations: Jakarya, Yogyakarta, East Kalimantan,
Banten, Central Kalimantan, Jambi, Riau, and South Sulawesi.
The data on international migrants is limited to those who are
officially registered. The lack of data implies that the actual number
of Indonesian international migrants is far higher than that recorded
by the government. The Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration
revealed that, in 2009, the number of Indonesian migrant workers
abroad totaled nearly 2.8 million, spread in 42 countries around the
globe, with the majority of persons working in Malaysia, followed
by Saudi Arabia. See the table below:
INDONESIA 157
<Table 1-2> Major Country Destination of Indonesia Migrant Workers
No Destination Country Number of Indonesian Migrant Workers
1 Malaysia 1,200,0002 Saudi Arabia 927,5003 Taiwan 130,0004 Hong Kong 120,0005 Singapore 80,1506 Kuwait 61,0007 UEA 51,3508 Brunei Darussalam 40,4509 Jordan 35,00010 Qatar 24,58611 Bahrain 6,500 Total 2,676,536
Source: Ministry of Manpower, 2010 as cited in Iqbal (2010).
The majority of international migrants are women, who comprise
around 75%, and they mainly work as housemaids. While the most
popular destinations for the male international migrants are East Asia
and Southeast Asia, most female international migrants select Middle
Eastern countries. Poverty and lack of hope in getting jobs domestically
have been the main reasons for international migration. Thus, many
Indonesians working abroad are low-skilled, low-educated workers.
The administration of the international labor migrants is currently
being criticized by the NGOs and the people as a weakness in
administration, resulting in the existence of illegal migrants and
negligent migrant workers agencies which send people abroad
without protection and sufficient monitoring. It as also believed that
there should be an agency (government agent, trade union, or NGO)
that can help migrant workers secure rights and protection during
158 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
their time abroad.
The literacy rate in Indonesia is already quite high, around 93
percent in 2009 for age group 15+. However, when explored further,
the highest formal education enrollment rate is at the primary and
junior secondary school levels which are obligatory for the
Indonesian people. Most public schools within these levels are free.
The participation rate in the senior secondary school and university
degree is lower, due to access and cost.
<Table 1-3> School Participation Rate, 2009
Age/Education Level Numberof Pupils
Enrolledin School
Participation Rate
% of Males
% of Females
0-6 / Pre-school 28,426,505 6,594,086 23.20 49.91 50.097-12 / Primary School 26,304,320 26,015,842 98.90 51.55 48.4513-15 / Junior Secondary School 12,890,334 11,019,242 85.48 50.57 49.4316-18 / Senior Secondary School 12,897,898 7,325,188 56.79 51.62 48.3819-24 / College or University 25,077,900 4,325,354 17.25 47.74 52.26
Indonesia experienced the achievement of strong economic growth
during the New Order era, with an average annual growth of 7
percent in 1968-1996; this growth initially was fed by the oil boom
in 1970, and then by rapid expansion of the export-oriented
manufacturing, construction, and service sectors.
However, when the Asian financial crisis occurred in 1997, the
Indonesian economy collapsed, demonstrating the fragility of
Indonesia’s economic and social foundations. This resulted in a mass
desire for social reformation and, hence, the downfall of Suharto.
The crisis has resulted in a slow economic growth rate of average
INDONESIA 159
4 per cent; a significant increase of inflation from under 7 percent
in 1997, to over 58 percent in 1998; a higher unemployment rate;
and an increased share of the informal sector in absorbing
employment, suggesting a lower share of the formal sector in
providing employment for the people.
[Figure 1-2] Indonesia Economic Growth 1997-2009
-2.9
4.55.6 5.5
6.3 6.1
4.5
-3-2-101234567
1997-1999
2000-2004
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Year
As unemployment has become a major problem in the reformation
era, so has the government developed a plan by making employment
creation its first priority. The government heavily relies on
investment (particularly foreign direct investment) to overcome this
problem, though effectiveness remains questionable. The emphasis
is on partially improving the investment climate though regulations
(including the Manpower Law), and there is lack of attention towards
educational achievement and skills formation which match the needs
of industry.
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The government under the current President Susilo Bambang
Yudhoyono has established a priority agenda which focuses on
employment creation and unemployment reduction to improve the
people’s welfare. Following this agenda, the Bappenas (National
Planning and Development Agency) announced the Government
Medium-Term Development Plan (MTDP) for 2004-2009, which
presents an optimistic scenario. The scenario includes:
• Increasing GDP growth from 4.5% to 7.6%;
• Reducing unemployment from9.5% to 5.1%; and
• Cutting poverty levels from 17.4% to 8.2%.
However, policy documents seem to contradict these objectives.
First, the priorities of improving investment climate and upgrading
technology seem to have become more important than the task of
reducing unemployment. Furthermore, shifting priorities are also
found in the documents produced by the Coordinating Minister of
Economic Affairs which state that the unemployment target for 2009
is 6.7% (compared with 5.1% as promised), and the economic growth
is targeted for 7.2%, compared to 7.6 % in the MTDP (Sugiyarto et
al, 2008: 305). Furthermore, there is no clear employment-generation
program introduced and implemented by the government to reduce
unemployment and underemployment.
Unemployment in 2009 reached 9%, while economic growth was
4.5%, showing that reality is worse that the target previously set.
Regarding the unemployment rate, the Ministry of Manpower and
Transmigration stated that the reasons are: (1) there are not enough
employment opportunities in the labor market; (2) there is a
INDONESIA 161
mismatch between job requirements and qualifications held by
jobseekers; and (3) global recession led to company closure and
layoffs. The economic growth of 4% was considered an achievement,
although it was lower than the target and the previous year (6.4%
in 2008), because the global crisis created a pessimistic prediction
of economic growth. Thus, 4% was believed sufficient, due to
conditions at that time.
Section 2. The Indonesian Employment and Labor Market
Prior to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Indonesia had displayed
a growing formal sector, with an increase in female labor and a
decline in the informal sector; as epitomized by a decline in the
agricultural share of work; the main sector of the informal economy,
particularly during the New Order Era (De Ruyter and Warnecke
2008). This period is also characterized by the repression of labor
which involved military force to control workers. There was only
one government-controlled trade union which ensured that labor
unrest would not lead to strikes or demonstrations.
However, the Indonesian economy has since displayed a belated
recovery from the 1997 crisis, with economic growth rates in the
order of 4-6% p.a. over the last ten years; this has only translated
into a modest decline in the informal sector, as formal sector firms
in industries, such as manufacturing, cannot provide enough
employment for the abundant Indonesian workers. The situation has
162 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
been further worsened by the government’s unclear program to
reduce unemployment, as stated previously.
Thus, in 2005, the Indonesian workforce comprised over 155
million workers, of which 60% were estimated to be working in the
informal sector — defined as the self employed and unpaid family
workers (Sugiyarto et al, 2006: 302), particularly in the agricultural
and trade sectors. Furthermore, the number of informal workers is
higher in rural, than in urban areas.
[Figure 1-3] Informal Workers, Urban and Rural
10.419.27
16.54
4.63
1.281.63
9.69
18.25
5.18
0.832.572.13
14.08
3.51
0.002.004.006.008.00
10.0012.0014.0016.0018.0020.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
RuralUrban
1 = Self Employed
2 = Self Employed with Temporary Workers
3 = Self Employed with Permanent Workers
4 = Paid Workers
5 = Independent Workers in Agriculture
6 = Independent Workers in Non-agriculture
7 = Unpaid Workers
INDONESIA 163
The presence of an informal sector that can absorb displaced
formal sector workers is believed to have provided Indonesia with
a flexible labor market and an alternative for workers who cannot
find jobs in formal sectors (Manning, 2000: 122). The agriculture
sector, among others, still remains the largest pool for absorbing
workers.
[Figure 1-4] Workers by Industry, 2009
Agriculture, Forestry, and
Fishery43.41%
Finance, Insurance, and other Services
1.50%
Who les a le , S to ring and
Co mmunica tio n22.03%
Construction4.65% Electricity, Gas
and Water0.21%
Manufacturing12.73%
Public Service13.73%
Mining1.15%
Transportation0.60%
Source: counted from employment statistics, BPS(http://www.bps.go.id/sector/employ/table2.shtml)
This flexibility has resulted in a relatively stable unemployment
rate, despite the 1990s crisis which hit Indonesia badly. The official
unemployment rate in Indonesia during the initial years of the 1997
Asian crisis did not show the extreme decline one might have
expected (as presented in the table below). Unemployment growth
164 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
in Indonesia was considered slight in comparison to other countries
affected by the regional crisis; in South Korea, for example, the
unemployment rate increased from 2.2% in 1997, to nearly 8% in
1998, whilst in Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Thailand unemployment
nearly doubled (Manning, 2000: 121).
<Table 1-4> Unemployment Rates by Gender, BPS (Statistics Indonesia), and
the Ministry of Manpower
1994-1997 1998-2000 2004 2006 2008Male
FemaleTotal
4.64.15.6
6.05.66.6 9.9 10.3 8.4
Source: National Labour Force Survey (Sakernas) as cited in Dhanani, S, 2004: 10 and BPS (http://www.bps.go.id/sector/employ/table1.shtml)
In 2001 the BPS changed its definition of unemployment, adding
discouraged workers (i.e. those who do not seek jobs because they
believe there are no jobs available) into the unemployment measure
(Sugiyarto et al, 2006: 333). Many criticized that the exclusion of
the discouraged workers would hinder the actual number of
unemployment persons (for example, Ahmed and Dhanani, 1999).
As a result, official unemployment rate doubled and climbed higher:
8 percent in 2001; 9.1 percent in 2002; 9.9 per cent in 2004; and
8.4 per cent in 2008.
The other type of worker which has recently become more popular
is the ‘contract worker’ (i.e., fixed-term contracts), particularly within
the textile and garment sectors-labor-intensive sectors which do not
INDONESIA 165
require highly skilled workers. The use of contract workers has been
steadily increasing since the government introduced Employment
Law 13 (2003), in which the use of contract workers was legalized.
The government argues that a ‘fixed-term work contract’ is meant
to give workers more chance to obtain work, rather than create job
insecurity among the workers. However, many employers have
actually breached the law by using ‘fixed-term work contracts’ for
core duties in their main business and thus, the term ‘contract
workers’ has become more common. Hence, it can be argued that
the government has not taken sufficient action to enforce Law 13
and remove/reduce the practice of ongoing contract workers by the
employers.
With characteristics typical of informal, part-time, and contract
workers (i.e., shorter hours of work; less than minimum-wage
income; uncertainty of income; and job continuation), it can be argued
that the welfare of these workers is highly questionable. This
condition, in turn, is worsened by the absence of a social security
net for workers. Although the Act that regulates social security for
workers covers all types of worker, its implementation and the actual
practices of employers show a contrasting phenomenon.
Thus, enhancing the quality of Indonesian workers (by helping
them obtain better skills and education) is expected to lower the
number of informal-low paid workers and prepare them to work
within the high-skilled formal sector. Furthermore, the problem of
166 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
the workers’ welfare may well be overcome, if people are given
good education and skills that pave the way for high employability
and productivity.
Despite the huge quantities of labor supply available in Indonesia
for both the local and international labor markets, the task of
improving the quality of labor is still greatly challenging. Data
revealed by SAKERNAS (National Labour Force Survey) shows that
in 2003, the majority of Indonesian workers graduated from primary
school level (35 million). Those who obtained less than primary
schooling comprised 17 million. Those who graduated from junior
secondary school represented 18 million. There were 17 million
graduates from senior secondary schools, and only four million who
completed tertiary level (higher education) (Sugiyarto et al, 2006:
332). However, those who experienced higher education did not
automatically find jobs. There has been an increasing number of
university and college graduates who cannot find work, from an
estimated 600,000 in 2004, to more that one million in 2009.1)
1) See:http://www.bps.go.id/tab_sub/view.php?tabel=1&daftar=1&id_subyek=06¬ab= (retrieved 5 November 2010)
INDONESIA 167
[Figure 1-5] Number of Unemployed Higher Education Graduates
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
year
num
ber
of g
radu
ates
University GraduatesDiploma Graduates
g
Source: Media Indonesia, August 2009
There are two possible reasons why those who earned higher
education degrees still can not find jobs. The difficulty of obtaining
jobs was caused by limited employment opportunities and the mismatch
between job requirements and job qualifications. It is paramount to
know the direction of industrialization in Indonesia to determine the
types of industries which will be developed in the future under
guidance by the Ministry of National Education; Ministry of Manpower;
and the education or training providers; they must match skill
formation during the period of study/training with the needs of future
industrialization.
The main contributor of the GDP in 2009 was the processing/
manufacturing industry, which includes food and beverages, textiles,
and chemical products. The next major contributors are the agricultural,
mining, service, and transportation industries. Thus, it can be seen
that the manufacturing industry, which is labor-intensive and
168 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
involves low level to medium level of technology, dominates the
economy.
<Table 1-5> GDP Contributor by Industry, 2008-2009
Industry 2008 2009Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery 14.5 15.3Mining 10.9 10.5Processing / Manufacturing 27.9 26.4 Oil and Gas 4.9 3.8 Non Oil and Gas 23.0 22.6Electricity, Gas and Water 0.8 0.8Construction 8.5 9.9Trade, Hotel and Restaurant 14.0 13.4Transportation and Communication 6.3 6.3Finance, Real Estate and Enterprise Services 7.4 7.2Other Services 9.7 10.2
On the other hand, the Ministry of Industry has predicted the
future trends of manufacturing and service industries. The industries,
which are based on local materials and high technology and are
community-driven, will be strengthened to enable technological
development and job creation.
INDONESIA 169
[Figure 1-6] The Future Trend of Manufacturing Industries
The Ministry of Industry has identified current strengths and
established a plan for the future that will be embraced by the year
2025. The future manufacturing industry will emphasize the use of
local materials; skilled workers, high technology; and renewable
natural resources. The pillars of the future industry are described
below:
1. The agro-industry includes not only planting and harvesting, but
also processing farm or forestry products, such as coffee, cocoa,
woods, and coconut. The development of the agro-industry is
considered necessary, as there are only around 42 million workers
in this industry out of the total 105 million workers. Thus,
developing this industry will generate increases in income for the
170 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
majority of people.
2. Transportation includes production of ships, trains, automotive,
and air transportation. Indonesia has served as one of the world’s
leading automotive production centers. However, high dependency
on foreign companies (multinationals) and their materials and
components, as well as the absence of effective local research and
development, pose significant challenges which will need to be
overcome if this industry becomes the main pillar of Indonesia’s
future manufacturing industry. Furthermore, while the production of
ship and trains is thwarted by obsolete technology and equipment,
the air transportation industry needs policy restructuring to ensure
its development.
3. Information technology includes production of devices and
development of networks. This industry is expected to become the
main player in the national economic development. Information
technology will improve connectivity nationally, regionally and
globally. Thus its development will focus on both the hardware
production, and the network service provider improvement.
Furthermore, the current basic industries which have been the
prime movers of national economics and industrial development in
Indonesia, such as components, clothing, apparel, and steel, will be
continuously maintained; the focus in these basic industries will be
on improving technology and labor skills to enhance global
competitiveness.
The strategic plan also clearly mentions the important role played
by small and micro business. Small businesses are expected to
INDONESIA 171
participate in providing goods and services that meet the demands
of their respective markets. An industry cluster will involve the core,
supporting, and related industry, whereas the small business will
likely become part of the supporting and related industry.
The government clearly states the inclusion of small business
within the industry development, to the extent that: (1) small
businesses will be involved in every step and chain of production
in every cluster, so that their role will be as important as the big
companies, and they will become the foundation of strong economic
development; and (2) small businesses are expected to support and
cooperate with big companies within a mutually beneficial environment.
Involving small businesses within an integral network will require
a comprehensive program to develop qualified and skilled labor,
including access to updated technology to ensure the high and
standardized quality of the products manufactured.
Section 3. The Education System in Indonesia
The education system in Indonesia involves three government
agencies: the Ministry of National Education; Ministry of Religious
Affairs; and Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration. Private
sectors also play a major role in providing education, both formal
and informal. With permission from the government, the private
sector offers greatest representation among the senior secondary
schools, by providing 70% of the institutions. However, 90% of the
172 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
primary schools and 50% of the first secondary schools are public
(Sugiyarto et al, 2006: 328).
As depicted in the figure below, the government has introduced
a multi-entry, multi-exit education system for the people, offering
both a choice and flexibility for general and vocational education.
After completing the nine-year compulsory education (which
includes six years of primary education and three years of junior
secondary education), one can choose to continue to study at a
general or vocational senior secondary school. After this degree, one
can pursue higher education based on one’s career interest and
choice. In tertiary education, moving across education streams is
possible.
The figure below shows that those who choose to follow general
senior secondary high school (SMU) and, thus, remain within the
academic educational stream, are projected to obtain university
degrees of S1 (Bachelor); S2 (Master degree); and S3 (Doctoral
degree), although, at some point, they can also move to more
vocational/technical education. On the other hand, those who choose
to pursue vocational senior secondary schooling are expected to
obtain further technical/professional education and training, moving
away from diploma degrees towards more specialized ones; these
students can still shift towards an academic stream if they choose.
INDONESIA 173
[Figure 1-7] The Indonesian Education System
The government has also developed a National Qualification
Framework which outlines the expected abilities, skills, knowledge,
and responsibilities for each level of qualification. The National
Qualification Framework consists of nine certification levels, where
the lowest starts at the senior secondary level, and the highest ends
at the Doctoral Degree or Specialization level.
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[Figure 1-8] Indonesia’s National Qualification Framework
The abilities, skills, knowledge, and responsibilities for each level
of certification are shown in the table below:
INDONESIA 175
LEVEL ACTIVITY KNOWLEDGE RESPONSIBILITY
CERTIFICATEⅠ
Carrying activity: 1. Limited scope 2. Repeating and ordinary 3. Limited context
4. Re express 5. Using limted knowledge 6. Need no new idea
7. Based on the direction 8. Under direct supervision 9. No responsibility for
another person’s job
CERTIFICATEⅡ
Carrying activity: 1. More aspects 2. Established and
common 3. With limited option of
some routine response
4. Using basic operational knowledge
5. Utilize available information
6. Implementing common problem solving
7. Requires some new ideas
8. Carrying activity based on the direction
9. Undirect monitoring and quality control
10. Limited responsibility for quantity and quality
11. To be able to direct the other people
CERTIFICATEⅢ
Carrying activity: 1. In large scope and
required common skills. 2. With more options of
procedures 3. Within a common
context
4. Using a relevant theoritical knowledge
5. Interpreting available information
6. Using calculation and consideration
7. Implementing common problem solving
1. To the activity based on the direction with limited authorithy
2. Under undirect monitoring and quality control
3. Moderate responsibility to the quantity and the quality of the result.
4. To be able to take responsibility for another persons’ job performance.
CERTIFICATEⅣ
Doing activity:Within large scope and requires logical technic skill.With options of several proceduresWithin a few common and special context.
Using large basic knowledge linked to some theoritical concepts.Forming analitical interpretation to available data.Decision making based on the rules.Implement innovative problem solving to a real and unusual cases.
To self- planned activity/Under supervision and general evaluation.Fully responsible of quantity and quality of the work.Able to carry responsibility for the quantity and quality of another person’s job
CERTIFICATEⅤ
Carrying activity:Within larger scope and requires special logical technic skills (specialization)
Implement broad basic knowledge with the specialization in limited area.Analitical interpretation of
Carrying out : Activity self direction and occasionally giving direction to others.With a manual or common
<Table 1-6> Certificate Level I-VI
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LEVEL ACTIVITY KNOWLEDGE RESPONSIBILITYWith more options to standard and non-standard procedures Requires some more option of procedure and non procedural standard Within routine and non-routine context
avalaible data which has large scope.Deciding appropriate methodes and procedures to solve real problems containing theoritical elements.
function.Activity requires full responsibility for nature, quantity, or quality of the work performance.Able to be responsible for achievements of team performance.
CERTIFICATEⅥ
Carrying activity:Within extensive scope and requires special logical technical skills.With extensive options for a several standard and non-standard procedures and combination of non-standard procedures.Within routine and non-routine context with fluctation changing
Using deepen special knowledge in several sectorAnalysing, reformat and evaluation of wide scope informationsFormulate appropriate steps of problem solving, either concrete’s or abstract’s problem
Carrying out:Management activity/ processing activityWith extensive parameter of certain activities And accountability activities to achieve results for self or teamResponsible for achieving results in the organization’s work
The certificate levels VII-IX, which are more advanced,j are
expected to fulfill the targets below:
<Table 1-7> Certificate Level VII-IX
LEVEL SKILL , KNOWLEDGE, RESPONSIBILITYCERTIFICATEⅦ
Including skill, knowlede and responsibility that enables one to :Explain systematically and coherently the main principles of a sector and,Self assess, research, and engage in intellectual activities in a sector, Shows intellectual understanding, incisive analysis, and good communication
CERTIFICATEⅧ
Including skill, knowledge and responsibilities that enable one to :Show expertise in a sector and,Design and elaborat of a research project with original intellectual activity according to international standards
CERTIFICATEⅨ
Including skill, knowledge and responsibilities that enable one to :Share original knowledge through research and intellectual activity valued by independent experts and based on international standard
INDONESIA 177
Despite the government’s effort to improve the quality of the
people (through the policy of nine-year compulsory formal education;
flexibility at the higher level, and establishment of the national
qualification framework), the implementation of these plans has been
hindered by the 1990s crisis. The school participation rate in
Indonesia in 2008 was around 64 percent (of the population age 0-24
years old), owing to the high number of students enrolled in primary
level. The lower the number of students enrolled in the schools, the
higher the degree. Table 1.1 below shows that students enrolled in
the senior secondary schools account for only around half of the age
population, while students enrolled at universities hardly reach 20
percent, proving that higher education in Indonesia is still premium
for most of the people.
<Table 1-8> Student Enrollment by Education Level
2003/2004 2004/2005 2005/2006 2006/2007 2007/2008
Primary School Numbers 29,100,438 29,149,746 28,982,708 29,769,705 29,498,206Percentage 94.56 94.99 94.2 94.48 94.9
Junior Secondary SchoolNumbers 9,604,894 9,681,802 10,286,521 11,503,387 10,961,492Percentage 56.14 60.15 62.06 68.81 71.6
Senior Secondary SchoolNumbers 6,126,440 6,311,385 6,511,288 7,213,542 7,353,408Percentage 39.00 40.35 42.64 52.6 50.19
University Numbers 3,739,959 3,534,289 3,612,435 3,705,187 4,325,408Percentage 17.25
Source: The Indonesian Ministry of National Education
This figure is also worsened by the fact that some students also
drop out from school, and many of them do not continue to purse
studies for a higher degree, particularly after completing senior
secondary school. The main problems faced by the people are access,
178 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
particularly for those living in rural and remote areas; costs of higher
degrees; and lack of understanding of the importance of education.
<Table 1-9> Numbers and Percentage of Drop Outs Including Those Who
Do Not Pursue Higher Education
No Drop Out Primary Level Junior Secondary Level Senior Secondary Level1 Numbers 486,426 255,210 167,8382 Percentage 1.63 2.22 2.33
Do not continue to higher level Primary Level Junior Secondary Level Senior Secondary Level
1 Numbers 431,937 412,135 678,0102 Percentage 10.54 13.66 35.65
This condition has of course impacted the employability of the
people and the characteristics of the Indonesian labor market, as
previously explained, where low employability of the people has led
to unhealthy reliance on low-paid informal sectors, particularly
agriculture and small retail, rather than new jobs in the formal sector.
Therefore, the Ministry of National Education has set the strategic
plan for year 2009-2014 which cascades into six strategies:
1. Expansion and greater access to excellent and gender-equal
early childhood education;
2. Expansion and greater access to excellent and gender-equal
primary education;
3. Expansion and greater access to excellent, gender-equal, and
relevant secondary education which addresses community needs;
4. Expansion and greater access to excellent, internationally
competitive, gender-equal, and relevant higher education which
INDONESIA 179
addresses national needs;
5. Expansion and greater access to gender-equal and relevant
continuous adult education for the community; and
6. A strong management control and internal monitoring system.
In achieving these targets, the government has allocated a
significant budget for education by dispersing around 20% of the
total 2010 central government budget, which is around 340 trillion
Rupiah, the second biggest allocation after the one for general
services, as shown in the table below:
<Table 1-10> Central Government Budget, 2010
Expenditure by Function Rp trillion %General Services 110.2 32.4National Defence 20.9 6.1Public Order and Safety 14.9 4.4Economy 57.4 16.9Environment 7.9 2.3Housing and Public Facilities 20.9 6.1Health 18.0 5.3Tourism and Culture 1.4 0.4Religion 0.9 0.3Education 84.1 24.7Social Security 3.5 1.0Total 340.1 100.0
To summarize, the government, through the Ministry of National
Education, aims to promote access, quality, and gender equality in
every level of education. Furthermore, the government introduced a
new strategy to enhance skills and employability of the people, by
180 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
placing greater emphasis on the development of the vocational
secondary schools. It reversed the ratio between the general
secondary schools and the vocational ones where the percentage of
vocational schools is expected to be higher than that of the general
secondary school by 2014.
Section 4. TVET System in Indonesia
The TVET system in Indonesia involves more one government
agency. The Ministry of Education plans, implements, and monitors
vocational education in secondary schools and colleges. Within there
are two separate directorate generals: the Directorate General of
Primary and Secondary Education (Dikdasmen) and the Directorate
General of Higher Education (Dikti). The Ministry of Manpower and
Transmigration is also responsible for provide certified training,
particularly for the unemployed, helping them obtain specific skills
which are expected to assist them in finding jobs. There are other
ministries which are responsible for developing the skills and
competencies needed within their specific work areas, such as the
Ministry of General Construction, which develops and certifies the
construction skills for construction workers, and the Ministry of
Tourism, which develops the and certifies the skills of persons
entering into tourism and hospitality.
INDONESIA 181
Section 5. Vocational Senior Secondary School
(SMK-Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan)
Psacharopoulos (1997) argued that developing countries, which are
trying to become industrialized, which require technology and people
with sufficient technical skills. It means that vocational education
and training become paramount for a nation’s skill formation. He
further stated,“Just as you can build a bridge to lower transportation
costs between two sides of a river, so by providing vocational
education a country can allegedly prosper economically and reap
more easily the benefits of economic growth” (p.385).
The TVET system in Indonesia is a part of general education,
which focuses on preparing students to enter the world of work. This
function had been reinforced by the National Education System Law
no. 20 year 2003, Article 61, in which TVET graduates may have
two certificates: an academic certificate and a competency certificate.
Academic certificates are given to graduates as recognition that they
have achieved the requirements of qualification after finishing their
schooling, while competency certificates are given to students after
they have passed competency assessment conducted by a Professional
Certification Body (PCB) or accredited TVET.
Vocational education in Indonesia starts at the senior secondary
level, as an alternative to the general senior secondary school.
Vocational secondary schools are known as SMK (Sekolah
Menengah Kejuruan) which are operated both by the government,
182 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
No Province Student School No of TeachersMale Female Total Public Private Total
1 DKI Jakarta 126,255 121,204 247,459 62 520 582 18,871 2 West Java 295,432 183,920 479,352 168 957 1,125 32,025 3 Banten 73,140 51,405 124,545 37 257 294 7,798 4 Central Java 296,398 198,269 494,667 171 829 1,000 34,230 5 DI Yogyakarta 43,369 30,563 73,932 46 142 188 7,535 6 East Java 312,874 215,699 528,573 224 813 1,037 35,975 7 Nanggroe Aceh D 23,990 14,060 38,050 66 36 102 3,889 8 North Sumatera 145,457 100,710 246,167 126 566 692 20,820 9 West Sumatera 44,358 28,718 73,076 70 94 164 7,502
10 Riau 30,781 21,790 52,571 55 92 147 4,229 11 Islands of Riau 9,491 6,028 15,519 16 31 47 1,683 12 Jambi 16,335 11,826 28,161 43 58 101 3,036 13 South Sumatera 32,945 26,766 59,711 43 124 167 6,403 14 Bangka Belitung 9,316 7,749 17,065 21 22 43 1,308 15 Bengkulu 13,982 7,531 21,513 40 26 66 2,208 16 Lampung 49,264 37,177 86,441 57 199 256 8,551 17 West Kalimantan 22,511 18,261 40,772 55 77 132 3,851 18 Central Kalimantan 10,556 5,773 16,329 34 34 68 2,082 19 South Kalimantan 17,445 11,297 28,742 41 28 69 2,724 20 East Kalimantan 30,585 21,801 52,386 57 96 153 4,404 21 North Sulawesi 16,242 15,691 31,933 43 56 99 2,914 22 Gorontalo 5,846 5,015 10,861 22 8 30 1,029 23 Central Sulawesi 13,323 11,102 24,425 41 49 90 2,633 24 South Sulawesi 55,541 32,453 87,994 91 174 265 8,290 25 West Sulawesi 6,578 5,157 11,735 26 31 57 1,487
and the private sector. The 2008/2009 data shows that the private
vocational schools account for 73.62 percent compared to the public
ones, which account for only 26.38 percent across Indonesia. The
number of students, schools, and teachers are shown in Table 11
below:
<Table 1-11> Number of Vocational Students, Schools, and Teachers by
Province, 2009
INDONESIA 183
No Province Student School No of TeachersMale Female Total Public Private Total
26 Southeast Sulawesi 11,003 7,424 18,427 52 22 74 2,199 27 Maluku 8,839 6,179 15,018 40 19 59 1,857 28 North Maluku 6,621 4,554 11,175 36 22 58 1,392 29 Bali 25,983 20,780 46,763 40 78 118 5,111 30 West Nusa Tenggara 21,598 11,085 32,683 62 38 100 3,629 31 East Nusa Tenggara 25,480 19,542 45,022 56 56 112 3,180 32 Papua 15,214 7,297 22,511 46 24 70 2,252 33 West Papua 7,605 4,521 12,126 16 11 27 921
Total 1,824,357 1,271,347 3,095,704 2,003 5,589 7,592 246,018
The SMKs are expected to create specific human capital to answer
the industry need for skills by giving the students specific skills that
support the industry. The SMK students are given practical
experience through on-the-job trainings within particular fields, such
as electrical, mechanical, automotive, management, etc. Thus, when
they graduate, the students are expected to be ready to work. The
SMKs are also expected to create a multiplier effect, by providing
education for the people, while also contributing to economic growth
through employment-generating entrepreneurship.
SMK’s curiculum sructure is grouped in three categories, each of
which has different objectives:
1. Normative knowledge, which includes Religion, Civic Education,
Physical Education, and Indonesian Language, to give basic
understanding of literacy and ethics;
2. Adaptive knowledge, which includes Mathematics, Physics,
Chemistry, and English which aims to give understanding of the
basic knowledge needed to achieve further specific skills; and
184 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
3. Productive knowledge and experience, which will depend on
the study program, to give further understanding and experience
in preparing graduates for the workforce and enterpreneurship.
The normative and adaptive categories are developed by Ministry
of National Education, while the productive components are developed
by industries.
In terms of the drop out rate of SMK students, the average figure
in Indonesia varied across the years; it was 5.08 percent in 2006;
4.17 percent in 2007; 1.37 percent in 2008; and 3.43 in 2009. The
drop out rate was mainly caused by poor economic conditions which
forced many students to leave school and find jobs; most of the drop
outs could only be absorbed by the low-wage, low- protection
informal sector.
Thus, in order to improve the performance and accessibility of
vocational secondary schooling, the Directorate of Vocational
Education of the Ministry of National Education has created a
roadmap which aims to reverse the ration of SMU (general high
school) and the SMK (vocational high school) and nearly double the
number of SMK students and teachers.
INDONESIA 185
[Figure 1-9] SMK Roadmap
20102010 2011201120122012
20142014
20092009
20132013
CONDITIONCONDITIONVSS:GSS
50:50VSS7,719
STUDENT3,678,652 TEACHER
122,622
TARGETTARGETVSS:GSS
53:47VSS8,133
STUDENT4,197,888TEACHER
139,930
INTERVENINTERVENTIONTION
*Image building*Scholarship
*Mutual Program*Cheap Equipment
Producing*Reengineering*Adding new
classroom/school
TARGETTARGETVSS:GSS
56:44VSS8,548
STUDENT4,688,051 TEACHER
156,268
INTERVENINTERVENTIONTION
*Image building*Scholarship
*Mutual Program*Cheap Equipment
Producing*Reengineering*Adding new
classroom/school
TARGETTARGETVSS:GSS
60:40VSS8,963
STUDENT5,363,617 TEACHER
178,787
INTERVENINTERVENTIONTION
*Image building*Scholarship
*Mutual Program*Cheap Equipment
Producing*Reengineering*Adding new
classroom/school
TARGETTARGETVSS:GSS
64:36VSS9,378
STUDENT5,921,931 TEACHER
197,398
INTERVENINTERVENTIONTION
*Image building*Scholarship
*Mutual Program*Cheap Equipment
Producing*Reengineering*Adding new
classroom/school
TARGETTARGETVSS:GSS
67:33VSS9,793
STUDENT6,560,539 TEACHER
218,685
INTERVENINTERVENTIONTION
*Image building*Scholarship
*Mutual Program*Cheap Equipment
Producing*Reengineering*Adding new
classroom/school
The figure above shows that the government sets annual target to
reverse the ratio of the general senior secondary schools (GSS/SMA)
and the vocational senior secondary school (VSS/SMK) and increase
the numbers of students and teachers. The ratio of SMK:SMA is
expected to reach 67:33 by 2014. The current ratio of SMK-SMU
students is still 49:51, although in several provinces, the number of
SMK students is higher, particularly in the provinces of Central Java,
South Sulawesi, D.I. Yogyakarta, D.K.I Jakarta, and West Java. The
achievement of these targets will be supported by several government
interventions, which include:
1. Image building;
2. Scholarship;
3. Design and Production of affordable equipment; and
186 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
4. Restructuring of governmental aid for new schools and new
classroom development.
However, the Government is also fully aware that there are
challenges that need to be addressed properly to ensure the achievement
of the targets set in the roadmap. The challenges include the negative
image of SMK; the availability of tools and equipment; the capability
of teachers and classrooms; limited job opportunity; and competition,
both locally and globally.
<Table 1-12> Challenges Faced by Vocational Senior Secondary Schools
(SMKs) in Indonesia
Challenges StatusGood Iimage The perception that studying at SMKs is less prestigious than at general senior
secondary school should be removed. This perception particularly stems from the belief that SMK graduates cannot pursue university degrees, leading to limited opportunities to obtain managerial positions. Educators and sociologists hence argue against vocational education (Chen, 2009). Research on SMK graduates should be publicized to alter the public image.
Availability of Tools and Equipment
The availability of affordable tools and equipment that represent those used in the industry for all SMKs is still very limited. Price and budget are the main constraints in obtaining the necessary tools and equipment.
Provision of Trade Teacher
Trade teachers, or teachers who can link the goods produced by the SMKs to the market, are still limited. Thus, it is necessary to enhance the capacity of teachers to be marketers of SMK's products by helping them understand markets needs and develop networks.
Classroom Availability
With the number of students interested in attending SMKs, classroom availability becomes an issue. One way to overcome this issue is to introduce double-shift in SMKs.
Job Availability In order to enhance the image of SMKs, the government should guarantee widely open job availability for graduates. There should be a good match with industry needs and a wise projection of future development in Indonesia that anticipates labor market needs.
Competitiveness The competition of SMK graduates not only comes from local graduates, but also from the global labor market. With globalization, it is important to address the issue of global competition for the SMK graduates within the skilled labor market.
(Source: 2010 Program Guidelines)
INDONESIA 187
Furthermore, there are additional targets to be achieved by 2014
to improve the operation of the SMKs, as follows:
1. 90 percent of the SMKs are accredited, of which 30 percent
obtain ‘B’ (good) accreditation from the government;
2. All counties or cities have one SMK of international standard;
3. At least 10 percent of SMK graduates obtain international
competency certification;
4. All SMKs should obtain the ISO 9001:2008 Certification;
5. 70 percent of the SMKs have implemented an e-learning system;
6. 70 percent of SMK graduates find a (decent) job in the year
they graduate;
7. All SMKs provide the service of entrepreneurship learning and
development.; and
8. 70 percent of SMKs becomes a teaching industry.
Some of the efforts to improve the interest of potential students
are spreading a good image of SMK. Scholarships are being granted
and cheaper training facilities are utilized to facilitate more
affordable tuition and training fees for the students. The government
promotes a “good image” by publishing the earnings obtained by the
SMK graduates, which are believed to be higher than the SMA
graduates. From the SAKERNAS Surveys 2002-2007, it was found
that the ratio of SMK graduates’ earnings for both professional-
managerial jobs and non professional-managerial jobs was always
higher than the SMA graduates, as shown in the figure 1 below:
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[Figure 1-10] Wage Ration SMK/SMU by Main Occupation
Wage Ratio SMK/SMU by Main Occupation
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2002 2003 2004 2006 2007Year
Wag
e R
atio
Professional-Managerial
Non Professional-Managerial
The government has also improved the skills spectrum offered by
SMKs to align them with the industry needs and the National
Development Guidelines. The skills spectrum introduced by the
government includes: technology and engineering; information
technology and communication; health; art and tourism; agribusiness
and agro-technology; and business and management. Furthermore,
the government, through the Directorate of Senior Vocational School
(SMK) of MoNE, has identified two main strategies to improve the
absorption of the SMK graduates into the labor market:
1. Strengthening the Adaptive Capability by: embracing the
understanding on applied mathematics and science; improving
entrepreneurship skills; mastering national and international
languages; and obtaining basic competencies.
2. Developing networks to creating a teaching industry. In this
INDONESIA 189
strategy, the SMKs will build relationships with and among the
industry, to create and innovate necessary goods, machines, and
tools. Each of the SMKs will specialize in creating one part
or several parts of the machines/goods. There will be a main
SMK integrator where all the parts will be assembled, packed,
and distributed. Thus, SMKs will provide a place and
environment where the students can create, not only learn, as
they generate income and simultaneously stimulate community-
based industry.
The teaching industry has been a big agenda for the SMKs; it aims
to strengthen cooperation among SMKs, and between SMKs and
industry in creating products. Through their teaching industry, the
SMKs are working together to make and sell goods: cars, laptops,
and heavy machines are good examples. Each SMK involved is
developing particular parts for which they are specialized. The parts
are delivered to and assembled in a SMK integrator. Ideally, SMKs
involved in producing one product are located in one province to
facilitate the transfer of their parts.
190 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
[Figure 1-11] SMK Teaching Industry Scheme
PROD.SUPPORT
MACHINERYSMK 4
PROD. SLIDESMK 2
PROD. SPINDLE
SMK 3
PROD. TAIL STOCK, SMK 1
PROD.CHUCKSMK 8
PROD.FOLLOW
RESTSMK 6
PROD.STEADY
RESTSMK 7
PROD. TOOL POST, SMK 5
ASSEMBLE OF MACHINERY, SMK INTEGRATOR
Implementation of these strategies, including the teaching factory
scheme, will need monitoring and assessment, as well as support
from the government, particularly in providing regulations and
policy. While this scheme can effectively transfer high technology
to students and develop community-based industry, there may be a
challenge in overcoming boundaries set up by established enterprises
and feelings of being threatened by this distinctive industry
development.
Another issue that should be addressed to ensure the effectiveness
of the growth of vocational schools, including SMKs, highly depends
on the clear direction of industry and economic development of a
country to enable a good match between graduates and labor market
needs. Agriculture has long been an important sector in this country,
INDONESIA 191
representing more than 40 percent of the labor workforce. The
government must also pay attention to enhancing the skills of the
people in agriculture, and introducing and developing SMKs is one
way to improve productivity. Nevertheless, not many students enroll
in this program, showing little interest, partly due to the lack of
government involvement.
[Figure 1-12] SMK Student Enrollments by Study Program
12.641.837.71
3.95
33.4540.42
Technology and EngineeringICTHealthArt, Craft, TourismAgri-business, Argo-industryBusiness and Management
The reason for the lack of student interest is the image of farming
as a less prestigious occupation with low income. Others think that
agriculture skills cannot be learned at school. By introducing new
technology in this sector, and expanding farming activities to include
processing, SMKs may well attract more students.
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Section 6. The Competency Certification as One of the
Certification Models of SMKs' Graduates
TVET focuses on preparing students to enter the world of work,
a difficult task given the complexity of available labor markets.
Labor markets becomes the challenge and, at once, the opportunity
for senior technical and vocational schools. It is necessary to
identify and examine the readiness of schools to confront the
challenge and opportunities they pose.
Competency certification at SMKs measures student achievement,
and it is done in collaboration with the external institution or
industry, using the relevant competency standard that is agreed upon
nationally/internationally, or by a certain industry or society. Those
who pass receive certification. There are two type of competency
certification, namely one for industry, and another for a particular
qualification or profession. Industry competency certification is a
certification model which is developed in collaboration between
school and industry/enterprise in order to certify students, whereas
qualification or profession competency certification is competency
certification which is done by PCB, or a particular certification
institution under the regulations or conventions of a national or
international level.
The populations of SMKs are 5,335, including both public and
private institutions. Based on the prior competency assessment that
is done by industry and PCB, there are only 604 SMKs that are
INDONESIA 193
stated to have the potency of a national or international standard.
The number is relatively small, if it is compared to the whole
available SMKs, and this reflects the quality of available SMKs.
One example of the result of industrial competency certification lies
in the area of machinery; of the 1,013 students selected from various
schools to take the competency assessment, only 286 passed.
A preparatory program for competency/profession certification
should be undertaken systemically and continually, and it is also
should be included the schools’ strategic planning. There are some
considerations in the preparatory program with regard to the
implementation of this certification, namely, one must:
1. Determine the priority scale of the specialist program which will
be included;
2. Identify activities which should be implemented to achieve the
program;
3. Collect educational resources, both internally and externally, to
optimize the achievement of objectives in the program;
4. Implement, evaluate, and continually develop the program; and
5. Implement the competency certification.
Competency Standardization is a process to formulate, determine,
implement, and revise the competency standard, which is done
continuously and involves all relevant institutions. The competency
standard, which is then known as “work competency standard,” is
the formulation of work competencies concerning various aspects,
194 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
including knowledge, skill, and work attitudes which comply with
regulations and industries.
Knowledge, skill, and attitudes of TVET students need to be
assessed to determine their competency according to set standards.
Assessment should be guided by several principles: credibility,
flexibility, fairness, and validity. Crediblity means that the methods
and procedures of assessment should be done carefully, so that
implementation of the competency standard is consistent; flexibility
means that the assessment can be done in the workplace/industry,
or classroom, which means offering choice in terms of how, where,
and when the competency can be obtained; fairness means that there
is no discrimination among the assessment participants; and validity
is that the assessment materials should be accurate in assessing the
competency.
The main steps in the system of competency standardization and
certification involve: 1) formulating the competency standard; 2)
issuing certification of the competency; 3) implementing the
competency standard; and 4) providing information regarding the
competency standard.
INDONESIA 195
[Figure 1-13] Competency Certification Scheme in TEVT
Based on the above scheme, TVET schools may have two
accreditation systems from NBSA and NACP. As TVET schooling
falls under the national education system, it must be accredited by
NBSA. If TVET schools wish, they also can apply for accreditation
by the Professional Certification Body (PCB), as a part of the
networked professional certification system. TVET schools that
apply and pass the PCB accreditation will be awarded stats as
competency testing centers (CTC). The accredited TVET by CTC
has the right to conduct competency assessment under supervision
of the PCB. The system would also provide clarification for SMKs
and other relevant stakeholders concerning the main task and role
of the systemic framework in order to produce a capable workforce
through SMKs.
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Section 7. Post-secondary and Adult TVET
Post-secondary TVET in Indonesia appears in many types of
institution: academy, institute, and polytechnic. While academies and
institutes may provide both academic and vocational tracks, the
polytechnics focus on providing vocational education and curriculum
for the students. The legal framework of the establishment and
operation of polytechnics is regulated through the Law introduced
in 1979 although the first polytechnic was established in 1976. The
first phase of further polytechnic development was then handled by
the Ministry of Education with funding assistance from the World
Bank. Polytechnics at this phase mainly offered manufacturing and
technical skills for the students.
The second phase of polytechnic development started in 1986, and
it focused on developing commerce curriculum, with help from the
experts and the Australian government. A later phase of development
entailed the building of public polytechnics across Indonesia that
became models for the private ones.
The curriculum in polytechnics combines the knowledge, skills
and necessary experience to prepare the students to work within
industry or become entrepreneurs. Based on the Ministry of National
Education Decree no. 232/U/2000, the core curriculum of diploma
degrees offered in polytechnics includes modules for Personality
Development, Knowledge and Skills, Productive Behavior, and
Social Skills.
On the other hand, the training and productivity for adults is
INDONESIA 197
mainly the responsibility of the Ministry of Manpower and
Transmigration (MoMT). Having been challenged by the lower rate
of employment, MoMT introduced a new which is called “Three in
One.” This scheme aims to enhance the employability of the people
by giving them the right skills and competencies so they can find
suitable jobs.
[Figure 1-14] Three in One Scheme
Ditjen Binalattas: Directorate General of Trainings and ProductivityBNSP: National Body for Profession CertificationDirjen Binapenta: Directorate General of Labor PlacementBNP2TKI: National Body of Education and Placement for Indonesian Migrant
WorkersBLK: Training CenterLPKS: The Institute of Skill DevelopmentLSP: The Institute of Professional Certification
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This scheme starts with identifying the supply and demand in the
labor market. The information gathered is used to develop the
standard of competencies which are called the Indonesia National
Standard of Work Competencies (SKKNI). SKKNI comprises 148
competencies from nine sectors in 2009 which can be obtained
through training provided by the training centers (BLK) located in
all provinces in Indonesia. In order to achieve a certain level of
competency, the government also encourages the people to become
certified by taking tests at the institutes of professional certification
(LSP). The government will then provide service for the certified
job seeker in helping him/her find a job in a local or foreign
business.
The BNSP (National Profession Certification Body) plays a very
important role in shaping and guiding the implementation of national
competencies. BNSP is an independent body under the Office of the
President, and its formation is an integral part of introducing the new
paradigm for the qualified labor force. The new paradigm emphasizes
two aspects: (1) demand-driven labor preparation; and (2) the use
of Competency Based Training (CBT). The new paradigm started
with the signing of the letter of agreement between the Ministry of
Manpower and Transmigration; Ministry of National Education; and
the Leader of the Chamber of Commerce in 2000.
The BSNP constitutes one leader and twenty representatives from
varying backgrounds. They are appointed by the President, based on
the recommendations given by the Ministry of Manpower and
Transmigration, and they hold their positions for five years, with the
INDONESIA 199
possibility of extending their terms for one year. The people
appointed uphold the policy and programs of BNSP which are:
Policy
1. Support the enhancement of industry competitiveness;
2. Support the enhancement of job opportunities and unemployment;
3. Support the enhancement of quality, productivity, and competitiveness
of Indonesian labor; and
4. Support the enhancement of the protection and welfare of the
labor force.
Programs:
1. Socializing and promoting the competency certification;
2. Establishing and developing standards;
3. Monitoring and developing the professional certification
institute (LSP);
4. Monitoring the certification implementation;
5. Developing networks; and
6. Developing a quality assurance system.
BNSP also commits to the lifelong learning of Indonesian people.
In striving for this objective, it aims to provide the development of
a reliable certification system and quality assurance; enhance the
qualification framework; broaden certification access for greater
experiences in the labor force and self-learning; and monitor the
competency of the certified workers.
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The scheme of the lifelong learning can be seen in the figure
below:
[Figure 1-15] Lifelong Learning Scheme
Furthermore, the government launched a revitalization program for
training and productivity institutions to improve their ability to
provide adequate education for job seekers by helping them meet
industry needs; enhance their employability; and lower the
unemployment rate. The program, up to the year 2009, includes
developing new training centers (BLKs); acquiring new equipment
and mobile training units (MTUs); providing training for instructors;
and developing financial management systems for public service.
Additionally, the government introduced the SKKNI as the module
for competency-based training. The number of SKKNI by sector is
listed below:
INDONESIA 201
<Table 1-13> Number of SKKNI in Each Sector
No Sector No of SKKNI1 Agriculture, Fishery, and Forestry 162 Electrical, Mining, and Energy 283 Manufacturing 174 Transportation and Telecommunication 75 Culture, Tourism and Arts 126 Health 37 Finance and Banking 118 Construction 309 Service, Consultancy, and Trade 24 Total SKKNI 148
Source: Buku Informasi Pelatihan dan Produktivitas 2009, MoMT
The training centers (BLKs) and training providers play a very
important role in introducing people to the government’s scheme.
The first BLK was founded in 1947 in Solo, Central Java. Initially,
BLKs were only established in Java island. The first BLK outside
Java island was built in 1957 in West Sumatra. Other BLKs followed
suit in other islands, supported by the introduction of the MTUs
(mobile training units) to reach remote areas in Indonesia. Currently,
there are 227 BLKs all over Indonesia, but only 11 BLKs are directly
managed by and responsible to the MoMT. The other BLKs are
managed under the local government at the province or district/city
level. The BLKs can be classified into several types, each of which
holds specific tasks and functions.
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<Table 1-14> Various Types of BLK
Type of BLK Tasks and Functions LocationThe National Vocational Training Development Centre (BBPLKDN)
Implement and develop training, skills competency test, and certification. Carry out consultancy on instructor training, personnel, and employment development
Bandung (West Java)
The Overseas Vocational Training Development Centre (BBPLKLN)
Carry out the training program preparation, training implementation, skill competency test; and organizational consultancy. Evaluate the implementation of vocational training oriented to the overseas labor market.
Bekasi (West Java)
The Industrial Vocational Training Development Centre (BBLKI)
Carry out the training, productivity improvement program, skill competency test, certification, consultation and cooperation, and training institute empowerment.
Medan (South Sumatra), Serang (Banten), Surakarta (Central Java)
The Industrial Vocational Training Centre (BLKI)
Carry out vocational training program, pilot training program, skill competency test, and training institute empowerment in the industrial sector.
Banda Aceh (NAD), Semarang (Central Java), Samarinda (West Kalimantan), Makassar (South Sulawesi), Sorong and Ternate.
In 2009, the BLKs had around 2,754 instructors, but there are no
updated statistics on the number of enrolled participants. However,
it can be argued that the number of instructors represents the number
of participants. The province of Central Java has the biggest number
of instructors, followed by the provinces of East Java and West Java.
Overall, the instructors are concentrated in the Java islands, and there
is a significant gap in the number of instructors on the other islands.
Among the courses offered, mechanical technology has the most
instructors, whereas agriculture has the least.
INDONESIA 203
ProvinceNo. of
BLK
Trades
Automotive Electrical Mechanical Tech Construction Business
AdmVarious Trades* Agriculture No. of
InstructorsNangroe Aceh D. 8 6 10 12 6 6 3 0 43
North Sumatra 14 15 27 36 13 10 7 9 117
West Sumatra 10 19 36 23 13 9 11 6 117Riau 3 13 11 15 8 2 2 3 54Islands of Riau 1 1 1 3 0 0 1 0 6
Jambi 5 10 10 9 7 7 4 3 50South Sumatra 10 19 27 25 5 4 3 6 89
Bengkulu 4 7 10 6 7 6 4 4 44Lampung 5 17 18 18 11 9 8 8 89Bangka Belitung 1 1 2 2 1 0 0 1 7
Banten 3 9 19 40 1 3 5 5 82DKI Jakarta 7 11 23 13 2 12 3 0 64West Java 17 44 72 67 24 41 15 33 296Central Java 27 83 90 108 47 33 41 63 465East Java 18 61 78 80 49 31 37 58 394DI Yogyakarta 5 20 25 31 15 14 31 11 147
West Kalimantan 7 6 11 11 7 4 11 3 53
East Kalimantan 4 11 17 13 6 5 4 1 57
Central Kalimantan 9 5 7 4 6 4 2 0 28
South Kalimantan 7 16 10 21 15 11 10 5 88
North Sulawesi 4 4 8 10 2 4 3 2 33
Gorontalo 4 0 1 1 2 1 0 1 6Central Sulawesi 7 5 12 11 8 3 3 1 43
South Sulawesi 13 15 28 30 11 12 12 5 113
South-East 4 4 3 8 6 4 5 3 33
<Table 1-15> Number of Courses and Instructors by Province
204 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
ProvinceNo. of
BLK
Trades
Automotive Electrical Mechanical Tech Construction Business
AdmVarious Trades* Agriculture No. of
InstructorsSulawesiWest Sulawesi 2 2 0 1 0 3 1 0 7
Bali 6 14 10 7 8 7 14 8 68West Nusa Tenggara 6 9 9 8 9 10 4 4 53
East Nusa Tenggara 3 4 4 9 5 2 4 0 28
Maluku 3 4 9 9 7 0 2 1 32North Maluku 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 4Papua 7 9 4 6 3 3 5 1 31West Papua 2 3 0 6 2 0 2 0 13Total 227 448 593 643 306 261 258 245 2,754
One challenge faced in managing BLKs is caused by the autonomy
given to the local (provincial and district) government which does
not always manage them effectively. The development of the BLKs
really depends on human individuals and the budget of local
governments.
The government also establishes several bilateral co-operation
programs to enhance the skill formation of the job seekers. Such
programs include scholarships, apprenticeships, grants, training,
facilities development/upgrade, and seminars/workshops with
participating countries like Japan, New Zealand, Korea, Germany,
Singapore, and France.
INDONESIA 205
Section 8. Vocational Training in Enterprises and Small
Businesses
Enterprises have played an important role in providing training for
both their workers and job seekers. While training for their workers
is usually subsidized by the enterprises, training for job seekers takes
place in fee-based academies or colleges. Many big, established
multinational and local companies have provided training for their
workers to simultaneously improve their skills at work and their
employability. However, training is mainly provided by enterprises
in the service industry or manufacturing enterprises, like automotive
and mining, which utilize advanced technology.
The condition is significantly different for the small enterprises.
Although small enterprises have provided employment for many
Indonesian people, training in these businesses has not yet developed
systematically. Their training needs are paramount, as most of the
workers are low-skilled and low-educated. This condition has
resulted in the low productivity of small Indonesian businesses,
despite the mushroomed numbers. Training that is provided under
the leadership of NGOs mainly concerns entrepreneurship and
technical skills, depending on their business (such as culinary, arts,
assembly). However, other kinds of training are needed, such as
leadership, book keeping, basic accounting, and financial planning.
There are attempts, partially by local government, to improve
training for small businesses. They provide training for the community
206 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
which is given as provincial or district program; some of the local
governments also declared themselves as “vocational districts’ or
“vocational provinces” by focusing on their areas’ strengths; helping
their communities gain relevant skills; and exploiting provincial or
district advantages (usually in form of SMEs).
1. Funding of TVET
The funding of public TVET mainly comes from the government’s
central budget. As previously mentioned, the Ministry of Education
has been allocated around 20% of the total budget, part of which
is used to develop the SMKs. The Ministry of Manpower, on the
other hand, has also been allocated part of the budget to develop
TVET within its authority. The major TVET budget allocation for
these two ministries is shown in the table below:
<Table 1-16> Major TVET Funding
Post Ministry of Education Rp (billions)Senior Secondary Vocational School (SMK) 339.3Courses and Internships 159.5Ministry of Manpower and TransmigrationCompetency-based Training 60.0Community-based Training 61.2Local and Foreign Internships 39.2Instructors’ Development 24.3National Competency Development 17.5Revitalization of BLKs to Become Competency-based Training Centers 237.2
Recognition of National Competency Certification 22.9Total 961.1
INDONESIA 207
However, the funding obtained by the two ministries is actually
much bigger, and there is still funding for TVET in smaller amounts
which are not shown above; in the Ministry of Education budget,
there are posts for SMK development which are mixed with the
SMA (general senior secondary school development), such as facility
and buildings’ development. In 2009, the Directorate of Vocational
School was allocated 1.6 trillion Rupiah for SMK development: the
buildings, facilities, teacher and curriculum development, and
campaigning. This figure increased over previous years, from 900
million Rupiah in 2007, to 1.2 trillion Rupiah in 2008.
The Budget of the Ministry of Manpower, on the other hand, also
shows only part of total budget for adult TVET BLKs (training
centers). Governance has been granted locally through decentralization,
with but a small subsidy from the Ministry of Manpower. The budget
allocated for the BLKs’ development mainly depends on the
orientation of human development of each local government. The
Ministry of Manpower barely has the authority to monitor and
evaluate the effectiveness of the BLKs under the local government.
2. Internationalization of TVET
The implementation of the AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade Area) and
AFLA (since 2003) and GATT, WTO, and APEC will impact economic
and social interaction among countries. The labor market has become
borderless, and it is easier to migrate from one member country to
another. To avoid unfair treatment and unexpected barriers that may
208 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
be introduced by member countries, there should be available a
consistent and recognized measurement tool to assess the skill levels
of workers. Therefore, recognized regional or regional accreditation
and certification of TVET institutions is an alternative answer. The
Mutual Recognition Arrangement, which outlines employment skills’
levels, is necessary to avoid the aforementioned problems.
The Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA) for the accreditation
and certification of TVET institutions among countries should
consider many important aspects, including the respective national
qualification framework; national vocational qualification framework;
and other related matters.
In developing this plan, barriers and obstacles may occur which
are caused by resistant attitudes to share and collaborate with member
countries. The resistance is rooted from the gap that occurred in the
different development phases of member countries. More advanced
countries have already developed high quality accreditation and
certification methods within their TVET system; on the other hand,
less developed member countries are still building their systems
based on available resources and potential. The existing gap among
member countries must be addressed properly so that the gap can
be gradually closed.
The internationalization of TVET has become a significant
challenge for Indonesia, although several attempts have been made.
One of the major attempts is developing SMK with international
standards. The 2010-2014 roadmap has stated that every district and
city should have at least one international standard SMK. These
INDONESIA 209
international standard SMKs have been equipped with sophisticated
buildings and facilities and the use English in their daily operation.
Government interventions through directing and monitoring are
needed to ensure that the competencies obtained by these SMK
graduates align with the standards of the international framework.
3. New Agenda and Plans for the Future of the Vocational
Education and Training in Indonesia.
There are challenges that the government should carefully examine
and overcome in order to achieve effective vocational education and
training for the Indonesian people. The first challenge is to boost
the number of school enrollments and graduates, particularly at the
primary and junior secondary levels (the mandatory levels), by
providing better access to education in terms of location, facilities,
and financial assistance. The increasing number of graduates in basic
education and, thus, the decreasing rate of drop outs will support
the increasing number of senior secondary schools, including
vocational secondary schools and college/university enrollments.
Other challenges include those faced by the vocational schools,
which are: the image of vocational schools; affordable and up-to-date
training equipment; provision of trade teachers; classroom and job
availability; and competitiveness. The government is expected to
provide clear direction of the economy, technology, and industry that
Indonesia will embrace in the future to anticipate the skills needed
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in the labor market.
In term of training for job seekers, the challenge lies in the
management of BLKs, in which autonomy is given locally, resulting
in BLKs high dependence on the orientation and budget allocated
to human development programs in each province/district. This
autonomy should be supported by the clear target of overall
Indonesia human development, utilizing precise tools and methods
to evaluate the effectiveness of training programs in each province
or district.
The government has identified future core industries which are
expected to serve as Indonesia competitive advantage and prove
essential in determining the direction of skills’ formation within the
TVET system. As previously mentioned, the government will also
involve small businesses in developing the industries. Thus,
providing training for small businesses is paramount.
Future challenges and trends will also be addressed properly to
create an effective TVET system. The challenges and trends include
globalization, ICT revolution, the emerging knowledge society, and
climate change. The government has proposed an integrative
curriculum in the TVET system to answer these challenges, which
include:
∙ Hard Skills or Technical Skills;
∙ Generic Soft Skills;
∙ Sustainable Development Knowledge;
INDONESIA 211
∙ Mobility of Workforce & Transferable Qualifications across
Borders; and
∙ Entrepreneurship & Informal Sector Skills.
Government commitment to providing sufficient funding; tight
monitoring and evaluation; and clear strategy will be needed to
ensure the success of a well-implemented, effective TVET system.
212 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
References:
Abduh, M. (2010). Presentation: Responding to Global Challenges
through TVET in the Asia Pacific Region. Manila, Philippines,
2010.
Bangun Sektor Industri 2025 (Industry Development 2025).
Buku Informasi Pelatihan dan Produktivitas 2009 (The Information
Book on Training and Productivity 2009). Directorate General
of Training and Productivity Developent. The Ministry of
Manpower and Transmigration, Republic of Indonesia. Jakarta:
2009.
De Ruyter, A. and Warnecke, T. (2008) ‘Gender, Non-standard Work
and Development Regimes: A Comparison of the USA and
Indonesia’ Journal of Industrial Relations, 50 (5): 718-735.
Dhanani, S. (2004). Unemployment and Underemployment in
Indonesia, 1976-2000: Paradoxes and Issues. Geneva: International
Labour Office.
Garis-Garis Besar Program Pembinaan SMK Tahun 2010 (General
Guidelines of Secondary Vocational School Governance Year
2010). The Directorate of SMK Governance, Ministry of
National Education, Republic of Indonesia. Jakarta: 2010.
Ikhtisar Data Pendidikan Nasional 2007/2008 (Summary on National
Education Data 2007/2008). Ministry of National Education,
Republic of Indonesia. Jakarta: 2008.
Index SMK 2008/2009. Ministry of National Education, Republic of
Indonesia.
INDONESIA 213
Iqbal, M. (2010) Hubungan dan pengaruh personality, strategi daya
tindah dan penyesuaian sosio budaya keatas kualiti hidup Tenaga
Kerja Indonesia (TKI) di Lembah Klang Malaysia. Unpublished
PhD Thesis. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Mahfud, T. and Novi, A. (2010) Peran SMK sebagai specific Human
Capital dalam membangun perekonomian Indonesia (SMK role
as specific Human Capital in developing Indonesia’s economy).
http://mahfudz30.wordpress.com/2010/06/22/peran-smk-sebagai-spec
ific-human-capital-dalam-membangun-perekonomian-indonesia/.
Retrieved 8 December 2010.
Manning, C. (2000). Labour Market Adjustment to Indonesia’s
Economic Crisis: Context, Trends, and Implications. Bulletin of
Indonesian Economic Studies, 36 (1): 105-36.
Profil Unit Pelaksana Teknis Pusat (Profile: The Technical
Implementer Unit). Directorate General of Training and Productivity
Developent. The Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration,
Republic of Indonesia. Jakarta: 2008.
Rencana Strategis Departemen Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
2010-2014 (Strategic Plan of the Minustry of National Education
2010-1014). Jakarta, 2010.
Roadmap Pengembangan SMK 2010-2014 (The Roadmap of SMK
Development 2010-2014). The Directorate of SMK Governance,
Ministry of National Education, Republic of Indonesia. Jakarta:
2010.
Sekilas tentang Politeknik (Overview on Polytechnics).
http://www.polmed.ac.id/file/h_1173344851.pdf. Retrieved 9
214 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
December 2010.
Siswandari, Murdewi (2005). Certification Model of TVET
Graduates in Indonesia. Manila, Philippines: 2005.
http://www.apacc4hrd.org/conf_workshop/apacc05/CR/ind2/.
Retrieved 8 December 2010.
Susilowati (2004). Accreditation and Certification in TVET in
Indonesia. Asia Pacific Accreditation and Certification Commission
(APACC): Country Reports. Seoul, Korea: 2004.
http://www.apacc4hrd.org/conf_workshop/apacc04/CR/IS/.
Retrieved 8 December 2010.
Sugiyarto, G., M. Oey-Gardiner, and N. Triaswati. (2006). “Labor
Markets in Indonesia: Key Challenges and Policy Issues.” In J.
Felipe and R. Hasan (eds). Labor Markets in Asia: Issues and
Perspectives. London: Palgrave Macmillan for the Asian
Development Bank
www.bps.go.id (statistics Indonesia).
www.bnsp.go.id
LAO PDR
LAO PDR 217
Chapter 1
The National Context of TVET
Section 1. Context and Background
1. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
Lao PDR is a single party socialist republic. A gradual return to
private enterprise and the liberalization of foreign investment laws
began in 1986, and a national constitution was promulgated in August
1991.
Lao PDR is currently divided into 17 administrative divisions
comprising 16 provinces: Attapeu, Bokeo, Borikhamxay, Champasack,
Huaphanh, Khammuane, Luangnamtha, Luangprabang, Oudomxay,
Phongsaly, Saravane, Savannakhet, Vientiane, Xayabury, Sekong,
Xiengkhuang, plus the Vientiane Capital. Provinces have financial
and operational independence within overall state policy frameworks
and planning. Provinces are further organized administratively
through a total of 140 districts.
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2. GEOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHY, POPULATION GROWTH
2.1 Geography
Lao PDR has land area of 236,800 square km, and the terrain is
mostly rugged with mountains reaching to around 2,800 meters, and
some plains and plateaus. Most of the country is mountainous and
thickly forested, with alluvial plains and terraces of the Mekong and
its tributaries covering only about 20% of the land area. The overall
arable land is an estimated 4–5% of the country’s surface. The most
densely populated areas lie in the Mekong river basin.
Lao PDR has significant natural resources like forestry, minerals,
and hydro-electric power. Despite the recent declining of its share
in GDP, agriculture remains the major sector of Lao economy,
contributing around 45 percent of GDP (2005) and employing nearly
80 percent of the labor force; industry accounts for a bit more than
29%, and services, for nearly 26%. Landlocked, Lao PDR is in the
center of the Mekong region, bordered by Thailand, Vietnam,
Southern China, Cambodia, and Myanmar, with the first three
neighbors growing rapidly.
Lao PDR has grown strongly for more than a decade. In the 1990s,
real GDP grew by an annual average rate of 6.3 percent-despite the
sharp fall-off in growth during the regional crisis of 1997-1999.
Exports grew at around 15 percent a year; agriculture grew rapidly,
as did industry and services.
LAO PDR 219
2.2 Demography
The population of Laos census in 2005 was 5.62 million (estimated,
2008, 6.00 million), making it one of the least densely populated
countries in Asia at 24 persons per km2. The geographic distribution
of Laos has changed considerably in recent decades, with significant
movements from rural to urban areas. Still, by 2005, some 27% of
the population lived in urban areas; 51% in rural “on-road” areas;
and 21% in rural “off-road” areas. These three categories of location
represent significantly different social and economic conditions.
2.3 Population Growth
The 2005 census showed a surprising decline in the national fertility
rate, but at least as significant as the overall decline was the
geographic distribution of the decline. In the urban areas, the fertility
rate seems to have stabilized at just over 2.0, which is close to the
fertility rates in Europe. In rural ‘on-road’ areas, the fertility rate
is still relatively high at 3.7. In rural “off-road” areas, the fertility
rate is still quite high at 4.7, as shown in Table 1. The overall effect
of the decline in fertility rates is the decline in the size of the new
age cohorts, as shown in [Figure 1. The bulge in the 10-14 year
old age cohort can be expected, of course, to be replicated around
2015–2020.
220 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-1> Fertility Rates by LocationLocation Fertility Rate %
National Population 2.2Urban 2.0Rural, on road 3.7Rural, off road 4.7
Source: 2005 National Census
[Figure 1-1] Population Pyramid, 2005
As shown in Table 2 and Figure 2, the population cohorts
corresponding to upper secondary schooling (15 - 17 years) can be
expected to peak in 2010, then decline, then begin to rise gradually
toward the end of the period 2010 – 2020. Also shown are the
enrollment projections for technical and vocational education and
training (TVET) and for upper secondary technical programs,
prepared by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in connection with
the Education Sector Development Framework (ESDF), which is
intended to steer sector development over the period 2009 – 2015.
LAO PDR 221
<Table 1-2> Population and TVET and Upper Secondary Technical Enrolments to 2020
Year Age 15-17 EnrolmentTVET Technical
2005 412,6002006 428,6002007 443,700 15,1002008 456,300 19,5002009 463,800 23,8002010 464,900 28,200 6,5002011 460,800 32,600 15,8002012 455,000 36,900 25,6002013 446,900 41,300 38,2002014 441,200 45,600 53,4002015 437,300 50,000 70,8002016 429,400 79,8002017 422,900 89,9002018 417,300 99,9002019 417,800 106,7002020 418,500 110,000
[Figure 1-2] Population and TVET & Upper Secondary Technical Enrollments to 2020
222 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
3. Economy
In 2006, the economy of Lao PDR has continued to grow at a
steady rate. The macroeconomic situation has remained relatively
stable, but signs of monetary expansion in 2006, for the first time
in recent years, created a risk of future inflation. The risks of
potential negative impact of a growing resource sector on the real
economy have also persisted. Exports grew substantially, by nearly
half, driven by copper exports, while agriculture also contributed;
however, exports of wood products, garment industry, and other
non-resource sectors have been on a declining trend.
Real GDP grew at 7.1 percent in 2005 and about 7.6 percent in
2006 and is expected to remain at above 7 percent in 2007. This
growth was in large part due to foreign investment inflows in mining
and hydro-power and growing mineral exports, while the share of
non-mining contributions has increased only slightly this year,
contributing about 4.8 of 7.6 percent to real GDP growth.
<Table 1-3> Annual Percent Growth Rate of GDP
Year %2005 7.12006 8.52007 7.62008 7.32009 (estimated) 6.42010 (projected) 7.52011-15 (mean projected) 7.8
Source: World Bank. Lao PDR Economic Monitor. End-Year Update 2009.
LAO PDR 223
4. EDUCATION
Lao education continues the traditional European structure of a two
semester education year, with the first semester from early September
to late December, and the second semester, from early January to
late June of the succeeding calendar year. From the commencement
of school year 2009-10, a 12 year school system structure comprising
five years of primary; four years of lower secondary; and three years
of upper secondary schooling; replaced the earlier 11 year school
system of five years of primary; three years of lower secondary; and
three years of upper secondary schooling.
The Lao PDR Education Law, 2007 affirms the right of all citizens
to education, and it describes education as a “first priority” of national
financial policy. Primary education (grades 1-5) is universal and
compulsory. The national education system has four components: (i)
Early Childhood Education: crèches and kindergartens; (ii) General
Education: “teaching-learning of basic knowledge” in primary education,
lower and upper secondary; (iii) Vocational Education at three levels
(first, middle and high level); and (iv) Higher Education, described
as the level next to upper secondary and middle and high levels of
vocational education, including five stages from undergraduate to
doctoral level. Education can be attained through the formal school
system or non-formally, each described as different approaches of
similar content and equal value. Informal education is described as
a sub-form of non-formal education that has no limits regarding time,
content, or learning institution.
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<Table 1-4> General Education
Items unit 2005 2006 2008 2009Number of Pupils
PrimaryLower secondaryUpper secondary
Number of TeachersPrimarySecondary
Number of SchoolsPrimaryLower secondaryUpper secondaryComplete secondary
Number of ClassroomsPrimaryLower SecondaryUpper Secondary
PersPersPersPers
PersPersPers
PlacesPlacesPlacesPlacesPlaces
RoomsRoomsRoomsRooms
1 278 865 890 821 243 137 144 907
42 254 27 588 9 918
9 245 8 573 641
31
35 160 27 356 5 205 2 599
1 282 522 891 881 243 131 147 510
42 939 27 776 10 068
9 634 8 654 642
28
36 447 28 389 5 306 2 752
1 310 685 900 817 255 083 154 785
47 095 29 541 17 454
9 882 8 830 691
31 330
38 477 29 769 5 712 2 996
1 330 779 908 880 264 579 157 320
46 610 29 060 17 550
9 996 8 871 722
35 368
39 298 30 107 6 003 3 188
LAO PDR 225
<Table 1-5> Vocational Education and Higher Education
Items unit 2005 2006 2008 2009Number of Universities
StudentsTeachers
Number of InstitutesStudentsTeachers
Number of TechnicalSecondary SchoolsStudentsTeachers
Number of TechnicalFirst-schoolsStudentsTeachers
PlacesPersPers
PlacesPersPers
PlacesPersPers
PlacesPersPers
323 575
1 096
2526 207
1 035
3523 845
1 118
123 842
90
330 574
1 385
2830 048
1 148
4726 337
1 540
122 953
142
4 37 795 1 271
91 54 433 1 952
50 20 166 1 914
12 822 157
4 54 167 2 509
96 58 640 2 432
51 16 074 1 326
12 294
…
The formal education system in Lao PDR consists of primary (5
years); lower secondary (3 years); and upper secondary (3 years).
There are also opportunities for post-secondary technical and
vocational education and training, as well as academic studies at the
tertiary level. The Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey for
2002-2003 shows considerable improvement in educational attainments
since the 1995 population census. The proportion of the population
aged 6 years and above with no school declined from 43 percent,
to 23 percent. Those who completed elementary school increased
226 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
from 11 percent, to 15 percent; lower secondary school from 4 per-
cent, to 7 percent; and upper secondary school from 2 percent, to
6 percent.1) While enrollments increased for both sexes, the
participation of girls continues to lag far behind that for boys. In
2002-2003 31 percent of girls 6 years and over had no schooling.
<Table 1-6> Educational Attainment of Population 6+ Years by Sex, Lao
PDR (Percentages)
1995 2002-2003Total Male Female Total Male Female
NoneCompleted primary schoolCompleted lower secondary schoolCompleted upper secondary school
4311
42
3313
53
52932
2315
76
1517
94
3114
62
Source: Committee for Planning and Cooperation, National Statistical Centre, the Household of Lao PDR: Social and Economic Indicators, Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey 2002/03 (LECS 3), March 2004.
1) Committee for Planning and Cooperation, National Statistical Centre, the Household of Lao PDR: Social and Economic Indicators, Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey 2002/03 (LECS 3), March 2004.
LAO PDR 227
<Table 1-7> Children out of school
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Number
Male 68,912 74,396 73,464 69,824 78,287 83,073 83,406 75,816 65,200
Female 91,384 95,623 95,283 91,536 95,214 98,039 98,842 89,474 76,419
Total 160,296 170,019 168,747 161,360 173,501 181,112 182,248 165,290 141,619
Rate (%)
Male 18.07 19.08 18.44 17.15 18.89 19.82 19.85 18.19 15.90
Female 24.79 25.39 24.76 23.28 23.78 24.22 24.36 22.24 19.33
Total 21.37 22.18 21.54 20.16 21.29 21.98 22.07 20.18 17.58
Source: World Bank Database
<Table 1-8> Public Education Expenditure
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
% of GDP 1.50 1.99 2.71 2.28 2.40 2.87 3.04 2.32
% of total government expenditure 7.38 8.85 10.63 10.76 11.71 14.05 15.78 12.21
% of Primary 8.03 9.89
% of Secondary 9.02 5.05
% of Tertiary 70.61 112.08 83.40 27.38
Source: World Bank Database
<Table 1-9> Literacy
(Definition: Age 15 and Over Can Read and Write)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Literacy Rate (%)
Total 69.58 68.73 72.70
Male 81.36 77.01 82.45
Female 58.46 60.90 63.23
Illiteracy Population
Total 930,391 983,779 961,467
Male 282,896 357,749 302,738
Female 647,495 626,031 658,728
Source: Enesco Database
228 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-10> School Enrollment(% gross)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Primary(%)
total 110.87 108.06 108.87 109.37 108.56 108.10 107.99 108.87 111.84
male 119.51 116.05 116.69 116.85 115.41 114.79 114.40 114.75 117.27
female 101.93 99.78 100.78 101.63 101.46 101.17 101.36 102.77 106.22
private 2.03 2.06 2.02 2.02 2.07 2.36 2.62 2.78 3.00
Second-ary(%)
total 34.49 36.45 39.36 42.33 44.39 45.00 44.13 43.99 43.86
male 40.42 42.40 45.45 48.52 50.57 51.04 49.54 49.10 48.49
female 28.38 30.32 33.08 35.95 38.04 38.78 38.55 38.73 39.08
private 0.87 0.83 0.85 0.84 1.11 1.57 1.36 1.55 1.92
Tertiary(%)
total 2.71 3.13 4.17 4.93 5.72 7.77 8.99 11.53 13.37
male 3.54 3.92 5.31 6.27 7.03 9.06 10.70 13.37 15.03
female 1.86 2.31 3.00 3.56 4.38 6.45 7.26 9.66 11.67
<Table 1-11> Ratio of Female to Male
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008Level ofEnroll-ment (%)
Primary 85.29 85.98 86.37 86.97 87.91 88.13 88.60 89.56 90.57Secondary 70.22 71.52 72.78 74.10 75.22 75.97 77.81 78.87 80.60
Tertiary 52.61 58.97 56.62 56.80 62.31 71.15 67.83 72.30 77.65
in Primary andSecondaryEducation (%)
81.31 81.91 82.34 82.97 83.81 84.12 85.05 85.99 87.22
<Table 1-12> Primary Education
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
# of Pupils 831,521 828,113 852,857 875,300 884,629 890,821 891,881 891,807 900,817
% of Female Pupils 45.18 45.37 45.48 45.65 45.92 45.98 46.11 46.36 46.62
# of Teachers 27,592 27,665 28,545 28,571 28,150 28,299 28,741 29,604 29,541
% of Female Teachers 43.40 43.75 44.19 44.41 44.69 45.44 46.45 47.20 48.87
Pupil-Teacher Ratio (%) 30.14 29.93 29.88 30.64 31.43 31.48 31.03 30.12 30.49
LAO PDR 229
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Survival Rate to Last Grade of Primary (%)
total 53.22 62.27 64.12 62.57 63.03 62.00 61.45 66.78
male 52.63 61.87 63.60 62.08 63.64 62.28 61.72 65.97
female 53.89 62.72 64.72 63.12 62.32 61.66 61.13 67.68
Primary Completion Rate (%)
total 69.29 69.60 70.08 69.50 69.53 70.88 72.88 73.70 74.70
male 75.08 74.49 74.13 73.46 73.60 74.87 77.78 77.93 78.28
female 63.31 64.56 65.91 65.41 65.33 66.75 67.81 69.32 70.99
Repetition Rate in Primary Grade 1 (%)
total 34.31 35.72 34.73 34.77 34.08 32.87 30.62 31.97
male 34.99 36.42 35.17 35.27 34.76 33.68 31.30 32.72
female 33.49 34.88 34.20 34.19 33.28 31.94 29.85 31.13
Trained Teachers in Primary Education (%)
total 76.69 76.24 76.15 77.52 79.35 83.38 85.76 89.67 96.89
male 69.58 68.93 68.89 70.54 72.79 78.34 81.46 87.12 97.15
female 85.96 85.64 85.32 86.26 87.47 89.44 90.72 92.52 96.61
<Table 1-13> Secondary Education
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
# of Pupils 264,586 288,389 320,275 353,362 379,579 393,856 395,382 403,833 412,375
% of Female Pupils 40.54 40.99 41.41 41.85 42.23 42.47 43.05 43.36 43.87
# of Teachers 12,402 12,686 13,296 13,771 14,257 15,891 15,987 17,110 18,117
% of Female Teachers 40.12 40.51 42.06 41.90 42.22 42.14 43.07 42.78 44.46
# of Vocational Pupils 3,789 4,019 4,542 5,053 5,159 5,812 4,741 3,741 2,507
% of Vocational Female Pupils 35.55 32.87 34.24 39.58 34.74 37.04 34.51 35.47 40.05
Pupil-Teacher Ratio (%) 21.33 22.73 24.09 25.66 26.62 24.78 24.73 23.60 22.76
AllPrograms
total 264,586 288,389 320,275 353,362 379,579 393,856 395,382 403,833 412,375
female 107,271 118,197 132,632 147,898 160,279 167,266 170,193 175,091 180,890
General Programs total 260,797 284,370 315,733 348,309 374,420 388,044 390,641 400,092 409,868
female 105,924 116,876 131,077 145,898 158,487 165,113 168,557 173,764 179,886
Technical/Vocational Programs
total 3,789 4,019 4,542 5,053 5,159 5,812 4,741 3,741 2,507
female 1,347 1,321 1,555 2,000 1,792 2,153 1,636 1,327 1,004
Source: World Bank and Unesco databases
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According to UNESCO data, the gross enrollment rate for secondary
school was 61 percent for Asia, compared to 44 percent for Lao PDR
during 2002-2003.2) Illiteracy remains high, with almost one-fourth
(24 percent) of the population unable to read and write according
to LECS III (14 percent of men and 34 percent of women).3)
Furthermore, there is considerable diversity across groups, as
indicated in Figure 2. The highest proportions of the population aged
15+ that cannot read and write are found in rural areas without roads
(45 per cent) and in the north of the country (32 per cent). The rates
for females are especially high in these areas, with 60 percent and
40 percent, respectively, without basic literacy.
[Figure 1-3] Proportion of the Population Aged 15+ That Cannot Read or
Write by Residence and Sex, 2002-2003
24
9
25
45
32
19
24
14
4
13
29
20
10 11
34
14
35
60
44
28
35
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Lao PDR Urban area Rural with road Rural withoutroad
North Central South
Perc
enta
ge
Total Male Female
2) Web site at http://stats.uis.unesco.org/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=52.3) Committee for Planning and Cooperation, National Statistical Centre, the
Household of Lao PDR: Social and Economic Indicators, Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey 2002/03 (LECS 3), March 2004.
LAO PDR 231
Source: Committee for Planning and Cooperation, National Statistical Centre, the Household of Lao PDR: Social and Economic Indicators, Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey 2002/03 (LECS 3), March 2004.
5. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN AND STRATEGIES
The National Growth and Poverty Eradication Strategy (NGPES),
approved by the Lao PDR National Assembly in 2003, provides the
broad framework for ongoing national socio-economic planning and
implementation. It, thus, gives the basis for the forthcoming 7th
National Socio-Economic Development Plan 2011-15 (NSEDP)
which will build on the identified achievements of the 6th NSEDP,
2006-10.
The Lao PDR is currently implementing the ten-year socio-economic
development vision 2001-2010 approved by the Seventh Party Congress
in 2001 and subsequently reaffirmed by the directions set by the
Eighth Party Congress in 2006.
The Round Table Implementation Meeting, 3 November 2009,
Background Document, November 2009, provided an overview of
key developments, challenges, and future directions for the 7th plan
period. The Background Document notes that identified challenges
remain to (i) speed up implementation of reforms, projects, and
programs; (ii) further strengthen macroeconomic stability following
the global economic downturn, and (iii) promote sustainable and
pro-poor development.
The Background Document stresses that a number of key challenges
remain in order to ensure achievement, as planned, of all the
232 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015, and the proposed
graduation of the Lao PDR from Least Developed Country (LDC)
status by 2020. These challenges reflect the need for broad-based
and inclusive growth, while ensuring quality investment; improving
resource management capacity; and enhancing the development of
some social sector areas. Key specific proposals identify the need
for (i) continuing the broadening of the production and growth base;
(ii) enhancing of labor force productivity and improving of
competitiveness; and (iii) greater regional and global integration.
Major proposed objectives of the 7th Plan include:
∙ Develop fundamental materials and technology, and provide
necessary conditions to improve the living standards and
livelihoods of the people; reduce poverty and strive to achieve
the MDGs by 2015; and lead the country out of LDC status by
2020;
∙ Ensure economic stability, sustainability, and growth aligned
with industrialization and modernization;
∙ Ensure that development is aligned, harmonized, and sustained
- economic development must be closely linked with social
development and environmental protection;
∙ Enhance efficiency, effectiveness, and transparency of public
management and social protection; and
∙ Continue to expand the cooperation and develop necessary capacity
for regional and global integration.
LAO PDR 233
6. STRATEGIC PLAN 2006-2010 AND MASTER PLAN
2008-2015 FOR TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN LAO P.D.R
6.1 The goal of the strategic and master plan
While the education sector has been expanded, TVET also has
been developed and extended throughout the country in terms of
quality and quantity. In the academic year 2007-2008, every province
has at least 1 vocational school. Actually, there are 22 technical-vocational
schools, centers, and technical colleges under the Ministry of
Education (MoE). Furthermore, there are some technical schools
under other line ministry.
According to the Resolution of the VIIIth Congress of the Party
and the Socio-Economic Development Plan of the Lao Government,
and with reference to the Education Development Plan 2000-2020,
as well as the 4 priority projects of the education sector, and in line
with the strategies for the reform of the National Education System,
MoE has developed the Strategic Plan for the Development of TVET
and the TVET-Master Plan 2008-2015 to make the TVET relevant
for the socio-economic development of the country. These documents
also will be used within other sectors concerned at local and central
level as reference for the training of the workforce to meet the
demand of the labor market.
The Strategic Plan for the Development of TVET 2006-2020
identifies the vision and goals, and 7 development strategies which
include objectives and different projects according to the three
234 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
programs for the development of the National Education System,
namely equitable access to education; improvement of education quality
and relevance; and improvement of management and administration.
The TVET-Master Plan identifies targets and objectives of
different projects, and it estimates training needs, as well as potential
for training on the supply side, including the budget and implementing
measures in each period.
The new Strategy for the Development of TVET is in accordance
with the reform and development plan of the education sector up
to 2020, and suitable for the extension and further development of
TVET, whereby gradual, sustainable, systematic development and
the needs of the labor market will be taken into consideration. At
the same time, TVET will contribute to national socio-economic
development to achieve development goals formulated for the nation,
e.g., the implementation of strategy for economic growth and national
poverty eradication, and it finally focuses on the industrialization and
modernization of the country.
The new Strategic Plan is based on three main principles:
development of TVET as for lifelong learning; participation of
society; and continuous development of learning contents and
processes which will be applied within formal, non-formal, and
informal education. For the provision of TVET, different approaches
will be applied, such as integrated vocational education and training;
cooperative training; and the offering of special courses, short-term
courses, e-learning, open learning, distance learning, etc., according
to the environment, conditions, and specialties of TVET providers
LAO PDR 235
and the position of training institutions.
Detailed approaches and methodologies of TVET development
will be provided by the Ministry of Education in cooperation with
relevant bodies responsible for TVET in order to issue detailed and
complete regulations and strategic plans. This has to align with the
three programs within the Education Sector Development Framework,
(ESDF) namely increasing equitable access to education programs;
improving the quality and relevance of program and education
administration; and management program aiming at the complete and
qualitative development of TVET in Lao PDR.
6.2 Current status of vocational and technical education and
training
TVET is an integral and crucial part of the National Education
System. It is a means for preparing the workforce, including
technicians at various levels for employment through training so that
they are equipped with necessary knowledge, abilities, skills, and
attitudes. Objectives include:
- Strengthening the individuals in the workforce to be a good
citizens who possess necessary knowledge and occupational
skills and are able to start up business as entrepreneurs who are
creative and enthusiastic towards the development of the nation
and themselves; who have good health and ethics in order to
fulfil the development requirements of our nation;
- Developing the workforce in line with potentials of regions and
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linked to the real way of life of the people, in accordance with
the economic framework of the country to meet the demands
of the national and international labor market, as well as the
requirements for integration into the region and the world; and
- Developing training occupations in line with potentials of
economic development and regions focusing on agriculture and
forestry; industrial processing; electricity, especially hydro-power;
economic exchange; and tourism and mining to create economic
framework based on agriculture and forestry and in connection
with industry and service.
Both the TVET-Strategy and the Master Plan are based on three
key concepts which are used as guidelines for the development of
the Education Sector Development Framework:
∙ Equitable Access;
∙ Quality and Relevance; and
∙ Management and Administration.
Within these key issues, seven strategic projects have been
identified:
1. The construction, upgrading, and expansion of the TVET institutions;
2. The expansion of the TVET offer and approaches;
3. The qualifications, training, and professional development of
TVET teachers and other staff;
4. The quality assurance of TVET;
5. The development of TVET information resources;
LAO PDR 237
6. The improvement of the organizational structure of The TVET
sector; and
7. The formulation of policy and tools at the macro-level for the
development of TVET.
6.3 Recent developments
Strategic Project 1: Construction, Renovation, and Expansion of
TVET;
Strategic Project 2: Expand TVET Offer and Approaches;
Strategic Project 3: Develop and Improve the TVET Teachers and
Staff;
Strategic Project 4: Set up the Quality Assurance System of the
TVET;
Strategic Project 5: Develop the Information System of TVET;
Strategic Project 6: Improve the Organizational Structure of TVET;
and
Strategic Project 7: Formulate the Policy and Tools at the Macro
Level for the Development of TVET.
Section 2. EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR FORCE
1. Employment and Age
The labor force comprises all persons 10 years old and older who
are either employed or unemployed. The activity status of the Lao
238 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
population is measured by the “the usually active population”
approach, which means the main activity during the past 12 months.
This is used instead of the “currently active population” approach,
which typically refers to the past week. The “usually active population”
gives a more stable estimate and is better suited to the Lao labor
market because of the seasonal and informal nature of employment
for large proportions of the labor force, especially in the large
informal labor market. The category “unemployed” implies “actually
looking for a job”. So students are by definition “not economically
active”. The distribution of the population by age, location, and
economic activity is shown in Table14.
From <Table 14 it can be seen that the Location indicator is
particularly effective in distinguishing between the urban labor
market and the rural labor markets. It is especially clear that
“unemployment” is an urban phenomenon. Young people in urban
areas tend to enter the labor force some 5 to 7 years later than young
people in rural areas. Unemployment peaks at nearly 5% around the
age 20-24 years in the urban areas. Unemployment in the rural areas
never rises to 1%.
The data in Table 14<Table suggest that in rural off-road
communities, nearly 30% of young people become economically
active, while in the 10-14 year age range, they proceed directly into
employment. By contrast, in urban areas, only a slightly larger
proportion (36%) become economically active, while in the 15-19
year age range, but for many, employment is not immediate, and
unemployment reaches nearly 5%.
LAO PDR 239
<Table 1-14> Population Aged 10 and Above, by Economic Activity (%)
Age Group
Urban Rural On-Road Rural Off-RoadEmploy
edUn-emp
loyed Inactive Employed
Un-employed
Inactive
Employed
Un-employed Inactive
10-14 5.1 1.0 92.5 17.9 0.4 79.9 29.3 0.5 67.815-19 33.0 3.5 62.4 61.4 0.7 36.9 71.9 0.4 26.620-24 65.1 4.9 29.0 91.4 0.7 7.0 94.6 0.3 4.225-29 81.7 3.3 14.1 96.3 0.4 2.5 97.7 0.2 1.430-34 84.4 1.9 12.8 96.9 0.2 2.2 98.0 0.1 1.335-39 85.6 1.2 12.4 97.0 0.2 2.2 97.9 0.1 1.540-44 85.2 0.9 13.2 96.4 0.1 2.9 96.9 0.1 2.545-49 83.6 0.8 14.9 95.2 0.1 4.2 95.3 0.1 4.150-54 74.8 0.6 23.9 84.6 0.1 14.6 82.5 0.1 16.855-59 62.2 0.6 36.4 74.4 0.2 24.7 72.3 0.1 26.860-64 40.3 0.5 58.3 51.3 0.2 47.6 48.9 0.2 50.165-69 27.1 0.4 71.5 39.0 0.2 59.8 38.1 0.2 60.670-74 13.9 0.4 84.2 21.8 0.2 76.7 21.9 0.3 76.675+ 6.8 0.5 90.7 35.9 0.9 84.0 14.3 0.3 83.8
Source: Steering Committee for Census of Population and Housing. Results from the Population and Housing Census 2005.
The data shown in five-year cohorts in Table 15 can be
disaggregated using Sprague interpolation to provide estimates by
individual year cohort for working children and youth under the legal
age of 18. Such a disaggregation is shown in <Table 15. In total,
over 130,000 children between the ages of 10 and 14 years were
employed in 2005, and over 190,000 youth between the ages of 15
and 17 were employed.
240 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-15> Number & Percent of Children and Youth Employed, by Age
& Location
AgePercent of Each Age Group Employed Number in Each Age Group Employed
Urban Rural On-Road
Rural Off-Road Urban Rural
On-RoadRural
Off-Road10 0 9 17 26 7,319 5,76911 0 11 23 104 9,705 7,81612 3 16 29 947 13,310 9,83813 8 23 36 2,912 18,632 11,73314 14 32 44 5,615 24,915 13,47615 21 43 54 8,233 30,997 15,21816 26 54 66 10,827 37,220 17,00517 33 65 77 13,450 41,853 18,16718 39 73 83 16,011 43,952 18,407
Source: Author estimate based on disaggregation of published 2005 census results,
In both age groups and in all location categories, the proportion
of girls employed is substantially higher than the proportion of boys
employed. Of the 130,000 children between the ages of 10 and 14
years who were employed in 2005, 60% were girls. Of the 350,000
youth between the ages of 15 and 19 years, 58% were girls.
<Table 1-16> Children and Youth Employed, by Age, Gender, and Location(Percent)
AgeUrban Rural On-Road Rural Off-Road
Males Females Males Females Males Females10-14 3.8 6.3 14.0 22.1 23.0 36.015-19 27.5 38.6 52.2 70.7 61.7 81.7
Source: Census 2005.
LAO PDR 241
In recent years, there have been large increases in direct
employment in exports and in small-scale retail trade, due to
increased imports. According to the TVET Master Plan, overall, to
ensure a growth rate of 7-8% in accordance with the targets in the
Seventh National Social and Economic Development Plan (NSEDP7)
during the period 2006-2010, employment must be created on
average for 130,000 people per year.
2. LAO LABOR MARKET INDICATOR
According to the official estimates compiled by the MOLSW and
NSC, the total population of Lao PDR was 5.7 million in 2003, of
which 49 percent were men and 51 percent were women. Of these
3.2 million were aged 15 years and over. This means the 44 percent
of the population was below working age. Employment and
unemployment are not defined according to international standards
for persons either in “usual status” or “current status”, but figures
reflect the observations of those providing the information.4)
4) Usual status generally refers to main activities over the preceding twelve months with 183 days sometimes used as the measure of whether a person was usually employment, for example. Current status is determined by the principal activity during a short period. According to international standards, a person is counted as employed if he or she engaged in economic activity in the production of goods and services for at least one hour during the seven day reference period
242 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-17> Employed and unemployed population aged 15+ years, Lao
PDR, 2001-2003
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
Employed 15+MaleFemaleTotal
Unemployed 15+MaleFemaleTotal
1,173,0001,272,0002,445,000
54,70073,300
128,000
48.052.0
100.0
42.757.3
100.0
1,194,0001,296,0002,490,000
56,40075,600
132,000
48.052.0
100.0
42.757.3
100.0
1,217,0001,320,0002,537,000
58,10077,800
135,900
48.052.0
100.0
42.857.2
100.0Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005.
The data for 2003 shows that more women than men were counted
as employed (1,320,000 or 52 percent) and unemployed (77,800 or
57 percent). It is, therefore, not surprising that there are more women
in the labor force defined as the employed plus the unemployed.
<Table 1-18> Labor Force Aged 15+ Years, Lao PDR, 2001-2003
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
Male 1,227,700 47.7 1,250,400 47.7 1,275,100 47.7Female 1,345,300 52.3 1,371,600 52.3 1,397,800 52.3Total 2,573,000 100.0 2,622,000 100.0 2,672,900 100.0Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005.
The employment-to-population ratio gives a measure of the extent
that the working age population is actually engaged in the production
of goods and services. It is an indication of the capacity of the
economy to employ its workforce. Four-fifths (80 percent) of the
LAO PDR 243
population aged 15 years and over were employed during 2003.
There has been little change over the past few years.
<Table 1-19> Employment-to-Population Ratios, Labor Force Participation
Rates, Unemployment Rates and Inactivity Rates for Lao
PDR, 2001-2003
2001 2002 2003Labour force participation rate 15+Male 82.9 84.1 83.4Female 86.6 86.0 85.3
Total 84.8 85.1 84.4Employment-to-population ratio 15+Male 79.3 80.3 79.6Female 81.9 81.3 80.5
Total 80.6 80.8 80.1Unemployment rates 15+Male 4.5 4.5 4.6Female 5.4 5.5 5.6
Total 5.0 5.0 5.1Inactivity rate 15+Male 17.1 15.9 16.6Female 13.4 14.0 14.7
Total 15.2 14.9 15.6Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005.
The labor force participation rate is useful for predicting training
needs and social security. It is generally directly related to agricultural
activities and inversely related to school attendance. This rate was
84 percent in 2003. Given the fact that more women than men are
economically active, it is not surprising that the labor force
participation rate is slightly higher for women (85 percent) than for
men (83 percent).
244 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-20> Age-Specific Labor Force Participation Rates by Urban and
Rural, Lao PDR, 1995
Total Urban RuralTotal Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female
10-14 24.3 22.8 29.7 5.5 4.2 6.9 28.0 21.6 34.715-19 60.6 50.7 72.1 37.2 27.6 46.8 66.4 53.7 78.620-24 89.7 87.2 92.0 73.6 70.3 76.6 94.2 91.9 96.125-29 94.8 96.9 92.8 83.8 91.4 76.8 97.5 98.3 96.730-34 95.5 98.3 92.7 85.8 95.8 76.0 97.8 98.9 96.735-39 95.9 98.5 93.2 86.7 96.5 76.1 97.9 98.9 96.940-44 95.4 98.4 92.3 85.7 96.6 73.5 97.4 98.7 96.245-49 94.3 97.8 91.1 83.5 95.2 70.6 96.4 98.2 94.750-54 84.8 93.6 77.2 73.9 89.5 58.3 86.6 94.1 80.655-59 76.3 87.8 65.3 62.9 79.6 46.1 78.8 88.9 69.460-64 58.1 73.9 43.8 45.2 61.7 29.4 60.4 75.1 47.065-69 47.1 62.8 32.1 33.2 47.8 18.8 49.8 63.8 35.670+ 22.0 35.0 12.9 12.5 20.3 6.2 24.0 34.4 14.8Not classified 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.4 0 2.4Source: State Planning Committee, National Statistical Centre, Results from the
Population Census 1995, Vientiane, April 1997.
The latest statistics available for age-specific labor force
participation rates are from the 1995 population census. This data
measures “usual status” over the past twelve months. On the basis
of the 15+ age group of working age, the labor force participation
rate for the whole country was 81 percent in 1995. At that time,
the labor force participation rates were virtually the same for women
and men. For Lao PDR as a whole the female labor force
participation rates were higher than male labor force participation
rates for children and youth, as shown in Figure 4. In rural areas,
children aged 10-14 were more likely to be economically active than
in urban areas.
LAO PDR 245
{Figure 1-4] Labour force participation rates
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70+
Total Male Female
Source: State Planning Committee, National Statistical Centre, Results from the Population Census 1995, Vientiane, April 1997 and Table 4.
In Lao PDR women and men who were not economically active
represented 16 percent of the population in 2003. According to
official estimates, 64 percent of those not economically active were
students in 2004. Another 17 percent were retired, sick, or too old
to work. Just 12 percent were occupied with household duties.
The 1995 population census shows that the highest rates of
unemployment are for young people aged 15-24 in urban areas.
Unemployment rates for Lao PDR in 2003 were lower than average
for Southeast Asia, as shown in Table 21.
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<Table 1-21> Unemployment rates by region and sex, 2001-2003
2001 2002 2003Total Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male
World 6.1 6.3 6.0 6.3 6.5 6.2 6.2 6.4 6.1Industrialized economies 6.1 6.4 5.9 6.8 7.0 6.7 6.8 7.0 6.7
Transition economies 9.5 9.4 9.5 9.4 9.3 9.5 9.2 9.2 9.2East Asia 3.3 2.7 3.8 3.1 2.6 3.6 3.3 2.7 3.7Southeast Asia 6.1 6.7 5.7 7.1 7.8 6.5 6.3 6.9 5.9South Asia 4.7 6.0 4.1 4.8 6.1 4.2 4.8 6.2 4.3Latin American and the Caribbean 9.0 11.3 7.6 9.0 11.2 7.6 8.0 10.1 6.7
Middle East and North Africa 12.0 16.3 10.5 11.9 16.2 10.4 12.2 16.5 10.6
Sub-Saharan Africa 10.6 9.3 11.6 10.8 9.5 11.8 10.9 9.6 11.8Source: ILO KILM 3rd Edition, CD-ROM, 2005.
According to the official estimates produced for the labor market,
most of the unemployed in Lao PDR are in the south (60 percent)
with 32 percent in the north and 8 percent in the central region of
the country. It is especially difficult for young people entering the
labor market without appropriate skills, since they lack work experience,
as well. While it is not possible to calculate unemployment rates for
youth (15-24 years) and adults (25 years and over) based on the data
that is available for recent years, there are indications that
unemployment rates are still highest among educated youth in urban
areas. In 2003, 19 percent of the unemployed had at least some lower
secondary schooling. The highest level of education for one-fourth
was some upper secondary school. Another 14 percent had
vocational training at the post-secondary or tertiary level, while less
LAO PDR 247
than one percent had some university education or higher degree.<Table 1-22> Unemployed Population by Educational Attainment, Lao PDR,
2001-2003
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
No education or less than Primary 15,400 12.0 15,800 12.0 16,300 12.0
Primary 23,200 18.1 23,900 18.1 24,600 18.1Lower secondary 24,200 18.9 24,900 18.9 25,700 18.9Upper secondary 32,200 25.2 33,300 25.2 34,300 25.2Vocational-post-secondary and tertiary 17,400 13.6 18,000 13.6 18,500 13.6
University-undergraduate and graduate 400 0.3 400 0.3 400 0.3
Short couses 5,900 4.6 6,100 4.6 6,300 4.6Other 9,300 7.3 9,600 7.3 9,900 7.3Total 128,000 100.0 132,000 100.0 136,000 100.0Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005.
Indicators for Lao PDR also show that eight out of ten employed
persons were working in agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing
during 2003. This has not changed very much over the three years.
However, the percentage in 2003 (82 percent) was lower than in
1995 (85 percent). This data does not indicate significant differences
between men and women. The proportion of persons employed in
industry was almost the same as in services — at around 9 percent
in 2003. The numbers of people employed in industry and services
increased slightly over the three years.
248 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-23> Employment by Sector, Lao PDR, 2001-2003
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
Both sexesAgriculture 2,021,000 82.7 2,053,000 82.4 2,085000 82.2Industry 213,000 8.7 224,000 9.0 235,000 9.3Services 211,000 8.6 213,000 8.6 217,000 8.6
Total 2,445,000 100.0 2,490,000 100.0 2,537,000 100.0
MaleAgriculture 970,000 82.7 985,000 82.5 1,001,000 82.3Industry 102,000 8.7 107,000 9.0 113,000 9.3Services 101,000 8.6 102,000 8.5 103,000 8.5
Total 1,173,000 100.0 1,194,000 100.0 1,217,000 100.0
FemaleAgriculture 1,051,000 82.6 1,068,000 82.4 1,084,000 82.1Industry 111,000 8.7 117,000 9.0 122,000 9.2Services 110,000 8.6 111,000 8.6 114,000 8.6
Total 1,272,000 100.0 1,296,000 100.0 1,320,000 100.0Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005.
Figure 5 shows the percentage distributions of GDP and
employment by sector in 2003. The agricultural sector accounts for
49 of the GDP, compared to 82 percent of the employed population.
The result is low productivity and low incomes, placing a large
number of the employed population among the working poor.
LAO PDR 249
[Figure 1-5] Distribution of GDP and Employment, Lao PDR, 2003
48.6
25.9 25.5
82.2
9.3 8.6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Agriculture Industry Services
Perc
enta
ges
GDP Employment
Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005 and ADB Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries.
Data for that year shows an annual growth rate of 2.2 percent for
agriculture. Most farmers depend on subsistence rice production,
with just below 37 percent of agricultural products sold in the
market, according to the LECS III. Aside from crops (51 percent),
agricultural households produce vegetables and fruits (11 percent),
meat (15 percent), poultry (5 percent), fish (12 percent), forestry
products (1 percent) and other products (5 percent). Cash crops
include coffee, tobacco, soybeans, and cotton. Given the limited use
of irrigation, most cultivation is rain-fed production. Few farmers use
purchased inputs of improved seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides.
Inadequacy of infrastructure – roads, transport, water, electricity,
schools, and hospitals – is often cited as an obstacle to development.
The data for the proportion of the employed in agriculture is
250 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
somewhat misleading, since many workers, classified as employed
in agriculture, have secondary jobs in off-farm activities, such as
household businesses.
According to the official estimates over one-half (56 percent) of
the employed population was self-employed, and another one-fourth
(26 percent) was classified as an unpaid family worker in 2003.
Many work on family farms and in the informal economy. Together,
self-employed workers and contributing family members accounted
for 82 percent of the employed population. Official estimates for
2003 show that only 14 percent were in paid employment. A much
smaller percentage (4 percent) was classified as a private employer,
according to the estimates.
<Table 1-24> Employed Population by Status in Employment, Lao PDR
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
Private employer 88,000 3.6 92,200 3.7 96,400 3.8Employee-government 132,000 5.4 132,000 5.3 131,900 5.2Employee-private 202,900 8.3 216,700 8.7 233,400 9.2Self-employed 1,352,100 55.3 1,382,500 55.5 1,413,100 55.7Unpaid family worker 670,000 27.4 667,600 26.8 662,200 26.1
Total 2,445,000 100.0 2,491,000 100.0 2,537,000 100.0Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005
LAO PDR 251
[Figure 1-6] Status in Employment, Lao PDR
Unpaid family worker
26%
Employee - government
5%
Employee - private
9%
Private employer
4%
Self-employed56%
According to the labor market indicators prepared for 2001-2003,
two-thirds of the employed persons in Lao PDR work at least 40
hours per week. Very few (4 percent) worked fewer than 20 hours
in 2003. Altogether 15 percent worked fewer than 30 hours per
week.
<Table 1-25> Hours of Work Per Week, Lao PDR
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
Less than 20 hours 100,300 4.1 102,100 4.1 104,000 4.120-29 hours 273,800 11.2 279,000 11.2 284,200 11.230-39 hours 449,900 18.4 458,400 18.4 466,800 18.440 hours and over 1,621,000 66.3 1,651,500 66.3 1,682,000 66.3
Total 2,445,000 100.0 2,491,000 100.0 2,537,000 100.0Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005.
252 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Comparative statistics indicate that Lao PDR has high rates of
labor force participation and a high proportion of the population in
employment, compared with other countries in Southeast Asia. This
is consistent with the large numbers of working poor in the
agricultural sector and informal employment. The unemployment rate
is lower than the Philippines and Indonesia, but higher than other
countries in the sub region with data for this indicator.
<Table 1-26> Comparative Labor Market Indicators, Southeast Asia
Labour force participation rates Employmentto population
ratio
Share ofemployment
in agriculture
UnemploymentrateTotal Male Female
Brunei 66.0 83.3 46.7 na 2.0 naCambodia 83.3 85.1 73.4 70.4 na 1.8East Timor 82.6 89.3 76.3 na na naIndonesia 68.6 na na 62.9 43.8 6.1Lao PDR 84.4 83.4 85.3 80.1 82.2 5.1Malaysia 66.5 83.3 46.7 63.5 18.4 3.9Myanmar 77.1 88.4 66.0 na 62.7 naPhilippines 67.5 82.3 52.8 59.6 37.4 9.8Singapore 68.6 81.1 55.5 65.5 0.3 3.4Thailand 72.7 80.6 64.9 67.7 48.8 2.4Viet Nam 71.9 76.0 66.2 74.3 69.1 2.3Sources: Source: MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005 and ILO KILM 3rd
Edition, CD-ROM, 2003
LAO PDR 253
<Table 1-27> Lao Labor Market Indicators
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
Structure of output (% GDPat current factor prices) a/ Agriculture 51.2 50.4 48.6Industry 23.7 24.7 25.9Services 25.1 25.0 25.5
Total 100.0 100.1 100.0Growth of output(annual % change) a/Agriculture 3.8 4.0 2.2Indunstry 10.1 10.3 11.3Services 5.7 5.7 7.4
Total 5.8 5.9 5.8Consumer price index (1999=100) a/ 116.8 129.3 149.3
Gross enrolment ratio inprimary schools b/Male 121 123 124Female 104 106 108
Total 113 115 116Gross enrolment ratio insecondary schools b/Male 44 47 50Female 31 34 37
Total 38 41 44Enrolment in tertiaryeducation b/Male 10,628 17,993 18,064Female 6,117 10,547 10,053
Total 16,745 28,540 28,117
254 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
PopulationMale 2,657,400 49.4 2,730,800 49.4 2,806,400 49.4Female 2,719,600 50.6 2,795,100 50.6 2,872,600 50.6
Total 5,377,000 100.0 5,525,900 100.0 5,679,000 100.0Population aged 15+Male 1,480,100 48.8 1,487,300 48.3 1,528,500 48.3Female 1,552,900 51.2 1,594,700 51.7 1,638,800 51.7
Total 3,033,100 100.0 3,082,000 100.0 3,167,300 100.0Population aged < 15Male 1,177,300 50.2 1,243,500 50.9 1,277,900 50.9Female 1,166,700 49.8 1,200,400 49.1 1,233,800 49.1
Total 2,343,900 100.0 2,443,900 100.0 2,511,700 100.0Employed 15+Male 1,173,000 48.0 1,194,000 48.0 1,217,000 48.0Female 1,272,000 52.0 1,296,000 52.0 1,320,000 52.0
Total 2,445,000 100.0 2,490,000 100.0 2,537,000 100.0Unemployed 15+Male 54,700 42.7 56,400 42.7 58,100 42.8Female 73,300 57.3 75,600 57.3 77,800 57.2
Total 128,000 100.0 132,000 100.0 135,900 100.0Economically active population 15+Male 1,227,700 47.7 1,250,400 47.7 1,275,100 47.7Female 1,345,300 52.3 1,371,600 52.3 1,397,800 52.3
Total 2,573,000 100.0 2,622,000 100.0 2,672,900 100.0Economically inactive population 15+Male 252,400 54.9 236,900 51.5 253,400 51.3Female 207,600 45.1 223,100 48.5 241,000 48.7
Total 460,000 100.0 460,000 100.0 494,400 100.0
LAO PDR 255
2001 2002 2003
Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
Labour force participation rate15+MaleFemale
Total
82.986.684.8
84.186.085.1
83.485.384.4
Employment-to-population ratio15+MaleFemale
Total
79.381.980.6
80.381.380.8
79.680.580.1
Unemployment rates 15+MaleFemale
Total
4.55.45.0
4.55.55.0
4.65.65.1
Inactivity rate 15+MaleFemale
Total
17.113.415.2
15.914.014.9
16.614.715.6
Employment by agriculture and non-agriculture
Both sexesAgricultureNon-agriculture
Total
2,021,000424,000
2,445,000
82.617.4
100.0
2,053,000437,000
2,490,000
82.417.6
100.0
2,085,000452,000
2,537,000
82.217.8
100.0
MaleAgricultureNon-agriculture
Total
970,000203,000
1,173,000
82.717.3
100.0
985,000209,000
1,194,000
82.517.5
100.0
1,001,000216,000
1,217,000
82.317.7
100.0
FemaleAgricultureNon-agriculture
Total
1,051,000221,000
1,272,000
82.617.4
100.0
1,068,000228,000
1,296,000
82.417.6
100.0
1,084,000236,000
1,320,000
82.117.9
100.0
256 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
2001 2002 2003Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
Employment by major sectorBoth sexesAgricultureIndustryServices
Total
2,021,000213,000211,000
2,445,000
82.78.78.6
100.0
2,053,000224,000213,000
2,490,000
82.49.08.6
100.0
2,085,000235,000217,000
2,537,000
82.29.38.6
100.0MaleAgricultureIndustryServices
Total
970,000102,000101,000
1,173,000
82.78.78.6
100.0
985,000107,000102,000
1,194,000
82.59.08.5
100.0
1,001,000113,000103,000
1,217,000
82.39.38.5
100.0FemaleAgricultureIndustryServices
Total
1,051,000111,000110,000
1,272,000
82.68.78.6
100.0
1,068,000117,000111,000
1,296,000
82.49.08.6
100.0
1,084,000122,000114,000
1,320,000
82.19.28.6
100.0Status in employmentPrivate employerEmployee-governmentEmployee-privateSelf-employedUnpaid family worker
Total
88,000132,000202,900
1,352,100670,000
2,445,000
3.65.48.3
55.327.4
100.0
92,200132,000216,700
1,382,500667,600
2,491,000
3.75.38.7
55.526.8100
96,400131,900233,400
1,413,100662,200
2,537,000
3.85.29.2
55.726.1
100.0Employment by hours of work per weekLess than 20 hours20-29 hours30-39 hours40 hours and over
Total
100,300273,800449,900
1,621,0002,445,000
4.111.218.466.3
100.0
102,100279,000458,400
1,651,5002,491,000
4.111.218.466.3
100.0
104,000284,200466,800
1,682,0002,537,000
4.111.218.466.3
100.0Unemployed population 15+Both sexesCentralNorthSouth
Total
10,20041,20076,400
128,000
8.032.259.7
100.0
10,60042,50078,800
131,900
8.032.259.7
100.0
10,90043,80081,200
135,900
8.032.259.7
100.0
LAO PDR 257
2001 2002 2003
Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
MaleCentralNorthSouthTotal
4,30017,60035,60054,700
7.932.259.6
100.0
4,60018,20033,70056,500
8.132.259.6
100.0
4,70018,70034,70058,100
8.132.259.7
100.0
FemaleCentralNorthSouth
Total
5,90023,60043,80073,300
8.032.259.8
100.0
6,00024,30045,10075,400
8.032.259.8
100.0
6,20025,10046,50077,800
8.032.359.8
100.0
Unemployment by educational attainment
No education or less than primaryPrimaryLower secondaryUpper secondaryVocational- post-secondary and tertiaryUniversity-undergraduate and graduateShort cousesOther
Total
15,40023,20024,20032,20017,400
4005,9009,300
128,000
12.018.118.925.213.60.34.67.3
10.0
15,80023,90024,90033,30018,000
4006,1009,600
132,000
12.018.118.925.213.60.34.67.3
100.0
16,30024,60025,70034,30018,500
4006,3009,900
136,000
12.018.118.925.213.6
0.34.67.3
100.0
Economically inactive population 15+
Household dutiesStudentsRetired, sick or too old to workOthers
Total
55,700294,900
76,80032,700
460,100
12.164.116.77.1
100.0
55,660294,86076,82032,660
460,000
12.164.116.77.1
100.0
59,800316,900
82,60035,100
494,400
12.164.116.7
7.1100.0
Sources: a/ADB Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries, b/UNESCO web sites: c/ MOLSW and NSC, Official estimates, 2005
LAO PDR 259
Chapter 2
TVET System by Target Groups
<Executive Summary>
In June 2007 the Strategic Plan for the Development of Technical
and Vocational Education and Training from 2006 to 2020 (TVET-
Strategy) was approved by the Prime Minister. A master plan was
needed in order to identify and plan all activities, as well as to
determine a budget to carry out various initiatives. An inter-
ministerial team was set up, and it designed the following document,
with the assistance from the Luxembourg Government Cooperation.
Both the TVET-Strategy and the master plan are based on three key
concepts which are used as guidelines for the development of the
Education Sector Development Framework:
∙ Equitable Access;
∙ Quality and Relevance; and
∙ Management and Administration.
260 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Within these key issues, seven strategic projects have been
identified
1. The construction, upgrading, and expansion of the TVET
institutions;
2. The expansion of the TVET offer and approaches;
3. The qualifications, training, and professional development of
TVET teachers and other staff;
4. The quality assurance of TVET;
5. The development of TVET information resources;
6. The improvement of the organizational structure of The TVET
sector; and
7. The formulation of policy and tools at the macro-level for the
development of TVET.
All these projects are detailed in 130 activities, each with its own
indicators, responsible organization, budget, and implementation
plan. They cover key components of the future TVET system, such
as the need to reform curricula; the defining of a qualification
system; the enlargement of the scope of TVET; the necessity to
adjust supply and demand; the importance of developing teacher
qualifications, and the collaboration needed among the different
ministries involved in TVET.
The full cost of the master plan from 2008 to 2015 is US$ 172.42
m, with the main part to be spent for the improvement of schools.
This budget for 2008-2015 includes US$ 156.75 m to be spent on
the master plan investment and follow up, as well as US$ 15.67 m
LAO PDR 261
for the recurrent costs (salaries, basic equipment, and staff development).
Even if the Government of Lao PDR is able to increase its
financial resources as a result of continuous economic development,
donors from various organizations and countries will be needed to
help support these ambitious projects. Their financial input; the
coordination among different ministries and departments; and the
long term follow up and management of this plan will be the key
success factors.
Section 1. Issues to be Addressed
1. Scope of the Technical and Vocational Education and
Training
The scope of technical and vocational education and training
covers the skills level, basic vocational training, and higher
vocational training. Following the TVET strategy, different types of
training programs managed by the MOE of Lao PDR include:
- short courses (less than 6 months);
- courses for skilled workers (6 months to 3 years);
- certificate level courses (2-3 years); and
- diploma courses (2-3 years) at middle and higher level.
The training programs may be full or part-time, and may include
some work experience components (dual courses). TVET institutions
262 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
will be encouraged to provide courses for different target groups
including new labor market entrants (school leavers), existing workers,
young people, older adults, and disadvantaged groups.
Because the needs of technical and vocational education at the
lower and the middle levels are still high, technical and vocational
education and training institutions will be expanded to all provinces.
There will be at least one TVET institute in each province and, in
addition, other “centers of excellence” will be developed for various
specialist areas, such as hospitality, automotive engineering, garment
manufacturing, and agriculture
To ensure the optimum use of resources (both equipment and
personnel), the concept of Integrated Vocational Education and
Training (IVET) will be implemented in a step-by-step process.
Using this approach, the various institutions will have more
flexibility to propose a range of courses for different types of
students. Courses can include short remedial courses for those with
a low level of basic education; long courses; and training programs
with work experience components.
2. Integration of Demand Side in Skills Development and
Promotion of TVET
Considering the labor force of Lao PDR as a whole, only a small
percentage of the population have skills and qualifications above the
most basic level. Many lack even basic skills. Of those people with
skills training, more and more are in areas where there is relatively
LAO PDR 263
little demand, and there is a significant need for skilled people in
other areas.
However, there has been little incentive for students to enter
training in areas where there is high demand in the labor market,
such as mechanical engineering, construction, mining, hospitality,
quality assurance, and production planning management.
At the present time, there are skills’ gaps in many employment
sectors and, at the same time, there is an over supply in other sectors.
This appears to be due to the fact that education and training
institutions have been responding to a social demand of training in
business, computing, and English language, as well as for higher
level courses that can give access to a Bachelor Degree level.
But skills’ training needs are in areas such as mechanical
engineering, construction, mining, hospitality, quality assurance and
production planning management. TVET institutions of MOE will
be encouraged to place greater emphasis on these skills shortage
areas, in preference to the general business training programs.
The master Plan includes a review of the process of assessing
training needs (including drawing advice on the Trades Working
Groups, TWG); career guidance; promotion and counseling for
would-be trainees; and new approaches to training that will improve
the relevance of training and the supply of skilled workers to meet
the needs of the developing economy and society.
Promotion of TVET is a critical issue. Lao PDR is facing a
problem shared by many countries. There is “social demand” and
preference for university degrees and general business topics, instead
264 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
of practical technical studies. A strong marketing and promotion plan
at the national and provincial level is needed, along with realistic
incentives for parents, students, and training institutions.
3. National Qualification or Certification Framework
At the present time, there is a wide range of formal, non formal,
and informal curricula, certificates, and diplomas available from
many institutions and organizations. Some are for short courses
varying from one week to one year. Others are for skills development
courses with testing in the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare
(MLSW); Dual Cooperative Training (DCT); and other vocational
and technical courses. Employers, training institutions, students, and
parents do not have any reliable way of assessing the value of any
given certificate, for instance, their value in terms of personal ability
to do the job or proceed to further levels of education.
A National Qualification or Certification Framework can help to
make the system “readable” for all stakeholders and bring consistency,
comparability, and quality. By setting up clearly defined “levels”
against which training course, tests and their certificates can be
measured, they provide coherence and, if they are inclusive, can
address some negative perceptions about vocational/technical
qualifications by showing their equivalence or link to more academic
qualifications.
A National Qualification or Certification Framework is an initial
stage to ensure the quality of the training; upgrade the qualification
LAO PDR 265
closely to regional and international standards; and prepare for the
international integration. Developing such a framework can be a
time-consuming and complex process. However, there is a wealth
of information available to help simplify the process, and this is also
an area with good potential for country-to-country assistance.
Finally, the National Qualification or Certification system in Lao
PDR should be based on the reality of the Lao context, especially
in terms of budget, available human resources, and responsibilities
among concerned ministries. Once it is in place, it can be used for
formal courses, competency assessments, validation of experience, or
Recognition of Prior Learning for those with existing workplace
experience.
Possible information and sources of advice include:
- The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) skills
recognition development: An agreement has recently been
discussed on a system of four certificate levels and two diploma
levels based on competency based standards. Several countries
were engaged in the initial discussions: Laos PDR, Cambodia,
Vietnam, and Thailand. However, this agreement has yet to be
formally endorsed.
- The European experience can give valuable information on
different kinds of Qualification or Certification systems adapted
to each TVET approach and how they have been integrated
(European Qualification Framework).
- The International Labour Organization (ILO) in Geneva has also
recently produced a publication which provides guidance for the
266 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
development of qualification frameworks covering policy and
practical implementation issues.5)
Section 2. Curriculum Method and Content
A Curriculum or course should be based on the needs of Industry
and/or the community. For the past years, professional disciplines
have been developed. They include basic information on professional
standards. This approach could be developed by deeper occupational
analysis using formal processes such as the ‘Developing a Curriculum’
(DACUM) approach which is already used. However, the necessary
duration to implement this method and analytical work required
could be significantly reduced if standards developed by other
international organizations are used.
1. Competency Standards
Competency standards are directly linked to the kind of National
Qualification or Certification system selected. Lao PDR can fully
develop its own standards. However, it will be much more cost
effective to use standards developed in other countries and to adjust
these standards to match the need of Lao trade sectors. ILO has
5) Ron Tuck: An Introductory Guide to National Qualification Frameworks: Conceptual and Practical Issues for Policy Makers, Skills and Employability Department, International Labour Office (ILO), Geneva 2007
LAO PDR 267
already developed Regional Model Competency Standards for a
number of industries, including manufacturing, tourism, and hospitality.
Additional competency sets are also planned for construction,
agriculture, and a number of other areas. Regional cooperation is
developing and sets of competency standards prepared by other
countries can be available for Lao PDR.
Lao TWG can review and adjust these standards, then develop the
suitable curriculum needed for their workers. Competency standards
can also be used to design teaching, learning, and assessment
materials.
2. Student-Centered Learning
Fore many years, rote learning and “teacher centered” approaches
have been applied in many countries in Asia, as described in recent
reports of the World Bank. However, the modern world needs people
who are able to quickly integrate new concepts and technologies,
and it is important to move away from these traditional approaches.
Training within institutions needs to become more “student centered”.
This means that the focus will be on student, rather than teacher
activity, and students will have more choice in the directions their
learning takes. Analytical thinking and problem solving abilities will
be developed.
268 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
3. Practical Experience and Knowledge
From a recent survey on the situation of TVET, the directors of
18 schools considered that equipment and building are the most
important needs. Two perceived by as the most important need6).
Development in this area is essential, but practical experience of the
trainees and students will also be gained through better linkages with
companies, including internships. German cooperation is supporting
an important project to promote the DCT concept in Lao PDR.
Several institutions are implementing this system with adjustments
to the context of local companies, which are mostly small and
medium enterprises (SME).
4. Access and Equity
Specific approaches will be implemented to cater for training
disadvantaged groups and people with lower levels of basic
education, such as youth, low-skilled people, people with disabilities,
ethnic minority groups, and the socially excluded. The IVET-concept
of schools will support access through different means, and it
supports the “Education for All” policy. The DNFE can help for this
issue, which will take into account their experience gained from the
Lao-German BAFIS-Project (Berufliche Ausbildung fuer den informellen
Sektor = Vocational Training for the Informal Sector).
6) Source: Final report public technical vocational schools under the MOE, November 2007, VEDC
LAO PDR 269
Section 3. Teacher Development
While good equipment, buildings, and teaching aids are important,
the critical elements of any skills development program are the
teachers. It is recognized that salaries are low, and teachers might
teach longer than they should (30 to 40 hours a week). The students/
teacher ratio varies a lot, depending on the curriculum. However,
solutions will be sought to ensure that teachers are competent and
remain motivated; these solutions will include professional
development and improved career paths.
Many TVET teachers and staff have a comparatively low level of
education. In 2007, within the whole staff involved in TVET in the
MOE7), 2 persons have a PhD; 29 have masters’ degrees; 160, a
bachelor degree; while 793, a level of higher diploma or lower. Most
of the teachers are young; many of them just finished their studies
and go to teach. Many lack real working experience. Consequently,
the upgrading of their education level will be a priority in order to
ensure the quality improvement.
The master plan includes a number of strategies for training and
development in the following areas:
- Pre-service training for new teachers through short courses
focusing on teaching skills, technical skills, and competency-
based training and assessment;
- A project to develop studies at the levels of bachelor, master,
7) in the institutes as well as in the Ministry of Education, TVE Department
270 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
then PhD in technical education;
- In-service training through systematic short courses, training
plans, and upgrading of levels;
- Opportunities for teachers to gain experience at work;
- Upgrading and strengthening of the VEDC, as this center will
be the main organization involved in these staff development
activities;
- Attracting personnel from companies in specific fields to come help
teach special subjects (examples: hospitality, wood processing);
- Employing part-time teachers from companies; and
- Setting up standards for teachers that will eventually be based
on skills standards following the precondition submitted in the
World Bank report on teacher reform.8)
Section 4. Cross Cutting Issues
Some cross cutting issues will have to be tackled, such as:
- Poverty Reduction Programs. They will include short courses to
support those in the informal economy. International experience
could be reviewed like the Training for Rural Economic
Empowerment (TREE) Program of the ILO which is designed
to build on existing job-creating programs of the government
and non-government organizations (NGO); make those programs
8) The World Bank (2008), Teaching in Lao PDR
LAO PDR 271
more effective; and fill in gaps where programs are weak or do
not exist;
- Empowerment of women through cooperation with organizations,
like Lao Women’s Union (LWU) and Lao Young People
Revolutionary Union (LYPRU). Special programs will be
provided to assist women in establishing small businesses and
entering the workforce;
- Good governance, thanks to the review of management system
at the central and local levels, including the implementation of
a quality system;
- Respect for the environment by the integration of new courses
on this subject in many curricula;
- Participative dialogue with the beneficiaries, thanks to a strong
development of regional TVET committees, Regional Training
Councils (RTC), and new TWG;
- Self employment by the integration of a special ILO course
“Knowing About Business” (KAB) in all curricula, thanks to the
cooperation of a specialized institution, such as Lao-India
Entrepreneurship Development Center (LIEDC); and
- Sustainability of project activities/interventions through a strong
emphasis on capacity building of the staff and teachers.
Section 5. Labor Market Information
To be most effective, TVET should be based on accurate information
about the needs of the labor market. But a problem related to human
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resource development planning in Lao PDR is the lack of
information on the needs of the labor market. Information is usually
collected, analyzed, made available, and published in various
documents, either from the government, or from donors’ projects.
However, coordination, coherence, and reliability of the information
are still lacking.
One priority in this master plan is to analyze needs of all social
and economic sectors for the human resource development in order
to plan the expansion of the TVET network. The MLSW will be
responsible for this issue in close cooperation with the MOE and
other concerned line ministries.
National labor market analysis will be needed to support national
strategies and plans. It can be realized through different ways:
specific surveys (on request); annual labor market reviews; local
skills needs analysis; and permanent sector-based observatories in
close cooperation with the professional associations. They should be
either provincial or sector based in approach.
The master plan includes the creation of professional disciplines
and curricula based on local labor market assessment through
collaboration among different sectors, departments, and trade
working groups at the local level. Schools can be partly responsible
for the implementation of these local surveys. The VEDC will be
in charge of the design of these new professional disciplines and
curricula.
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Chapter 3
Governance of the TVET system
Section 1. Link with Other Sectoral Developments
The TVET master plan defines activities involving other
departments and components of education, and a high level of
cooperation is needed to ensure that master plan activities are
incorporated into the priorities of the different organizations:
- The DGE will progressively integrate vocational subjects in the
general education curriculum;
- The DNFE currently plans (2007-2020 Master Plan) to develop
basic vocational skills in many centers based on the previous
German funded BAFIS project. Targets of NFE are to train
10,000 people by 2010, then 20,000 people by 2015 in ten
professional disciplines. As teachers and trainers will need to be
trained in these basic practical skills, cooperation with VEDC
and DTVE is essential.
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- The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry’s (MAF) master plan
focuses on strengthening the four existing agricultural schools
through improvement of curriculum, competency-based training,
and production facilities. It is essential that this training will be
consistent with the competency-based approach outlined under
this master plan.
- The National Training Council (NTC) is adjusting its roles and
activities to ensure greater effectiveness.
- The MLSW is finalizing its master plan for 2007-2020. It
includes important components to link to the TVET master plan:
strategies on training and assessment for skills standards; labor
market information; and the use of the training fund. Coordination
between both ministries and the National Training Council is
essential, since duplication is to be avoided.
- The MOE should finalize within 2008 an ESDF for 2008-2018
covering all sectors of education, including TVET which sets
forth 2 strategies concerning TVET:
○ Expand TVET according to the needs of the labor market
in the formal and informal economy; and
○ Expand TVET capacity in order to enroll lower secondary
graduates intending to go to technical and vocational education
and training.
When other ministries prepare and regularly review their master
plans, they should include a human resources development
component with precise information on the needs of occupations.
LAO PDR 275
This information should be sent to the MOE for consolidation.
Section 2. The present Situation of Supply and Demand
1. The Rapidly Changing Lao Socio-economic Context 9)
For the last 10 years, Lao PDR has been experiencing fundamental
changes, especially after Lao PDR became a member of ASEAN in
1997. Over the five-year period 2001-2005, Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) grew at the high rate of 6.24 percent per year, whilst GDP
per capita rose to reach US$49110). This represents an increase of
over 84 percent, compared to 1996. But Official Development
Assistance (ODA) resources still plays a central role in the Lao
economy, contributing over 60 percent of the total cost of the Public
Investment Programme (PIP), and over 70 percent of total public
expenditure in the socio-cultural sectors, including education and
health. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has predicted a
continuing high ongoing annual growth rate of 6-7 percent11) in real
GDP between 2006 and 2010. External trade is expected to grow
at an average of over 10 percent annually.
9) Chapter 1.1 and 1.12 integrates parts of the report of “An Analysis of the Capacity of the Education System to Meet the Employment Needs of a Lao Modern Economy”, CRC-LBC, 2008
10) Source: CPI (Committee for Planning and Investment).11) Which is just below the target of 7.5 set by the Eighth Lao People’s Revolutionary
Party Congress
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The Government’s Sixth Five-Year Development Plan (2006-
2010) places special emphasis on increasing international trade, and
particularly exports, in line with the National Growth and Poverty
Eradication Strategy (NGPES). Around 74 percent of Lao exports
consist of garments, wood, tourism, and electricity, with this
proportion projected to increase rapidly over the next few years. The
NSEDP 2007-2008 mentions an increase of exports in 2006-2007
of 57% higher than the year before, especially due to the increase
of minerals.
2. An Urgent Need for Skills
It is estimated that over 82 percent of the Lao people live in rural
and remote areas12) and that some 80 percent are employed in
agriculture, either directly or indirectly, with an estimated 60 percent
of farms still producing mainly for subsistence, and not for the
market13).
In recent years, there have been large increases in direct
employment in exports and in small-scale retail trade, due to
increased imports. Overall, to ensure a growth rate of 7-8%, during
the period 2006-2010, employment must be created on average for
130,000 people per year.
Inadequate planning, management, and monitoring of labor
development in various sectors persist.14) However, a recent report15)
12) 77% are classified as rural and ethnically diverse13) Source: MAF (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry), 2005.
LAO PDR 277
estimated that the critical shortage of the expertise required for
development will pose one of the most serious constraints on
economic development in the Lao PDR; the report also predicted that
strengthening human resource capacity will represent one of the
country’s major challenges over the foreseeable future, and
overcoming this challenge will help Lao attain the NGPES goal of
elevating her from the status of a “least developed country” by the
year 2020.
From the Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey in 2002-2003,
only 14% of the population had completed the lower education level.
A national training needs analysis16), carried out in 2005, found
that nearly 70,000 additional human resources personnel, skilled at
different levels, would be required by the manufacturing industry
sector by 2010. However, this did not consider the needs of the
government, service, or agricultural sectors. The report concluded
that there would be a significant shortage of training places to
provide the necessary skills at this level, particularly for technician
workers.
As there is no precise labor market information available on needs
of occupations and skills, it is only possible to predict the needs
based on the evolution of the economic sectors.
The 8th Resolution of the Party and the NESDP 2006-2010 give
the key sectors that will push forward Lao economy, among them:
14) Source: The National Socio-Economic Development Plan 2007-200815) United Nations Common Country Assessment (CCA) for Lao PDR, 2006.16) GTZ Lao-Germa HRDME Programme (2005)
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- Agriculture, forestry, and aquatic products with 13% of growth
per annum counting for 27-28% of total exports; the kind of
skills needed will reflect the ability to produce chemicals and
biological fertilizer; analyze results and conditions; and plant
seeds.
- Raw materials, energy, and minerals, with 44.6% of the exports
in 2010, especially for electricity-minerals. Exports should increase
18-20% per year; technicians will be needed in gypsum plates,
granites, glass, iron, aluminium, and copper.
- Wood industry, with 7-9% per year export growth, taking into
account the fact that the forest in 2020 should cover 70% of
the Lao surface; food processing will develop.
- Huge programs for construction and infrastructure needing skills
in block and bricks laying, tiling for roof, ceiling, floor, but also
design, building, and property water management.
- Tourism is expected to increase 11-12% per year, as all
provinces are encouraged to promote it, with skills in service,
hospitality, home stay, and restaurants, as well as handicraft
production and the necessary skills in place for bamboo, rattan,
ceramics, weaving, and gold/silver smithery.
- Industrial process will involve skills in productivity improvement,
quality, production planning, installation service and maintenance,
and repairing of machines (heavy, middle, light, production
machines).
- Car and motorcycles sector, with skills in the areas of electricity
and electronics, forming, and painting.
LAO PDR 279
Section 3. General Situation of the TVET Providers
There is a very wide range of skill learning opportunities offered
by different institutions which eventually can be split in two parts:
- Training aimed primarily at increasing food security or generating
supplementary income in villages; in impoverished rural areas
in skills such as small plant, livestock production, development
of cottage industries, handicraft production, eco-tourism activities;
and
- training aimed primarily at needs in urban or relatively advantaged
areas, in skills such as dress-making, hairdressing/ beautician,
using office computing software, hospitality/hotel services,
general tourism services, foreign languages, plumbing, motorcycle
repair, and air conditioning/refrigeration.
Based on a survey by the DTVE in 2007, there were 50 registered
education curricula in 27 areas covering 4 main fields (agriculture,
business, industry, and handicrafts). A total of 47 public and private
institutions and more than 50 training centers provide short courses.
There are 15 departments; 10 ministries; and 2 mass organizations
which are involved in vocational education and training.
Most of TVET is implemented by institutions under the Ministry
of Education, but many other institutions also provide training:
schools under provincial departments of education; schools under
other ministries; training centers under MLSW, the LPRYU, the
LWU, and Community Learning Centers (CLC); private sector
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schools; company training centers; NGOs; and on-the-job training,
including a wide variety of short courses and workshops, not forgetting
training courses taking place in other countries.
If all these training providers are not based on an overall needs
analysis, they will not contribute to a balanced development of
student skills. This will result in an oversupply in terms of subjects,
as well as inadequacies for local needs.
Within the DTVE we find the following institutions:
- Vocational schools recruiting school leavers from lower
secondary schools to prepare them to become skilled worker.
The duration of study is 3 years.
- Technical schools recruiting school leavers from lower secondary
schools to prepare them to become technician. The duration of
study is 2-3 years.
- Integrated vocational schools delivering formal vocational
training and basic vocational training to the non-formal target
groups.
The Education Statistics Technology and Information Center
(ESITC) of MOE estimated the enrollment in TVET institutions was
15,500 students in 2001/2002 and 25,000 in 2005/2006. But for the
lowest level, the total is decreasing (vocational: 3,500 in 2001/2002
and 2,600 in 2005/2006). Institutions from other ministries (Agriculture
and Forestry, Information and Culture*, Health, and Finance)
provided TVET for a total of 7,200 students in 2005/2006. Other
LAO PDR 281
ministries such as the Ministry of Industries and Commerce (MIC);
the MLSW; and the Ministry of Transport, Roads and Communications
(MRC) also provide training.
There is no precise projection of future numbers but, based, on
the likely changes to the population (presently very young), around
65,000 to 80,000 students can be expected to need training in 2015.
The system should be able to cope with this increase.
These figures show the variety of training and education providers,
as well as the strong trend towards students often seeking higher
diploma level courses, so that they can then obtain bachelor degrees.
MOE will face three important challenges:
- To continue attracting students at the lower level;
- To answer to the needs at the higher level; and
- To organize the coordination among all these providers.
To structure and guarantee efficiency, a quality system will be
developed. It is one of the 7 strategic projects to be implemented
and covers the analysis and setting up of a system of recognition
and accreditations of training institutions and curricula.
This project to develop a quality system will take advantage of
the present situation on curriculum accreditation, as many institutions
from other ministries (MOAF, MLSW, and Health) contact MOE,
and especially VEDC, to gain assistance for curriculum design and
accreditation. By providing these services, the MOE can strengthen
this role in this area in the future.
ISO standards, for example, can help in increasing the recognition
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of the quality of training by industry, especially those involved in
the international market.
Section 4. Specific Situation of the TVET Schools under the MOE
A recent survey made in 200717) provides interesting characteristics
on the present situation of 18 TVET schools and colleges running
under the MOE:
- There are already an important number of 58 professional
disciplines: 33 different areas of studies are taught in 4 possible
levels; since each area can be taught at different levels, there
are 58 different curricula available.
- 10% of the students come from the quota system, and 60%, from
the national examination system. But the schools tend to allocate
places for more private fee-paying students.
- The majority of the students chose accounting studies. Construction,
which is the most commonly offered curriculum by institutions,
is only ranked 10th according to number of students enrolled.
- Most of the schools focus their development towards higher
diploma. (80% of the students are at the higher diploma level).
- The government budget share varies from 30% to 98% of the
17) Source: Final Report Public Technical Vocational Schools Under the MOE, November 2007, VEDC
LAO PDR 283
total budget of the school; the other resources come from fees
paid by students and other contributions.
- Most of the schools already offer short courses for income
generation; in addition to their regular curriculum, but not many
times per year (the average is one time per year for a duration
of 9 days).
This information illustrates the inadequacy of the current
provision; the mismatch between the supply and demand; and also
the risk of having more and more schools willing to satisfy the
potential target, especially privately funded students, without taking
into account the needs of companies. It also shows that the schools
already have experience in developing income generation activities,
such as training and production, which are supported under the
master plan.
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Chapter 4
Financing of TVET
Section 1. The Budget for TVET Reform and Development
The financing and investment in TVET is expensive and requires
an adequate policy and contributions from the public and private
sector, including domestic and foreign assistance. The estimated
budget refers to the needs of agencies concerned with TVET and
the plan of operation up to the year 2010 and from 2010 to 2015.
The plan of operation from 2016 to 2020 could not be planned, due
to the lack of any accurate growth forecasts because of uncertain
trends for the economy in that period.
The budget needed for the period 2009-2015 is explained, as
follows:
- The budget for investment and development, as described in a
log frame and covering 130 activities. This budget includes an
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important part supported by organizations of the MOE directly
implementing technical and vocational education: DTVE, VEDC,
and NTC. It also includes a budget that will be under the
responsibility of other organizations, such as the MLSW and the
National University of Laos (NUOL).
- The recurrent budget covering regular operating costs, such as
salaries and scholarships.
These two budgets can be added together, and, by subtracting the
budget already supported by donors, the total budget requirements
can be established. The main part of the master plan budget concerns
the renovation and improvement of schools and colleges (Strategic
Project 1), estimated at 795 million Kip. The contribution from
donors will be requested (see chapters 5.3, 5.4). The budget planning
for the development of TVET is described in the following table:
<Table 4-1> Budget Item
Budget Item Million (US$) Million (Kip)
Total Budget Needed for Implementation of the Master Plan until 2015 156.75 1,410,733
Recurrent Budget (salary, basic, equipment) 15.67 141,073
Total 172.42 1,551,806
Budget Already Supported by Donors in the Master Plan -24.7 -222,300
Total Budget Still Needed for the Implementation of the Activities Until 2015 147.72 1,329,506
LAO PDR 287
The financial resources of the Lao PDR government and other
training providers including companies will need to increase to
continue to strengthen TVET.
1. The Regular Government TVET Budget
The GOL allocates a regular budget for TVET. However, because
there is a need to improve the quality of the training, the method
of budget allocation should be changed to base calculations on the
unit cost per student.
Referring to the study of Department of Finance, the recurrent
budget provided for TVET by the MOE in 2006-7 was 14,159
million Kip. Based on an estimate of an annual increase of 10% the
total recurrent budget from 2006 to 2015 will need to be approximately
162,538 million Kip.
2. The Consequence of Economic Development on the
Financial Capacities of Companies
As mentioned above, they are positive trends showing the increase
of financial possibilities of Lao PDR, thanks to economic development.
Companies will be able to support directly the cost of training and
staff development.
There are already examples of how they are more and more
involved in paying for training and development:
- Missions of foreign specialists coming to provide “in-house
training” in Lao companies;
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- Workers are sent to local private or public training institutions
and even abroad; and
- Scholarships and equipment are being provided to schools and
government institutions.
Other future projects might be set up, similar to those found in
neighboring countries: examples include, support for a complete
workshop in a school, and creation and management of an internal
training center.
3. The Legal Framework to Promote Training in Companies
Lao PDR has decided to implement training funds as stated in the
labor law, promulgated in 2006.:
- Companies will pay 1% of salaries or wages, and workers, 1.5%
to a national skills development fund in the MLSW. However,
in June 2008 there was no mechanism for the implementation
of this strategy, and there was a need to establish a task force
to formulate measures for its implementation.
- A training fund is being discussed for SME and has been
included in the SME-decree.
- As of June 2008 MOE has not been involved in the work on
financing incitation for companies. In order to have a system
covering the overall scope of TVET from all providers, MOE
should participate in the system, as it can help financing specific
training schemes, like apprenticeship for the private sector.
LAO PDR 289
4. The Support Coming through Cooperation with Other
Ministries
Various ministries and organizations are involved in some
activities of this master plan, such as the development of curriculum;
professional and vocational standards; national qualifications; teacher
training, etc. The budget for those activities should come from the
MOE and other organizations through collaborative project proposals.
MLSW, MAF, MIC, Ministry of Health, Lao National Tourism
Authority (LNTA), and Lao National Chamber of Commerce and
Industry (LNCCI) could be partners to propose staff development
projects, but this will need team work and proactive actions.
Section 2. Loans for TVET Development
TVET development is expensive. Many neighboring countries,
such as Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka, have been able
to get loans at low interest rates from international finance institutions,
such as Asian Development Bank, to renovate their systems. This
approach has the advantage of providing funds and technical
assistance to implement specific activities, such as building, equipment,
training, and qualifications systems. However, investments of this
kind do not easily generate revenues which can be used to repay
loans, and, as with any external funding source, there is a risk that
local resource streams will not be developed to replace the external
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funds, and many of the gains made are lost when the project ends.
1. Possible Foreign and International Assistance for TVET
The budget resources of GOL have not been sufficient to support
the development of TVET, although donor participation from various
countries helped considerably. Within the last 13 years, there were
36 major projects and activities under the DTVE, for a total amount
of 13 million US$.
For the near future, Lao PDR will continue to need foreign and
international assistance for its TVET. Donors will request:
- A clear definition of priorities among all the activities to be
implemented;
- A good cooperation among ministries concerned by the TVET
projects;
- The integration of the TVET component into the ESDF; and
- Coordination and alignment among partners for TVET development.
2. Present Situation of Some Donors Concerning TVET
Already several countries and organizations expressed interest in
this sector; if several of them develop projects, coordination should
ensure a good mapping of the support from donors in coherence with
the master plan:
- Until now, Germany has been the main supporter of TVET.
There are presently 2 important ongoing projects for the
LAO PDR 291
development of a labor market-oriented and integrated TVET,
with duration until 2011-2012. One is a technical assistance
project, providing consultancy for regulatory framework; public-
private cooperation; IVET; capacity development for TVET
staff; and supplementary equipment. The budget is EUR 6 m
by Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbiet (GTZ)
and EUR 6 m by Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst (DED), for
providing experts for IVET-schools and business organizations.
The other one is a financial cooperation project for the
construction of buildings and procurement equipment for
IVET-schools in six provinces in the northern part of Lao PDR.
Kreditanstalt fuer Wiederaufbau (KfW, German Development
Bank) provides a grant EUR 8.5 m, which is 80% of the total
project budget;20% is borne by the provinces concerned.
Germany has expressed interest in continuing development
cooperation in TVET until 2015.
- Luxembourg has been supporting TVET for several years,
especially in the development of the TVET institute in Khammouane
Province for 3.3 m. EUR. Luxembourg is interested in continuing
development support for this sector. There could be important
projects in field, like hospitality-tourism, banking/ financing, or
efforts to address more general issues, like curriculum development
or the strengthening of institutes.
- UNIDO-UNDP is more and more involved in the development
of Lao PDR. For the period of 2004-2008, projects amounted
for 5.6 m US$ to support industrial development. A budget
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increase is planned to support training and education projects in
the following areas:
○ Increase of productivity and standards, for example, with
short courses for workers;
○ Development of entrepreneurship;
○ Assistance for the expansion of the industrial zone in
Savannakhet, Vientiane;
○ Training in specific sectors, like garment, wood processing,
and agro processing; and
○ Skills development for SME.
- For the last 15 years, there were 103 experts and volunteers who
assisted TVET institutions for durations of a minimum one year,
with the support of organizations and government from Japan,
Germany, Korea, India, Australia, Belgium, China, European
Union, England, Singapore, and Luxembourg. Presently 13
positions are under discussion or ongoing. It is expected that this
assistance will continue within the next years. MOE can help
make it more focused and linked to the national strategies.
- At the ASEAN level SEAMEO-VOCTECH (Regional Center for
Vocational and Technical Education and Training) organizes
each year with two or three sessions of a few days training.
- The Francophonie supports partnerships between the French
speaking countries in Southeast Asia (Lao PDR, Vietnam, and
Cambodia) on teacher training; TVET administration; curriculum
standards for a total amount of 100,000 EUR in 2008.
- Australia is significantly increasing its support for Lao PDR (30
LAO PDR 293
m AUD in 2007-8), especially in education. TVET is traditionally
an important part of Australian cooperation in Asia. There will
be possibilities of assistance that can be either “sector based”,
or focusing on general needs, like qualifications.
- KOICA will increase significantly its support for Lao PDR, US$
6.25 m in 2007 and US$ 10.26 m in 2008. Education is one
of their 4 priorities. A survey of Laotian needs in 2008 will help
to define the priorities for action over the next years. A loan
is possible.
- The European Union (EU) presently does not focus its activity
on TVET, but there will be a review of priorities in 2009. The
ESDF will give the direction. EU also provides budget allocation
to the government to decide its priorities.
- Asian Development Bank (ADB) concentrates presently more on
basic education, but, at the request of the ESDF, the bank is
willing to analyze needs in a broader way. Skills development
is a key component to assist the present growth in Laos and
Asia. At present the ADB has a strategy to support human
resource development, by providing support to technical and
vocational education, as well as to higher education.
- Thailand is willing to increase its support for TVET; a program,
“Sister Schools”, is developing in connection with 9 Thai
schools to assist Lao schools in various fields. Projects to
upgrade Thai teachers in nearby Thai universities are also being
discussed.
- Swiss Cooperation supports skills development projects, mainly
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in the agriculture sector. This country supported the development
of the master plan of five training institutes of the MAF.
- The World Bank is currently implementing the 2005-2010 plans
on early childhood and basic education. The new plan for
2010-2015 will be prepared in 2009. It is very likely that other
components of education will be supported. Moreover, the Bank
supports many projects linked to economic development: dams,
constructions, and roads. The support of TVET is possible in
the future.
- UNESCO has defined a national education strategy for
2008-2013 to support Lao PDR. This is presently being reviewed.
It is likely that TVET will be one of the sectors supported more
at the policy level.
- The French government is focusing on other issues and has no
short term plan to assist TVET.
- JICA presently supports, and will support, for the next 2-3 years
agriculture, health, and basic education. They could be interested
by TVET projects case by case, if they are linked to industrial
investment.
- ILO has also provided ongoing technical advice, mainly on
competency standards; TVET policies and financing; and the
role of the industry. It is expected that this support will continue
in the future.
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Chapter 5
Internationalization of TVET
Section 1. Lessons Learnt and Recommendations from the
International Experience for TVET Master Plans and Strategies18)
Countries such as Lao PDR cannot afford to have duplication of
effort with many different government agencies providing different
forms of vocational education and training. One strong coordination
body is needed. NTC can eventually have this role. This must be
supported by all agencies currently providing vocational education
and training, so that there is a consistent message provided to
employers, parents, and students.
Quality standards and systems are essential. If an agreement on
one structure of qualification is possible, there can be many providers,
but they should not be competing for the same groups of students
18) A contribution of ILO Bangkok, 2008
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and should not be duplicating competency development; course
development; or providing competing courses to the same groups of
students.
International experience in a few areas may be of particular relevance
to Lao PDR at this time: the link between national economic
development strategies and human resource development; the need
to involve the private sector; and improved coherence and coordination
of national policies and implementation approaches.
On the link between national economic development strategies and
human resource development, ILO has observed that many countries
have explicitly included a human resource development strategy as
part of their national social-economic development plans. Countries
such as Singapore and Malaysia explicitly see human resources as
a key element in their economic development. This approach ensures
that the human resources (skills, numbers, and locations) needed to
realize economic goals are available. If this is not done, there may
be significant barriers to achieving economic goals. Most importantly,
conflicts between educational and economic objectives can be
explored and addressed.
This is most evident in the case of technical and vocational
education and training. These training streams are relatively much
more expensive in terms of equipment and supplies, and the occupations
and education stream are often considered “second choice” by
students and their families. Consequently, almost all economies find
declining enrollment and underinvestment in this area, provoking a
downward spiral, where fewer and fewer people enroll in training
LAO PDR 297
which is less and less relevant, thus robbing the economy of a key
resource. In many countries, this gap is made up through the
importation of skilled labor from other countries, on a permanent
(in the case of countries like Australia and New Zealand) or temporary
(as in Lao PDR and other countries in the Greater Mekong Region,
GMS) basis.
TVET master plans must be developed in a context that looks at
both supply and demand issues. Simply building additional training
centers will not address the critical issues of adequate numbers and
relevant skills. International experience shows that greater involvement
with, and alignment to the needs of employers and enterprises, is
critical to the success of a TVET strategy. Companies must be fully
involved in defining needs (both for number of workers, and their
competencies), and, it is increasingly recognized, actively involved
in delivering training and assessing the competencies. This is the
most effective way to address both the question of relevance of
training, and the high cost of training in technical areas: rather than
attempting to build institutions that fully matches employers’
realities, schools more effectively focus on core and generic skills,
and work with industry on more specialized, real workplace skills.
Such a partnership ensures that students are trained in the actual
materials and methods in use.
Another important, and sometimes overlooked element, is the
promotion of skilled trades and occupations to young people and to
the parents and educators that influence them. As economies
develop, and more young people are able to stay in and complete
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schooling, the existing bias towards academic track education
becomes increasingly pronounced, with the potential for many
negative consequences, including a high graduate unemployment rate
(as noted in a recent ILO and UNESCO work). Conversely, there
is significant and growing need for skilled and technical workers,
as a critical element in economic development. In addition, skilled
and technical occupations offer a good route to successful entrepreneurship
and self employment. Government, social partners, and industry have
a mutual interest in promoting these occupations to young people
and their parents, in order to assure a supply of human resources
for developing employment.
The role of the private sector is also critical. As noted above,
ensuring that training is relevant to company needs depends very
much on the degree to which employers and trades groups are
involved in:
- Defining needs;
- Shaping competencies and qualifications;
- Informing curriculum; and
- Offering opportunities for hands-on training in real work settings.
A range of options exists for promoting greater involvement,
ranging from financing systems (as in Malaysia, Thailand and
Singapore); trades committees and associations with delegated
responsibility for defining standards (same countries), to advisory
and policy bodies (such as the National Training Board in Cambodia).
Finally, countries have taken a range of approaches to improving
LAO PDR 299
coordination of policy and implementation. In South Africa, much
of the policy and management authority is delegated to industry
councils, who are also responsible for disbursing public and private
funds to training institutions and other providers. Singapore has created
a separate implementation authority, the Workforce Development
Agency, to manage specific tasks assigned from a range of ministries
and departments. Cambodia has assigned lead responsibility for
vocational training to the Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training,
with coordination assured through common high level leadership of
the National Training Board and the Accreditation Council of
Cambodia (which oversees academic stream education). The major
lesson is that, while there is no single “right answer”, the inherent
challenges of coordination between systems designed for “education
for all” versus “training for the labor market” must be acknowledged
and addressed, with continual review to ensure the response chosen
continues to be effective.
LAO PDR 301
Chapter 6
New Agenda and Plans for the Future
This master plan needs a strong follow-up and regular assessment
to ensure a successful implementation. A master plan committee will
be set up under the leadership of the Vice Minister of Education
for TVET with the following responsibilities:
- Review regularly the past activities;
- Plan future activities with clear responsibilities of each
department (see topic responsible organization in the matrix;
- Identify and follow-up the possible sources of financing;
- Adjust the activities based on the evolution of the context; and
- Make an assessment in 2010 and 2015 to adjust the plan for
the following five years.
This operating committee should meet not less than once every
two months in order to implement the important number of activities
scheduled. The members of the master plan committee should
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include representatives of the DTVE, DNFE, Department of Planning
and International Cooperation (DPIC), and MLSW.
Section 1. Direction of the Master Plan
At this stage, forecasting the activities and budget for the period
of 2016-2020 is not realistic. There are two main uncertainties:
- Internal factors: The master plan 2006-2015 is ambitious; its
success will highly depend on the available financial resources
and the local human resources ready for implementation. Some
activities might have to be extended to the period 2016-2020.
- External factors: Globalization means that changes in the world
can have direct effects on each individual country. There are
very important financial, environmental, and political uncertainties
for the next 10 years.
The master plan will need a regular follow up, and the review
in 2015 will enable finalization of the detailed activities and budget
at this time, but the 3 main parts should stay the same.
1. Equitable Access Program
In order to bring Lao PDR out of the group of least developed
countries, the TVET schools and colleges will need a continuing
development in quantity and quality:
LAO PDR 303
- Existing institutions will be upgraded and renovated if they have
not been completed during the period 2006-2015. New ones will
be created, especially in remote areas, in cooperation with the
MLSW and the DNFE.
- The workforce will be important, as Lao population is presently
young and continuing training will be needed. They will need
to upgrade their skills and develop new ones, especially for
industrial and IT development, and following the Lifelong
Learning concept, predominant in many countries.
- Curriculum development will continue with many different
forms of learning. Flexibility will be the key word. There will
be a need to follow closely the evolution of the demand at the
local level to assist the forecasted industrial economic
development.
- Promotion and guidance will be always needed, as, even in
many developed countries, students prefer going into general
education, instead of the vocational path, and many sectors lack
of technicians and skilled workers.
- The focus will continue on women and disadvantaged target
groups, so they can have a significant share of training and
development.
- The IVET concept will be disseminated and allow different
target groups to enter training for different durations and
objectives, but with the possibilities linked to a national
curriculum.
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2. Improvement of Quality
The period 2016-2020 should be the time that TVET in Lao PDR
reaches international standards in terms of quality.
- Staff and teachers are the key components for the success of
TVET. They will also need to follow the lifelong learning concept.
- New methods; the use of IT for teaching; the cooperation with
the private sector in many forms will change the role of the
teacher to become more facilitator, than only lecturer.
- Short courses for in-service training will be needed, but upgrading
at the level of Bachelor, Master, and PhD will have to continue
in Vientiane and in universities in the provinces.
- Research in TVET will be strengthened to find the suitable tools
and methods for the Lao context. International cooperation will
help human resources’ development through special programs
with other schools, colleges, and universities in South East Asia,
as well as with other countries. It will be the time to implement
long term partnerships among institutions with exchanges of
teachers and, eventually, students.
- The national qualification system will assist in guaranteeing the
quality of the curriculum, as well as the providers, if it has been
developed in a simple way adapted to the Lao context of budget
and personnel.
- Validation of experience and skills testing can become key tools
for the workers development, as most of the Lao workforce does
not have any qualifications. During the phase 2006-2015, this
LAO PDR 305
system must be built in a way that the partners (individuals,
companies, and institutions) have trust in its reliability and
quality, so that it will really provide opportunities for professional
and career development.
- The number of private providers is going to increase at a very
high rate in the next 10 years. Implementation of standards for
curriculum, institutions, and teachers/trainers will be much
needed.
- All ministries and associations will have to be involved in
human resources’ development to provide precise information on
the needs of occupations and skills at the provincial and national
sector levels, based on regular analysis and on request surveys.
3. Continuing Improvement of the Management and
Administration
Within 2006-2015, it is expected that major changes will be
decided and implemented in administration and management of
TVET. But rules and regulations have to adapt constantly, especially
in a developing country. Then, for the period 2016-2020, several
priorities might appear:
- Decentralization will have to be reinforced, because Vientiane
is likely to attract many people to the workforce; new rules and
regulations will be needed to promote local training and
development for work in the provinces.
- Regular review of the master plan will allow adaptation to
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economic changes.
- Following the forecast of growth, it is expected that the private
sector will develop and need more people. If TVET institutions
and organizations want to develop at the international level, they
will need to attract qualified people or young graduates with
potential. Salary, career path, and working conditions will have
to be reviewed regularly to increase motivation to become
directors, experts, teachers, and administrative officers.
- For the next years, various donors will continue to support
TVET, but, in the long term, this support might be reduced.
Then, one key issue of the period 2010-2020 will be to set up
a sustainable mechanism to finance most TVET activities.
Cooperation with various partners especially MLSW, professional
associations, LNCCI will be a key success factor in implementing
a suitable financing system.
Section 2. Conditions to Succeed or How to Limit the Risks
To implement successfully the activities of the master plan and
reduce potential risks, there should be the following guidelines:
- The MOE is responsible of the implementation of this Master
Plan in collaboration with all sectors concerned.
- Key activities involving several ministries must be clearly
LAO PDR 307
defined with a description about the extent of responsibilities for
each partner:
○ NTC will be in charge of the national list of professional
standards; qualification system analysis; and regional training
council.
○ DTVE is responsible for the development of TVET institutions
(policy, implementations); the standards of these institutions;
and general performance monitoring and promotion of TVET.
○ DNFE can be responsible for the development of short
courses for disadvantaged and low educated groups and basic
vocational education courses.
○ VEDC is responsible for expertise on competency and
curriculum standards and development; training of staff and
assessors; research on TVET; and an information system.
○ MLSW will be responsible for the development of the
financing system of skills development funding; labor market
analysis and follow up; skills testing and validation of
experience; and job counseling. For each of these subjects,
committees can be set up under the responsibility of MLSW.
○ Other ministries (MLSW, Health) can deliver vocational
education and training curriculum, with the assistance of
VEDC for designing these curricula and submission for
accreditation.
- Activities are precisely defined and feasible in terms of outputs,
time frame, budget constraints, and available manpower to take
care of them.
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- Local short term consultants are hired for the implementation
of projects within fix durations to compensate for the lack of
human resources in MOE.
- The actions are linked to the economic and social priorities, as
well as national and local needs analyses.
- There can be implementation of projects using a sector approach
(examples: hospitality, financing, agriculture, garment, wood) or
general topic approach (curriculum development, qualification
system), but with real applications through pilot projects, then
dissemination, if pilot projects are successful.
- The budget tends to come from various sources: government,
private sector, foreign donors and international organizations,
and individuals when possible. Based on Lao’s economic
evolution and the part of the Lao government, provinces and
companies should increase to develop autonomy and sustainability,
as well as reduce the uncertainty of foreign support.
- A strong marketing and promotion plan is implemented to
promote vocational education and training, especially for skills
which are not so popular, but highly requested by companies.
In conclusion, the master plan is ambitious and covers many
activities. Its success will depend on a close follow up by the
partners involved and regular review of its successes and difficulties.
MONGOLIA
MONGOLIA 311
Chapter 1
Policy, Experience, and Trends of Technical and
Vocational Education and Training in Mongolia
Section 1. THE NATIONAL CONTEXT OF TVET:
INTRODUCTION
1. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND
1.1 Political and Socio-cultural Context.
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is
bordered by Russia to the north and the People’s Republic of China
to the south, east, and west. Although Mongolia does not share a
border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only 38 kilometers
from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest
city, is home to about 38% of the population.
The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various
nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran,
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the Gökturks, and others. The Mongol Empire was founded by
Chinghis Khan in 1206. After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, the
Mongols returned to their earlier pattern of constant internal conflict
and occasional raids on the Chinese borderlands. In the 16th and
17th centuries, Mongolia came under the influence of Tibetan
Buddhism. At the end of the 17th century, most of Mongolia had
been incorporated into the area ruled by the Qing Dynasty. During
the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared
independence, but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly establish de
facto independence from the Republic of China, and until 1945 to
gain international recognition.
As a consequence, it came under strong Russian and Soviet
influence; in 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was declared,
and Mongolian politics began to follow the same patterns as the
Soviet politics of the time. After the breakdown of communist
regimes in Eastern Europe in late 1989, Mongolia saw its own
Democratic Revolution in early 1990, which led to a multi-party
system, a new constitution in 1992, and transition to a market economy.
Mongolia’s political system is a parliamentary republic. The parliament
is elected by the people and in turn elects the government. The
president is elected directly. Mongolia's constitution guarantees full
freedom of expression, religion, and others. Mongolia has a number
of political parties, the biggest ones being the Mongolian People’s
Revolutionary Party (MPRP) and the Democratic Party (DP).
The MPRP formed the government of the country from 1921 to
1996 (until 1990 in a one-party system) and from 2000 to 2004.
MONGOLIA 313
From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the DP and two
other parties, and since 2006 it has been the dominant party in two
other coalitions. Both changes of government after 2004 were
initiated by the MPRP. The DP was the dominant force in the ruling
coalition between 1996 and 2000, and also an approximately equal
partner with the MPRP in the 2004-2006 coalition. The MPRP won
the last round of parliamentary elections, held in June 2008.
Mongolia is divided into 21 aimags (provinces), which are in turn
divided into 329 sums (districts). The capital Ulaanbaatar is administrated
separately as a khot (municipality) with provincial status.
1.2 Population and Demographics.
At 1,564,116 square kilometers, Mongolia is the 19th largest and
the most sparsely populated independent country in the world, with
a population of around 2.7 million people. It is also the world’s
second-largest landlocked country after Kazakhstan. The country
contains very little arable land, as much of its area is covered by
steppes, with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert
to the south. Approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or
semi-nomadic. The predominant religion in Mongolia is Tibetan
Buddhism, and the majority of the state’s citizens are of the Mongol
ethnicity, though Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in
the country, especially in the west.
As of 2008, the population of Mongolia has reached 2,683,500.
Birth rates and population growth, which had been decreasing since
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1990s, have been on the rise again since 2007. In terms of gender
structure, 49.6 per cent of the total population is male and 50.4
percent is female. Regarding age structure, a high proportion of
young and working-age people relative to the entire population
demonstrates the potential boost to economic development though an
emerging “demographic window”. However, the percentage of people
above 65, a proxy indicator of an ageing population, is also projected
to rise in the future. In recent years there has been an increase in
internal migration from rural to urban areas, as well as an increase
in external migration, with citizens seeking employment abroad for
remittances. From 1995 to 2007, population density in rural areas
increased to 0.93 people per square kilometer, from 0.91 people per
square kilometer. For areas where internal migrants most often are
moving, namely, the capital, Ulaanbaatar and Orkhon aimag (a
province), this indicator increased by 1.6 and 1.3 times to 223.9 and
102.3 people per square kilometer, respectively, in twelve years,
from 136.6 and 81.5 people per square kilometer, respectively,
contributing to urban population growth. As of 2008, 61.8 percent
of the total population lives in cities and urban areas, and 38.2
percent lives in rural areas. There are 1,071,700 residents in the
capital city, Ulaanbaatar, accounting for about 38 per cent of the total
population.
1.3 Economy.
Mongolia's economy is centered on agriculture and mining. Mongolia
MONGOLIA 315
has rich mineral resources, and copper, coal, molybdenum, tin,
tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production.
With the demise of the Soviet Union, the Mongolian economy
faced considerable obstacles; during that era, the nation had become
increasingly dependent on the USSR in the provision of resources
and creation of capital. The immediate effects of the fall led to nearly
triple digit inflation (300%) in 1992. There was a 20% decline in
total output, due to recession in the period 1990-1993 and, thus, a
low GDP growth rate. Today, Mongolia boasts of having been
through an extremely turbulent era, but one from which she has been
emerging with strong macroeconomic performance. By implementing
monetary restraint strategies, the inflation rate averages 7%. GDP
growth rate of nearly 7.5% in 2006 indicates that Mongolia has
achieved relative normalcy. GDP per capita in 2008 was approximately
$1,700.
There are currently over 30,000 independent businesses in Mongolia,
chiefly centered around the capital city. The majority of the population
outside urban areas participates in subsistence herding; livestock
typically consists of sheep, goats, cattle, horses, and camels. Agricultural
crops include wheat, barley, potato, vegetables, tomato, watermelon,
sea-buckthorn, and fodder crops.
Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7.5%
in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still working to overcome
a sizable trade deficit. Despite growth, the proportion of the
population below the poverty line is estimated to be 35.6% in 1998;
36.1% in 2002–2003; and 32.2% in 2006. Both the unemployment
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rate and inflation rate are relatively high, at 3.2% and 6.0%,
respectively (in 2006). Mongolia's largest trading partner is China.
As of 2006, 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to China, and China
supplied 29.8% of Mongolia's imports.
1.4 GDP growth
In early 1990s, the GDP growth sharply declined to -10%, due
to serious cut back of financial aids from the USSR on which
Mongolia highly depended. Mongolia’s real GDP growth turned
positive at 2.3 percent in 1994, and it reached a peak level of 12.4
percent in 2008.
[Figure 1-1] GDP Growth
1.5 Education.
Education is one of the areas of significant achievement in
Mongolia. Illiteracy was virtually eliminated, in part through the use
of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families.
MONGOLIA 317
Primary and secondary education formerly lasted 10 years, but it
was expanded to 11 years. Since the 2008-2009 school year, new
first graders have been using the 12 year system.
With improving quality of and access to education of all levels
in 2008, secondary schooling was shifted to a 12 year schooling
system, and 6 year old children were enrolled into Grade 1. The legal
environment has been laid out to regulate relations for the pre-school
education of young children, and a policy on pre-school education
training has been approved. A lunch program for pupils of Grade
1-5 at secondary schools has been in place since 2006.
In response to the labor market demands, attention is being paid
to the training of qualified workers in mining and manufacturing.
To this end, the number of students to be enrolled in vocational
training schools has been set, and the curriculum has been updated.
With monthly stipends of 45.0 thousand MNT to each student, the
enrollment in VTPCs shot up. In accordance with the education
sector development master plan of Mongolia for 2006-2015, a policy
to increase the number of engineering and technology students through
economic incentives, rebates, and job placement — as well as the
provision of student loans from the State Training Fund (to three
in every four students majoring in the above disciplines, and one
in four students majoring in other disciplines) — is now being
pursued. As a result, the number of freshman year students majoring
in engineering and technology reached 23.3 thousand in 2008, which
is 0.7 points higher than the preceding year.
Compared with previous years, the investment volume in scientific
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laboratories and testing fields has dramatically increased. This
allowed establishment of specialized laboratories for shared use by
research and training organizations. With a view to building technological
infrastructure, work has started on establishing an incubator center
at the Academy of Sciences (AS) with an agricultural technological
park and an extension center; also in progress are a biotechnological
incubator at Agricultural University (AU), and a food technology
incubator at Science and Technological University.
<Table 1-1> Primary School Enrollment, Pupils in Grades 1-5, Literacy Rate
Indicators 1990 2000 2006 2007 2008Net Enrollment Ratio in Primary Education
97.5(1995)
95.0 91.4 92.7 91.5
Proportion of Pupils Starting Grade 1 Who Reach Grade 5
91.0 83.6 86.8 89.9 92.8
Literacy Rate of 15-24Year-olds 99.0(1989)
97.7 97.7(2000)
97.7(2000)
97.7(2000)
<Table 1-2> TVET Enrollment
Years 2004-2005
2005-2006
2006-2007
2007-2008
2008-2009
2009-2010
STUDENT 22,024 23,249 24,766 29,906 37,867 44681New Student 9,765 11,137 11,531 14,416 19,241 19754 Number of Graduates from Basic Education in Certain Year
7,583 9,160 8,796 11,624 14,948 13852
Number of Graduates from Complete Secondary Education in Certain Year
717 762 948 1,227 2,520 3426
from other schools 700 382 285 451 452 308 employed 149 226 133 192 347 510 unemployed 617 607 1369 922 1156 1558Graduates 8,338 7,054 7,033 9,037 11403 15353
MONGOLIA 319
The current education sector distortions can be expressed by the
following graph that compares the enrollment in post-secondary
education in Mongolia prepared by the National Vocational Education
and Training Methodology Center (NVETMC) in November, 2004.
[Figure 1-2] Percentage of Enrollment in Post Secondary Education
The graph above explicitly shows that the higher education sector
enrolls 80 percent of the entire body of post-secondary education
students; the secondary vocational schools enroll 8 percent; and the
primary vocational schools train 12 percent. The comparative ratio
is 80:8:12.
The graph below gives a comparative international perspective to
the study of education enrollments and the vocational education
component. The higher education sector in the major developed
countries enrolls 12-20 percent of the entire number of students; the
upper secondary education schools enroll 20-30 percent; and lower
secondary and primary schools train 50-60 percent. The average
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comparative ratio is approximately 17:28:55, while Mongolia’s ratio
is approximately 16:3:81. The graph has been prepared by the National
Vocational Education and Training Methodology Center (NVETMC),
using the data provided by the National Center for Education
Statistics, the Institute of Education Sciences, Washington, D.C.,
USA.
[Figure 1-3] Percentage distribution of education enrollment of 5- to
29-year-olds among levels of formal education
Graph 4 shows a comparative educational pyramid. The Mongolian
pyramid is heavily dominated by the higher education sector, with
the vocational education sector lagging behind and being several
times smaller than the international average.
MONGOLIA 321
[Figure 1-4] Educational Pyramid
The rapid expansion of the tertiary education sector that was
greeted with enthusiasm in mid 1990s is now being reassessed, as
it has led to a serious mismatch between the number of the higher
education graduates and corresponding jobs in the labor market. At
the same time, the industries that will serve as engines of the
country’s economic growth, such as mining, construction, trade, and
service sector (including tourism, communications, and manufacturing),
have been suffering from a lack of workers with occupational skills.
The scarcity of lower level skilled workers and a “bloated” higher
education system present a serious structural distortion that requires
drastic intervention through a policy change in education, including
vocational education as one of the policy priorities.
1.6 National Development Plan and Strategies
Mongolia has in place well-defined millieu of policy frameworks
and programs meet its development goals. It is noteworthy that a
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conscious effort has been made, not to have policies and programs
in isolation of each other, but to take into consideration provisions
of each while designing programmes. In practice, however, the
challenge now is implementation of the policies, in a manner that
permits reforms to take root and gainfully enables Mongolia to play
its due role in the chaning global environment.
The primary tier of national frameworks for macro policies, is
provided chiefly through:
- The Development Concept of Mongolia;
- National Development Strategy 2020;
- Economic Growth Support and PovertyReduction Strategy;
- Social Security Strategy; and
- The Concept of Regional Development.
Parallel and complimentary to the national frameworks, Mongolia
dovetails its international frameworks, which include, inter alia:
- Mongolia Millennium Development Goals;
- National Plan of Action for Decent Work;
- United Nations Development Assistance Framework; and
- MDG-based National Development Strategy of Mongolia.
The second tier focuses on sectoral policies and laws, in support
of the reform process, and they include:
- Labor Law;
- Employment Promotion Law;
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- Law on Education;
- Law on Vocational Education and Training;
- Law on Sending Workers Abroad and Employing Foreign
Workers; and
- Policy on Informal Employment.
The third tier is inclusive of programs and projects being
implemented nationally and/or provincially. Some of the most
relevant to TVET include:
- National Poverty Alleviation Program;
- National Employment Promotion Program;
- Social Security Sector Development Program; and
- Programme for Support of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises.
Section 2. EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR MARKET
1. Employment.
The central role of employment generation in poverty reduction
was acknowledged at the September 2005 World Summit, when
world leaders committed themselves to the following new MDG
target: “Achieve full and productive employment and decent work
for all, including women and young people.”
This decision had been anticipated by Mongolia, which had
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already created a third target under MDG 1 in its national MDG
targets: “Develop and implement strategies for decent and productive
work for youth.” The new global employment target is also included
under Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, and explicitly
recognize the central place of decent work in poverty reduction. This
highlights that halving world poverty by 2015 requires more efficient
use of labor resources; increasing the share of the working-age
population (both male and female), who are engaged in decent work;
and enhancing the quality and productivity of available jobs.
Statistics put Mongolia’s labor force at 1.5 million people, of
whom were unemployed. Of those who were employed, 53 percent
were self-employed and unpaid family workers; 14.1 percent were
in the public sector; and the rest comprised paid employees (40
percent) and employers (9 percent).
Unemployment strikes, irrespective of age and gender in
Mongolia, though mainly among the younger and presumably newly
graduated job seekers. Unemployment appears to be relatively high
for persons in the 20-29 year-old age group. Studies reveal relatively
large proportions of unemployed university graduates.
Informal economy is a new phenomena in Mongolia emerging
with transition to the market economy. Following are some figures
showing the current situation of IE in Mongolia:
∙ 126 thousand people are engaged in the informal economy (LFS,
NSO,2004);
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∙ Main activities comprise retail trade, services, financial services,
manufacturing, transport, and artisanal mining (32 activities
listed as informal for taxation purpose);
∙ 44.9% of IE people are engaged in service; 34.9%, in the
manufacturing and trade sectors;
∙ 55.2 % are male; 44.8% are female; and 64% of the people are
aged 20–40 years;
∙ Of the 115,000 PWDs, 4% are working in the informal economy,
and 90% are unemployed;
∙ 98.9% of total working children are self employed;
∙ 70.9% are from urban areas; 29.1%, from rural; and there is a
rate of high rural-urban migration (1/3 of UB population are
in-migrants); and
∙ 70.5% possesses an education level higher than complete
secondary.
2. Skill Supply and Demand
Employers in newly emerging sectors are trying to recruit skilled
workers but have difficulty finding applicants who are qualified.
Concern exists that young people lack basic skills. A 2004 survey
by the Labor and Social Welfare Agency found that 71 percent of
companies had difficulties recruiting employees; 80 percent thought
applicants did not have suitable skills; and 67 percent replied that
job seekers lacked experience. The same survey predicted employer
demand for practical trades such as bricklayers, decorators, carpenters,
326 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
welders, plumbers, and assembly workers. Even while a significant
number of Mongolian people are unable to find good employment,
Mongolia faces significant gaps in filling key jobs critical to
economic development, and foreign workers make up a significant
proportion of the active workforce in the rapidly growing mining,
construction, and road sectors. An interesting development is that
employers are offering their own training on the job. According to
the School-to-Work Transition Survey segment for employers, 70
percent provide training for new hires. Most training is for practical
skills needed for a particular job. This suggests that on-the job
training may be job–specific, with less opportunity for acquired skills
to be used in other firms.
The results using data from the School-to- Work Transition Survey
show that men with a vocational education have a very low wage
premium, compared to those with compulsory education. This suggests
a weakness in the vocational education system.
3. Mismatch
One of the key challenges that is faced by Mongolian education
is a skills mismatch between human capital, in the form of education,
skills, and experience of the labor force, and the demands of the
labor market. A number of factors have contributed to this mismatch.
Some children still drop out of school. Studies show that the
likelihood of dropping out is linked to household poverty, geographical
MONGOLIA 327
area, and family background. Boys in rural areas are more apt to
leave school than girls. Children in poor households are more likely
to drop out than those from non-poor households. There is awareness
— by the government, enterprises and workers — that public and
private training institutions are encountering severe difficulties in
providing the level of skills training needed for modern enterprises.
Technical skills are generally accorded low status and are given little
recognition in Mongolia, and because academic education is seen,
in many cases mistakenly, as a more helpful path toward lucrative
employment, most young people continue to choose academic
education, rather than vocational training. This is despite the fact that
there are significant emerging opportunities in trade occupations and
technical jobs. About 140,000 Mongolian students are attending
university (about 15 percent of Mongolia’s workforce), and many
of these graduates face difficulties in finding jobs because of the
country’s skill mismatch. In 2006, only 7,100 (5.4 percent) of tertiary
graduates were from TVET institutions, of which 48 percent were
female.
According to a study conducted by the State Employment Agency
in 2003, there were 49 graduates of the higher education sector per
one workplace in the construction industry, whereas there were 2.6
workplaces per one graduate of the secondary vocational sector, and
3.8 workplaces per one graduate of the primary vocational sector in
the same industry.
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[Figure 1-5] Labor Market Demand Ratio by Education Level (prepared
by the State Employment Agency)
Shifting larger proportions of students into the TVET system may
be one way to address the skills mismatch and improve labor market
outcomes. However, such a policy option would be viable only if
the quality of education and training students receive is of good
quality and relevant to market demands, which can only be achieved
through an overhaul of the existing system. With a good quality
TVET system, graduates are more likely to be employed.
4. Data Monitoring
One of the needs in establishing a coherent and coordinated labor
market information system is the provision of current information
on labor market requirements; this information can serve to inform
those who monitor and evaluate the output of the reformed TVET
system. A good monitoring and evaluation system will ensure that
there is quality control of the output of the TVET system, as it
MONGOLIA 329
provides checks and balances to employers of TVET graduates.
5. New Demands: Industry and Government Policy
At a time when a considerable number of Mongolian people are
unable to find decent work, Mongolia faces sizeable gaps in filling
key jobs critical to economic development, while foreign workers
make up a significant proportion of the active workforce in rapidly
growing sectors. As noted above, this problem is related to both the
education that young Mongolians are receiving, which frequently
does not impart skills useful in the job market, and to more
specialized vocational training for workers, which is also not
adequately linked to the needs of the workplace. Addressing these
problems will require a sustained cooperative effort involving all the
key parties: educational institutions, training providers, employers,
workers, and the government.
Furthermore, an urgent need exists to reform vocational education
and training to overcome the current mismatch between the skills
provided by training institutions and the qualifications sought by
competitive enterprises. Key priorities are skilled workers in certain
service sectors, such as finance and tourism, as well as jobs such
as mechanics, welders, plumbers, electricians, food technologists,
construction engineers, and heavy equipment operators. Vocational
education and training is currently outdated, underfunded, and
inflexible. Although the problem has been identified by special
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working groups and donor-funded projects, VET is, for the most
part, centered in institutions and not linked to the workplace. There
is a need to establish standards and develop assessments; upgrade
curricula and train teachers; and revise textbooks and replace
equipment. Young women and men need better bridges between
classroom training and work experience. Consensus exists that
education and training require stronger links to labor markets. This
entails greater participation by employers and workers in reviewing
training courses; setting occupational standards; offering on-the-job
training and developing bridge programs between school and work,
such as through apprenticeships and internships. In order to direct
students to training opportunities, guidance counselors, and employment
services require labor market information that is timely and practical.
In addition to ongoing labor force surveys with comparable statistics
to analyze trends in the labor market, there is a need for information
and analysis to determine the specific needs in emerging sectors.
These issues apply equally well to improving vocational training for
adults looking for new jobs or better employment. Recent surveys
by the Mongolian Employers’ Federation have found high levels of
dissatisfaction among employers regarding the quality and usefulness
of training received through existing training centers.
To achieve these ends, Mongolia needs a national strategy and
legal framework for policy coherence, with greater participation by
employers’ organizations and trade unions together with the Ministry
of Education, Culture and Science; Ministry of Social Welfare and
Labor; other line ministries and government agencies; and non-
MONGOLIA 331
government organizations. This should cover non-formal education
and workplace training. It will require legal frameworks and policy
coordination for education and training.
Training and technical education need to continue strengthening
coordination between line ministries, employers’ organizations, trade
unions, private training providers, non-government organizations,
and other partners. In addition, vocational education and training
must find new sources of financial support. Evaluations in other
countries indicate that successful training often relies on fees from
participants and contributions by employers, as well as funding by
the state.
The government established a national council on vocational
training, skills standards, and certification that is a key step toward
making a large and sustainable improvement in the quality of these
training programs.
This involves key stakeholders to support the development of a
legal framework, financing mechanisms, methodological centers,
vocational standards, pedagogical issues, certification procedures,
teacher training, school management and training facilities, among
others. It leads to a system that identifies skill needs and delivers
training services through formal institutions, non-formal learning and
on-the-job training. Systems should be developed for workers to
continuously advance their skills and qualifications on continuous
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bases. Lifelong learning should be open to all workers, including
young people.
Three high-priority sectors for this skills program are mining,
construction, and tourism, all of which are likely to continue to
generate employment opportunities for those able to take advantage
of them. Programs to provide potential employees in these and other
sectors with the needed skills, and with certification of those skills,
have the potential for significant impact. The government is making
efforts to deal with the problem of negative public attitudes,
particularly among young women and men, toward technical jobs
and vocational training. The government encourages schools and
media to promote the value of practical-oriented, hands-on approaches
to developing skills required in the labor market. It is also taking
steps to ensure that youth are able to participate in business
incubators that link enterprise training with follow-up support
through business development services. Business leaders are involved
in mentoring programs to support young entrepreneurs. The
government has been taking the following noteworthy measures:
- Strengthening links between the supply of education and training
and demand for skills in labor markets, through greater
participation by employers and unions in reviewing training
courses; setting occupational standards; offering on-the-job
training and developing bridge programs between school and
work, such as through apprenticeships and internships.
MONGOLIA 333
- Launching a multi-stakeholder effort to reform vocational
education and training to overcome the current mismatch between
the skills provided by training institutions and the qualifications
sought by competitive enterprises. Involve employers, trade unions,
Government and schools in this effort.
- Launching a campaign to change attitudes toward vocational
education and training by promoting the value of practical-
oriented, hands-on approaches to developing skills required in
the labor market.
- Establishing national council on vocational training, skills
standards, and certification, involving key stakeholders who will
work together to support the development of a legal framework,
financing mechanisms, methodological centers, vocational standards,
pedagogical issues, certification procedures, teacher training,
school management and training facilities, among others.
- Establishing professional qualification standards under the
direction of this council that will be of use to Mongolian
workers seeking employment at home and abroad
Section 3. Governance of the TVET System
1. Institutional Framework
TVET is administered under the overall supervision of National
Council on TVET and purview of the Ministry of Education, Culture
and Science (MECS) and government implementary agency for
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TVET and the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare Services (MLSWS).
MECS oversees formal long term TVET (more than two years),
while MLSWS oversees the non-formal short term TVET (ranging
from two weeks to 45 days). On-the-job (apprenticeship) training is
conducted by industry. All schools offering preliminary vocational
education recruit students who have completed 9th grade, while
intermediate vocational education institutions recruit students who
have completed 11th grade.
[Figure 1-6] Framework of the Mongolian Education System
MONGOLIA 335
The is depicted in diagram 1. Diagram 1 indicates that Preliminary
Vocational Education lasts 2.5 years and usually admits students from
16 years onwards. Intermediate Vocational Educational lasts between
1.5 and 3 years.
[Figure 1-7] Mongolia’s Education System
Under informal short-term TVET, the LSWSO of MSWL
coordinates activities related to employment and provides accreditation
to 1,200 training providers to conduct informal short-term TVET. As
of 2010, there are 1,200 training providers, 150 of which were also
accredited to receive funding from labor development funds to train
unemployed people. The main purpose for this short-term vocational
training is to help unemployed people learn a new skill to seek
employment.
In 2009, the government of Mongolia piloted and implemented the
On-the-Job (apprenticeship) Training Project financed by the
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Employment Promotion Fund. 93 entities participated in the project.
On-the-job (apprenticeship) training was conducted to provide
advanced and professional skills to employees.
[Figure 1-8] TVET System
The students enrolled in VTPCs after completion of lower
secondary education (basic education or incomplete secondary
education) may continue to upper secondary school, or VTPCs, and
they can access curricula in 152 professions. The students with a
complete secondary education certificate can access technical and
vocational education programs for 28 professions. According to the
MECS statistics, students with complete secondary education account
for only 30% of the total students in VTPCS and technical colleges.
MONGOLIA 337
<Table 1-3> Types of Vocational Education/Training and Graduation
Documents
No Types of Training Duration Provider Degree/Certificate Granted
1 Vocational Education 2.5 years VTPC and colleges
Certificate of Vocational Education
2 Training of Professional Workers
1 to 2years
VTPC and colleges
Occupational Certificate
3 Training of Technicians and Technologists
1.5 to 2 years
VTPC and colleges
Diploma
4 Competency Training 1-2 months Short-term training providers
Competency Certificate
5 Apprenticeship Training 3 months Employers Certificate
The governance structure, which sets the norms and standards for
curricular development for the subsector, is facing capacity and
quality issues. The National Vocational Education and Training
Methodology Center was responsible for the development of skills
standards and curricular materials for both formal and informal
TVET courses; the production of textbooks; the training of TVET
teachers and industry practitioners to develop modular training
materials; teachers’ pedagogical training; and research work on
TVET-related issues, such as labor market studies. From 2010 the
government of Mongolia established a new TVET agency,
responsible for TVET policy implementation and the above mentioned
responsibilities of NVETMC. There is also an accreditation agency
known as the National Council for Education Accreditation
(MNCEA), whose role is to accredit the quality of TVET programs.
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The current TVET system can, thus, be described at best as
fragmented. Different agencies responsible for different roles in the
TVET system are working in silo without much coordination,
interaction, and synergy.
Graph 7 shows the TVET professional development training
system.
[Figure 1-9] TVET Professional Development Training System
Training Provider
Government Implementing AGENCY for VET
Sector Councils
NCVET
Regional Methodology
Center
Regional Methodology
Center
Regional Methodology
Center
Regional Methodology
Center
Training Provider
Training Provider
Training Provider
Training Provider
•TVET School administrators•TVET in-service teachers and instructors•TVET pre-service teachers
• VET short term training providers• MECS and VET Authority staff
Professional Development
In addition, dated equipment, insufficient training, and the lack of
skill development opportunities for teachers all seem to suggest that
the developed standards and curricula have not been deployed at the
school level.
MONGOLIA 339
Section 4. TVET System by Target Groups:
The TVET sub-sector comprises specialized upper secondary
schools, as well as post-secondary diploma programs housed in
various types of technical and vocational education institutions.
∙ School-based vocational education: At the secondary school
level, vocational education starts after completion of middle
school. The training duration is 2.5 years, leading to an award
of a Professional Certificate and Complete Secondary Education
Certificate. The other option starts after high school for a
one-year specialized training with a professional certificate.
∙ Technical Education: Technical education begins at the post
secondary school level, with Grade 11 or a Complete Secondary
Education Certificate as the common entry qualification. This
arm of the system covers 2 years of advanced training for
higher-level skills development, leading to a professional diploma.
Completion of the diploma program can be linked with higher
education after 2 years of further study, or 3-4 years after the
professional certificate.
The table below describes the composition of 63 TVET institutions
under MECS:
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<Table 1-4> Summary of TVET institutions
2004-2005
2005-2006
2006-2007
2007-2008
2008-2009
2009-2010
TOTAL TVET SCHOOLS 41 47 52 56 63 63State Owned VTPCs 22 21 21 23 23 23Privately Owned VTPCs 1 3 7 10 12 12State Owned Colleges (with multi step training)
6 9 9 9 8 8
Privately Owned Colleges (with multi step training)
4 4 5 4 5 5
Branch or Attached School to Higher Education Institutions
7 8 8 8 14 14
Secondary Schools Combined with Vocational Training
1 2 2 2 2 2
Vocational school teaching within the formal educational sector is
predominantly organized according to school subjects. Contents are
mainly of a general educational and theoretical nature, thus primarily
providing preparation for further educational pathways, leading to
qualification as a technician at a trade and technical school, or as
an engineer. The labor market relevance of such training content and
its applicability to occupational practice is, thus, relatively low.
MONGOLIA 341
<Table 1-5> TVET Subject
Two Year Vocational Education School
2.5 Year Vocational Education School
3 Year Vocational Education School
Firstyear
General education with professional content
General education with professional content
General education with professional content
Second Year
General education with professional content
General education with professional content
General education with professional content
Third Year
Professional theories and practice
Professional theories and practice
Professional practice at some schools
General education and professional content at some schools
<Table 1-6> Training Subject
One year training 1.5 year training
First Semester Core skills and professional subjects
Core skills and professional subjects
Second Semester
Core skills and professional subjects in the first half of the semester. Production practices in the second half of the semester.
Core skills and professional subjects
Third semester Production and prior graduation practice
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Section 5. TVET INFRASTRUCTURE
1. Teachers and Instructors
Teachers, trainers, and in-company trainers lack knowledge in the
field of new technologies and in the methods of employment-oriented
teaching. The age of the teaching staff in schools, who were
generally trained before the change of the political system, is
relatively high. In addition, very little in the way of continuing
training opportunities have been open to them thus far. They, therefore,
lack the technical and didactic know-how to train skilled workers
in a way which meets requirements. To a more limited extent, the
same is true of trainers in companies. Although the fact that they
are confronted with technical innovations in the companies on a daily
basis means they have fewer deficits in the field of new technologies,
they lack didactic and pedagogical qualifications. In order to bring
about successful reform of skilled worker training, advanced training
of pedagogical staff needs to be the first step.
MONGOLIA 343
[Figure 1-10] TVET TEACHERS 2009-2010
682
586
268
517 generel education
vocational
practical
voc&prac combained
Total 2033 1256 female61%905 up to 30 years old881 up to 31-50134 up to 51-54Doctor Ph 25Master 434Bachelor -1281Others -293
There is currently no structured and coordinated pre-service or
in-service teachers’ pedagogy or technical skills training. Teachers’
pedagogy training has been left very much to the initiative of the
TVET schools. For technical skills upgrading, some schools send
their teachers periodically for skills training. However, because of
the lack of modern equipment that is in line with the needs of the
employers, it is likely that most teachers would need technical skills
training when new equipment and machines are put in place by
schools.
2. Facility and Equipment
Most of the infrastructure of TVET schools needs rehabilitation
and expansion. Interviews with TVET school directors revealed that
the existing infrastructure of most schools, including practical
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training facilities, may not be able to meet the training needs of
implementing a demand-led competency-based TVET curriculum.
For most schools, practical training equipment and machines are
either outdated, broken, or of insufficient quantity to meet the
requirements of practical training. Many schools are still using
Russian-era equipment. The policy of providing stipends for students
attending preliminary vocational education has led to an increase in
enrollment of TVET students and, as a result, put additional pressure
on existing facilities and infrastructure. Indeed, while some updated
equipment donated by developmental partners has been helpful, it
is most often only in limited quantity and may not be sufficient to
meet the needs of an increased class size.
3. National Qualification Framework
As for our country, before 1990 the organization of the granting
vocational degrees for qualified workers and the content development
of vocational education and training had been carried out in accordance
with the official reference book of salary tariffs for vocations.
The failure of the recommendation to fulfill a path to free market
economy and the abolishment of the state committee for labor and
salary caused an unsuccessful infrastructure for TVET.
In 2001 the Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor developed a
rule and instructions to adjust the previous recommendation of
vocation salary tariffs to the new conditions of market economy.
However, the new rule doesn’t cover the entire country, but is
MONGOLIA 345
designed only to fix the vocational degrees of the workers and
regulate the sizes of salaries of involved ministries, vocational
associations, and enterprises based on their multi-side agreement.
Therefore, issue of these documents has not been adequate to fully
satisfy current conditions, and the situation is worsened by the lack
of an appropriate regulatory structure.
The national skills standard NQF is a relatively new concept for
Mongolia, and it is understood to become a common vehicle in
providing new regulations and co-ordination for vocational education,
training, and employment.
4. Current Status of NQF and TVET
With the implementation of the goal to transform Mongolia into
an agricultural-industrial society, many new industries and enterprises
had been newly established. Technical and technological innovations
made it necessary for people to fully master new equipment and
technologies, thereby increasing industrial and labor productivity.
This prerequisite and the government’s educational policy have
improved the organization and growth of vocational education and
training in 1964-1990. Two subsystems evolved: technical and
vocational schools and onsite training.
Under this system worked various regulatory organizations, such
as the Department of Vocational School Affairs; training methodology
cabinet; regulatory council in charge of technical and vocational
training affairs; and methodological councils of technical vocations
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under the State Committee of Labor and Salary Affairs. In 1984 the
General Authority of Technical and Vocational Schools evolved with
broader rights and functions. In addition the mid career training
service for the workers of TVSs, and the training and methodological
councils at ministries, industrial combinations, and individual
enterprises helped develop more policies and implemented more
vocational education and training.
A framework was established for developing the training
curriculums, content, and methodologies for technical and vocational
education, and for providing instructors with methodological
guidance. The main documents to determine the vocational education
and training content, such as the reference of vocational degrees and
respective salary calculations, vocational definitions, training plans,
and curriculums were developed and followed in the entire country.
<Table 1-7> Connection between the Training Types of Vocational Education
and Qualifications for the Beginning and Intermediate Levels
А.
Occupations Activity/Function Training Resource
Vocational Degree
Technical Staff with Primary & Intermediate Level Vocational Education
Production Technician
To assist in production and preparation activities
Technical College
4 Degrees, with Diploma
Non Production, General Technician
To assist in research and processing activities
Technical College
Vocational Staff
To implement production and preparation of activities
Vocational Training Institutes
Vocational Degree 1-4
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Skilled Workers
MasterProduction and Technology Management
Completed A VET, technical and vocational secondary school; subsequently worked in respective industry for more than three years; attended a master’s course
Vocational Degree 5-6
Highly Skilled Worker
To perform high qualification activities in the broad vocational framework
Completed A VET, technical and vocational secondary school; subsequently worked in respective industry for more than a year; involved in professional advancement courses
Vocational Degree 4-5
Skilled WorkerTo perform the work of the vocation degree
Completed A VET, technical and vocational secondary school, or non formal training; subsequently worked in respective industry for 1-2 years; attended high skill training programs
Vocational Degree 3-4
Low Skilled or Unskilled Worker
To perform the low level or specific works of the vocation
Obtained vocational skill by non formal training, secondary school, and labor training
Vocational Degree 1-2
B.
In the first years of the economic transition the whole system
collapsed and failed to function, and the national framework for
granting vocational degrees ceased working. The majority of the
vocational schools are now subordinate to the respective ministries,
creating the inability to regulate training content and duration;
vocational directions for students; and student numbers, etc.
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In 1998 according to the order of the Ministry of Health and Social
Welfare, a national occupational classification scheme was developed
parallel to the international standard classifications of vocations. The
methodology “to develop the reference of vocations and relative
salaries, and qualifications” resulted in 2001 by the order of the
Minister of the Social Welfare and Labor.
One of the major differences from the previous recommendation
is that the organizations are entitled to establish their own by laws.
The methodology of how to develop and implement norms for
workers and industries has been developed.
However, the failure to implement the bylaws in most industries
led to an absence of vocational degrees being granted by the
three-sided national Committee on Labor and Social Convention. The
national vocational and qualification system was, thus, in a precarious
state.
5. Imperatives in Developing the National Qualification
Framework
Along with the lack of the universal rules and regulations for
vocations and related salaries, there was inadequate implementation
of the order of the Minister of Social Welfare and Labor, dated
November 11, 2001, which obliged each enterprise and organization
to establish its own occupational and positional bylaws and labor
norms; the granting of vocational degrees remained uncertain.
Vocational definitions, based on job and occupational analysis, and
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vocational education and training standards, which defined the
functions and tasks of vocational education and training, were
inadequate to serve as nationally universal skills’ standards.
A number of private sector enterprises, ranging in size from
medium to large, have voluntarily come together under private sector
leadership to identify broad vocational competencies as possible
learning outcomes, and as a basis for upgrading technical and
vocational training. Yet, there is no formal organization or agency
that assumes the responsibility for advancing a coherent categorization
of industry-recognized competencies, qualifications, and skills. This
gap continues to weaken Mongolia’s progress towards a demand-driven
and fully credentialed TVET system.
Instructional programs and the formal curriculum in Mongolian
TVET colleges and post-secondary school institutions continue to be
discipline and subject-structured according to a traditional supply-driven
model. Mongolia’s dynamic economy and labor market require a
modernized TVET system, with labor market relevant occupational
practice in line with regional and international standards though the
TVET Project. The Government of Mongolia seeks to upgrade the
TVET and higher education systems to ensure that graduates enter
the labor market with the required skills and competency sets for
new and emergent economic sectors.
To evaluate and certify the education and respective skills, a state
and private sector partnership is necessary for conducting high
quality training aimed to help students master the skills fit for the
labor market demands. The project of the Millennium Challenge
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Corporation of the USA has begun the task of establishing national
skills standards. The following work is undertaken:
∙ Development of agreed skills standards and a national vocational
qualifications framework (NVQF) and the integration of current
fragmented provisions for technical and vocational education
and training into a single and uniform TVET system governed
by the NVQF;
∙ Regular revision and adaptation of TVET instructional programs
to new economic and business needs in line with the NVQF;
∙ Development, installation, and piloting of a competency-based
training system that reflects the agreed upon educational and
skills standards; modern and relevant TVET curriculum programs;
teaching and learning methodologies; updated instructional
materials; and new evaluation processes;
∙ Establishment of a national learning resource center (NLRC) to
support new approaches to TVET, including training technologies
for on hands-on experience by students; and
∙ Definition, design, development, and implementation of a
national training program for TVET instructors, in support of
a continuous learning approach to professional development.
The overarching curriculum model will follow Mongolian-agreed
NVQF principles and provide for a seamless and sequenced program
of courses, units, and content that can be offered for short-term,
credit (certificate) and non-credit training. It will provide the backbone
for longer-term and formal education training, leading towards
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advanced certificates and associate diplomas, with articulation into
degree studies within technology institutes and universities. It will
be a competency-based curriculum framework, infused with a variety
of approaches to learning, including alternative delivery systems. The
competency-based approach to learning will enable self-paced
learning and virtual applications, including virtual textbooks and
laboratories.
The new curriculum framework and NVQF will be guided by a
proposed NQTF11 and comprise the most recent and relevant
technologies required by industry and employers. Although new
curricula and learning resources will be carefully and comprehensively
installed in all TVET institutions, content of the program must be
maintained on a digital learning management platform. A curriculum
development process based on DACUM and SCID approaches.
6. Strategy:
Design, develop and a support a national vocational qualifications
framework as the underpinning instrument for the development of
a policy, legislative, and regulatory framework to guide rationalization
and equalization of the national TVET system.
∙ Identify and describe in detail the process of consolidating the
key instruments and stakeholders involved and critical to the
creation, installation, and maintenance of the NVQF;
∙ Identify, describe, and define the processes, conditions, expectations,
and steps to be taken for recognizing and validating trade and
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occupational skills and competencies central to a functional
NVQF;
∙ Develop and establish a provisional NVQF that provides a
cohesive and coherent structure, drawing on all existing
post-secondary school qualifications that are offered in recognized
TVET colleges and organizations, into a single national and
uniform framework and one that is appropriate to the skill
development needs of Mongolia;
∙ Define the scope, pathways, and articulation of recognized
qualifications included in the NVQF;
∙ Define each of the levels of the framework through level
indicators and descriptors;
∙ Identify potential entry and exit points for improved articulation
and career pathways;
∙ Develop a provisional credit transfer matrix for discussion and
agreement;
∙ Develop and trial a draft policy matrix addressing management
approaches, quality assurance procedures and routine operation
of the NVQF;
∙ Design and develop a national registration and quality assurance
structure detailing relevant systems and procedures;
∙ Design, define, and develop a testing and certification system;
∙ Facilitate internal quality assurance for the TVET institutions
and regulatory bodies;
∙ Define and set skill standards for each qualification level,
illustrating competency sets and skill development steps;
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∙ Suggest to the NCVET a salary and wage rate system based
on agreed skill sets and TVET qualifications obtained within
registered TVET colleges and training organizations; and
∙ Revise and refine trade tests, taking account of new education
and skill and occupational standards, in line with new
competency sets within the proposed competency-based system.
Section 6. National Vision and Strategic Direction of TVET
The Government has made a strategic initiative on national TVET
development. The new TVET Law was approved by the national
Parliament in February 2009. One major outcome of the new TVET
law was to establish the National Council of TVET to improve
effectiveness of national TVET management and resources in
promoting a more market-oriented and demand-driven TVET system.
Under the new framework, the following challenges are identified:
(i) inadequacy of the skills produced by the education and training
systems to meet the needs of the labor market; (ii) mismatch between
the skills that workers bring to the labor market and those demanded
by the labor market; (iii) under-utilization of human capital; (iv)
insufficient public-private partnership for TVET development; (v)
improvement of teacher qualifications; (vi) amendment of the
national training standard to the new labor market principle; and (vii)
improvement of quality learning environment. Strategic policy on
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vocational education and training has been implemented, since the
transition to a market economy. The transition policy and phases can
be grouped into 4-distinct stages:
Stage 1. covers the period from 1993 to 1997, when the first
ADB-supported education and human resource master plan was
implemented. This stage coincides with Mongolia’s transition to a
market economy. A strategy to make fundamental changes in the
system of technical and vocational education was put forward by
objectives detailed in the 1994 Education Master Plan. They
included:
∙ Providing basic vocational skills and basic education within the
general secondary education system;
∙ Developing technical education as a next level to general
education; and
∙ Merging and privatizing training organizations that provide
vocational training and re-training courses outside the general
secondary education system.
Stage 2. covers the period 1998 to 2003. The national program
on vocational education and training was adopted, along with a
subsequent action plan. Five objectives were put forth in support of
activities:
∙ Creating a new management and organizational system and
mechanisms for activities in technical and vocational education
and improving capacity of human resource management;
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∙ Undertaking capital investment in technical education and
vocational training; renewal of its training programs, practice
technology, and equipment supply to improve the training
environment and comprehensive development of sector financing
mechanisms;
∙ Developing flexible training content that meets the requirements
of the customer interests and needs, as well as developments
in production, technical, and technological fields; training
students with skills levels that meet the new standards; piloting
and implementing multi-optional approaches in training;
∙ Identifying an effective and comprehensive structure, modality,
and location of technical education and vocational training
organizations and increasing accessibility of training services
delivered to trainees; and
∙ Ensuring better coordination to improve efficiency of programs
and projects implemented through national and international
cooperation schemes.
Stage 3. The Education Sector Strategy, 2000-2005 was approved
by the government in February, 2000, as a continuation of the 1994
Master Plan. The aim was to create a new system of technical
vocational education in a market economy for a newly transformed
Mongolia. The following strategic objectives were put forth within
this mid-term strategy:
∙ Matching technical education and vocational training with labor
market demand and needs;
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∙ Modernizing training standards and the assessment system of
graduates;
∙ Training TVET teachers, including re-training, skills training,
and in-service training;
∙ Reforming technology and equipment supply of the sector and
enhancing the training and learning environment;
∙ Renewing textbooks and supplying the system with new training
tools and instruments; and
∙ Developing comprehensive financial mechanisms.
Within the Social Security Sector Development program, the
National Vocational Methodological Center was established under
MECS, in addition to 6 regional vocational methodological centers;
25employment training centers (18 of them at VETC, and 7, at the
Employment Office) and 40 employment education centers in the
secondary schools, as well as 6 business incubators and 7 employment
training units.
Stage 4. Education Sector Development Master Plan
The government of Mongolia adopted the “Master Plan to Develop
Education of Mongolia for 2006-2010.” The following objectives are
put forth within its framework:
- Expand the services of TVET;
- Support establishment of private TVET schools;
- Comply TVET training with the demands of the work force;
- Improve technical support bases; supplies of training equipment;
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and tools of TVET schools;
- Prepare teachers and re-train teachers;
- Improve management and funding mechanisms; and
- Establish social partnerships.
The government of Mongolia has introduced a 2006-2015 master
plan to increase the enrollment of TVET by 56.1%. The education
statistics show that the enrollment rate in TVET increased by 62%
between 2005 and 2008, and by 92% between 2005 and 2009.
Within the development policy of TVET, the government, in
cooperation with donors, the private sector, and civil society, has
undertaken the following actions:
1. Reforms to TVET policy and operational framework, which
aims to strengthen the policy and operational framework; create
an efficient governance and standard setting mechanism; and
secure private sector participation for TVET.
2. Creation of innovative skills standards and competencies
focused on the establishment of skills standards and a competency-
based qualification training system which will be installed in
training institutes.
3. Competency-based training to implement the new competency-
based training system in TVET schools.
4. Career guidance to provide career guidance and employment
information services.
5. Improvement of learning environments in TVET schools
through supplying select colleges and schools with essential
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equipment, instructional technology, and media.
Section 7. Legal Frame for TVET Adults and Lifelong Learning
In January 1992, a new constitution was adopted for Mongolia that
incorporated the principles of a democratic society based on a market
economy and the guarantee of fundamental human rights. The
constitution has been the basis for political and legal development
in Mongolia, including the legal framework for the education sector.
The government has granted the education sector a premium role,
both in the Soviet era and since, as traditionally, Mongolians regard
education as an important asset. The rapid social and economic
changes from 1990 started with reforms to move the education
system away from an old-fashioned education mechanism more
suited to a centrally planned society.
Several legal and policy documents, such as the 1995 government
Policy toward Education, affirm that education is a priority sector
and should play an important role in fulfilling the country’s
development goals. The policy document advises that the Mongolian
government recognizes that the source for Mongolia’s future
progress is the continually developing, creative citizen with highly
developed education and intellectual abilities and skills and so it
places education as a priority sector of society. This document
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advises that education is the source for sustainable and accelerated
economic and social growth, science and technology progress,
intellectual and welfare creation, national sovereignty and security.
Accordingly, education reform is a political priority in the national
development agenda of the government, as a market economy will
need different skills from those previously provided by the education
system. Recently, the government focused on fighting poverty and
regarded education as a key instrument for improving equity, living
standards, and economic capacity. The government Policy toward
Education and the Education Law identify the following principles
governing the right of people to education and government
responsibility in the provision of education service delivery:
∙ Education is to be developed as a priority sector. The
government will continually support and nourish it while
monitoring and coordinating its activities;
∙ The government will provide free basic secondary education for
all;
∙ Citizens will be provided with an equal opportunity to learn in
their own mother tongue by not discriminating on account of
social origin, status, race, color, age, sex, wealth, job, position,
or religious belief;
∙ It is prohibited to organize any training activities contradictory
to the interests, health, and security of individuals and of
society, or contradictory to democratic beliefs; and
∙ The government will support education institutions without
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discriminating on the grounds of ownership.
The legislation and policies on TVET and Adult Education are
being supported through the following laws:
- The Constitution of Mongolia;
- Law on education;
- Law on TVET;
- Law on primary and secondary education;
- Law on higher education;
- Labor law; and
- Law on employment promotion, and other legislative acts
enacted in conformity with therein.
The Constitution of Mongolia of 1992 states, “Everyone has the
right to education, the Government provides free basic education for
all.” It ensures all with the opportunities to have educational access
appropriate for them in time, form and place.
In 2002, the first independent law on VET was adopted. The
purpose of professional education and training is to provide
professional skill and education, to enhance the profession and
develop both labor and communication culture in accordance with
the main principles of education, and international common trends
and norms, based on the citizens’ talent, interest, and need to engage
in labor. The law provides legal framework for:
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- Management;
- Content and standards;
- Types of training institutions;
- Quality assessment;
- Rights and responsibilities of the participants in training
relations; and
- Financing and its sources.
Section 8. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND TVET
POLICY
1. TVET Policy History and Priority
In fulfillment of the social need to prepare skilled workers, the
first vocational school, “Mongol Trans”, was established in 1929.
Then Technical Vocational School was founded by the 265th degree
of Ministers’ Council of the People’s Republic of Mongolia in 1964
and became a foundation of the current TVET system.
Until 1980, TVET in Mongolia was the responsibility of industry
and technical ministries, and it was delivered by agencies which
were directly answerable to technical ministries independent of the
Ministry of Science and Education. In 1985-1986, the Ministry of
Science and Education was given responsibility for policy on TVET,
but training institutions remained under the supervision of other
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ministries. It was not until the structural reform of the economy at
the beginning of 1990s and the concomitant restructuring and closure
of state companies and technical ministries that full responsibility
was transferred to the Ministry of Science and Education. The 1991
Education Acts provided a framework for TVET. From 1992
onwards, a number of different types of institution came into being,
offering various levels of training after the eighth and tenth years
of schooling.
The government of Mongolia declared 2007 as the Year of Great
Construction and Workplace Increase. It set out objectives to create
800 thousand new workplaces in all sectors of the economy and
focused on fighting unemployment and poverty. It regarded
education, in particular, technical and vocational education and
training, as a key instrument for improving equity, living standards,
and economic capacity.
2. Economic Development and TVET: National Development
Plan and TVET Policy
Mongolia has entered into a new era of growth. The nation’s
Human Development Index (HDI) is now at its highest level ever,
and it has increased in every region. All three components of the
HDI, indicators measuring status of health, education, and income,
have risen significantly in the last seven years, and the HDI has
improved significantly in all aimags. In the last five years, the gap
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in the HDI between more and less advanced aimags has been
shrinking. Mongolia is also showing progress in most of the
Millennium Development Goals. Achievement of 60 percent of the
22 national targets is on track, including the vital infant and maternal
mortality goals. This progress is taking place as the overall economic
situation dramatically turns for the better, with economic growth
averaging 8.7 percent for the last four years; budget revenues and
expenditures rising by more than 30 percent per year; and a rapid
expansion of the banking sector. Conditions are present for a
sustained economic expansion and for a major government effort to
promote human development throughout the country. Numerous
national policies and strategies are being implemented for national
economic and social development:
- Development Concept of Mongolia;
- National Development Strategy 2020;
- Government Action Plan for 2008-2012;
- Economic Growth Support and Povert Reduction Strategy;
- Social Security Strategy;
- Concept of Regional Development;
- Mongolia Millennium Development Goals;
- National Plan of Action for Decent Work;
- United Nations Development Assistance Framework;
- MDG-based National Development Strategy of Mongolia;
- National Poverty Alleviation Program;
- National Employment Promotion Program;
- Social Security Sector Development Program; and
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- Program for Support of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises.
Taking these national development policies into account, TVET
policy is set to:
- Increase access;
- Improve quality and relevance;
- Renew management and organization of TVET; and
- Increase participation by private sector and industry.
3. Social Partnership and TVET
Within the framework of transition occurring since the 1990’s,
major changes have been undertaken in the country’s economy; labor
economy and social welfare mechanisms; and new structures of
public and non-governmental organizations, such as employment
organizations; chamber of commerce and industry; employer’s
associations; free trade unions; and others that have evolved. As
transition into market-oriented relations has deepened, the industries
and economic entities that provide workplaces, equipment, tools,
materials, and facilities for practical training and skills development,
as it used to be, have virtually disappeared. Difficulties have
emerged in relation to the training of skilled workers through an old
system. To align technical and vocational education with labor
market needs and demands, a need has emerged for introducing
regulation and coordination with respect to the legal environment;
management systems and structure of training institutions; training
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content and technologies; and financing mechanisms for activities
being implemented by stakeholders in the field of training skilled
workers. A working group was established that is comprised of
representatives from various social partners and stakeholders,
including MECS, MSWL, and other line ministries and organizations
to develop a draft of the Law on Vocational Education and Training
which, in fact, was endorsed by the Parliament in 2002.
Today Mongolia has been experiencing public and private sector
partnerships in connection with the start of economic reform and
transition to a market economy.
Changes in social relations between administration, employees,
and employers require them to review contracts and their entire legal
regulations. During the transition to a market economy, labor relations
with full regulations by administration have been progressing toward
negotiation, in other words, partnership between the public and
private sectors.
As a result of the transition, a basis for contracts - the norms of
social partnership based on triple negotiations of labor and social
consensus - was founded. A plenipotentiary commission was founded
with triple parties comprising the state sector (government ministries);
employees’ interest-protecting organizations (Trade Unions); and
representatives of employers’ organizations (e.g., Confederations of
Employers; administrations of enterprises; and Chamber of Trade
and Commerce).
The above triple commission for social partnership is charged with
keeping an optimal balance in implementing interests and equal
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rights of hired workers and employers on the basis of their joint
cooperation in circumstances of market economy relations.
The main task of the state is to rationally determine rules for social
partnership. Currently, the Mongolian state has been executing this
main task in partnership with the private sector.
Since the founding in 2000 of the plenipotentiary commission,
social partnerships have deepened significantly, allowing the
achievement of contract norms. Aspects of social partnership and
registration of joint contracts and consensus were included in the
Labor law as a chapter. Many other issues have been regulated by
a number of legal acts, such as the law of import and export of
workforces and law for support of employment.
Norms and contract documents have been executing the role of
lever for strengthening social partnerships and providing greater
impetus for organizations and structures to regulate work relations
between employers, trade unions, and state organizations. As a result,
a new and open legal system paves the way for more democratic
and less bureaucratic labor relations.
People’s aspiration for the establishment of an open, humanitarian,
developed, and democratic society, combined with their desire for
high socio-economic growth, has become the preferred approach of
administration. For Mongolia, the democratic model of social
administration was chosen in connection with the transition to a
market economy, because of the establishment of various types of
proprietorships. The most formalized 3 types of economic interests
include private, state and employers.
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As these parties do not always reach consensus, it is necessary
to study the essence of their interests and interactions, and to
determine appropriate ways to create cooperation mechanisms to
transition to new type of administration.
Creation of social partnerships in the vocational education sector
will greatly depend on determining labor market demands in
coverage, and sectoral levels by the training organizations; developing
training curriculum and standards; improving training quality; and
establishing and implementing contracts by employers that situate
graduates in the workplace.
Social partnerships will create an opportunity to implement the
main task of satisfying labor market demands with vocational
employees. Currently, vocational training organizations cannot timely
feel and answer the employers’ demands and requirements.
The main problem facing this sector is that the older staff members
do not fully grasp the rules of the new game and consequently are
not ready for innovation and change. Therefore, administrative staff
members, trainers, and other employees must be systematically
prepared and are required to consciously change their thinking.
Specifics of vocational education, including direct connection to
labor market; benefits to all social members; practical lessons carried
out in practical workshops; and production necessarily require the
training organizations to cooperate with training beneficiary parties.
The social partners are state institutions, employers, workers, trade
unions, professional associations, labor regulating organs, and
training organizations. Unless these partners establish cooperation
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mechanisms in all stages to develop legal acts; determine policies
and strategies for vocational education; implement administration in
national, regional, local and organizational levels; define professions,
its requirements and training curriculums; organize training and
practices; give graduation examinations; and provide graduates with
workplaces, it is impossible to prepare specialists who can meet the
market demands.
When the first law on vocational education clearly defined the
cooperation directions of social partners, the cooperation mechanisms
were unclear, and, on the other side, previous cooperation traditions
and experiences were insufficient. In the previous social system,
market demands were provided with free employees prepared by the
state training institutions, but the law regulated production training
and practical student work through contracts between training
organizations and enterprises. Most of the practical student works
is being carried out in workshops of the training organizations--
meaning it is impossible to make considerable positive changes in
the quality of profession attainment.
Thus, in order to achieve goals and objectives of vocational
education system in meeting market demands, it is essential to have
both state-compulsory and state-public, or consensus administration
of parties benefitting from this sector, plus an economic lever. In
other words, in order to develop the vocational education sector and
attract interests of students, it is necessary to evaluate each profession
and provide relevant financial and economic support, such as that
for tuition, clothes, transport expenses, accommodations, and any
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additional fee for academic purposes, taking into account students’
living levels and sectors’ specifics. Particularly, over 70 percent of
students studying in vocational training schools in Mongolia come
from families with income lower than subsistence level, so both state
organizations and social partners should necessarily consider poverty
when granting funds.
Mongolia has been executing duties to develop education
standards; keep education balances; certify education organizations
and their trainers; develop target programs in the education sector;
compile a list of professions being taught in vocational schools;
develop norms of financing and material supply; establish funds for
vocational education development; and strengthen implementation of
vocational education law.
Section 9. CURRENT STATU from S OF SOCIAL
PARTHNERSHIP
For Mongolia, a new legal framework for vocational education and
training has been created; it comprises a national council which
regulates inter-sector activities, enhancing cooperation between social
partners and ensuring the application of employment policies set by
the state; school management boards; and national and regional
methodology centers.
Provincial and regional councils are comprised of representatives
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from the education sector, employment office, employers’ branches,
trade unions, parents and children’s support funds, etc.
At the national level, a council for vocational education and
training will conduct following tasks:
∙ Provide assistance in developing backgrounds for policy and
legal regulations to develop vocational training and technical
education;
∙ Regulate vocational education and training activities carried out
by state and non-government vocational education organizations,
employers’ unions, and enterprises;
∙ Issue reports on the implementation of legal acts related to
vocational training and technical education;
∙ Issue proposals and recommendations on vocational training and
technical education;
∙ Approve national occupational classification;
∙ Approve national professional system, with vocational education
standards certified by sectoral and professional committees;
∙ Study and make proposals on joining the international
conventions and recommendations on vocational training and
technical education; and
∙ Enforce implementation of resolutions and recommendations
issued by the council.
The national council has a work division and specialized committees
for sectors and professions. The committees’ duties include:
∙ Bear witness to the national professional system; national
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occupational classifications; professional standards; and standards
for vocational training and technical education;
∙ Develop regular legal, independent evaluations of professional
skills and establish independently managed evaluation centers;
∙ Bear witness to the independent evaluation of professional skills
and a testing database that provides information on graduates’
professional skills;
∙ Determine criteria for occupational skills;
∙ Draw conclusions on the correlation of approved budget, quality
number, professional directions or strategies of the regions with
activities of the training institutions; and
∙ Draw conclusions on the development and implementation of
training institutions’ strategic planning.
For creation of social partnerships between vocational schools,
external factors become the driving force; influences include
aspirations of the state and region, and the interest groups which
increase direct contributions to vocational education in terms of
economic growth. Internal factors include finding new income
sources if direct state budgets are decreased and answering the
demands of a variable labor market, as well as individual needs in
more optimal ways. In recent years, the above mentioned driving
forces are likely to be created in Mongolia.
Moreover, demands of vocational employees; growth of training
and production capacity of the schools; technological and
management capacities; state policies, programs, projects, structures,
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initiatives, and financial incentives supporting cooperation partnership;
the schools’ experiences in production; schools’ skills in handling
practical activities; schools’ culture; and schools’ support for social
partnerships are all factors affecting cooperation. All these factors
are being created, but are somehow insufficient.
A project for the promotion of vocational education and training
was funded by the German government and implemented by the
German Technical Cooperation from January of 2000 through 2002.
A major output of this project has been advocacy and proof of
employer participation and understanding by school management and
employers.
Within the “Social Security Sector Development Programs” which
had been implemented during 2003-2006, training equipment and
materials were supplied to more than 20 vocational training and
production centers, with the aim of providing skills development for
unemployed youth and poor adults, as well as for 40 secondary
schools. In addition, many activities aimed at improving skills of
practical teachers; strengthening capacity of managers; and
introducing modular based training technologies, etc. The importance
of this project lies in fulfilling the role of a bridge to expand
cooperation between the MSWL, MECS, and various agencies
functioning under them.
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Section 10. ISSUES AND INNOVATIVE PRACTICES
As vocational education and training have become necessary,
demands for people to live in the wealthy circumstances of a market
economy have spurred relations to alleviate unemployment and
poverty. Parties creating social partnerships acknowledged that
vocational education and training are meeting the demands through
improved policies and planning of vocational education — increasing
quality; effectiveness and outreach; strengthening of social partnerships,
support for the private sector; and improved correlations between
foreign aid and loans, and the signed “Social Consensus Memorandum
for Development of Vocational Education and Training” in 2008.
This document aims at developing state policies, strategies, concepts,
directions, projects, and programs on vocational education and
training; creating private sector involvement; updating the legal
environment; creating financing mechanisms with multi sources; and
coordinating foreign aids and loans.
According to the consensus, the following objectives will be
resolved, including:
1. Updating the legal environment;
2. Updating organizational management;
3. Reforming the training organization’s type and structure;
4. Continuing reform of the training system;
5. Creating mechanisms to provide social partners’ involvement in
vocational education and training;
6. Ensuring private sector involvement in vocational education
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sector;
7. Rationally exploiting foreign aids and investment support;
8. Updating finance mechanisms for vocational education and
training;
9. Updating the information database of vocational education and
training;
10. Updating training content, technology, and methodology and
providing training materials and textbooks;
11. Innovating the training environment and technologies;
12. Increasing human resource capacities and resolving social
issues; and
13. Establishing evaluation systems to raise the reputation and
improve competitive skills of vocational training institutions,
students, and graduates.
Section 11. FUTURE PLANS FOR SOCIAL PARTHERSHIP
In order to satisfy the increased demands of the labor market with
skillful vocational employees, it is necessary to reform whole system
of vocational education and training to the level that prepares
vocational employees to make a decent living by his/her obtained
professions.
It is necessary to guarantee sustainable activities by balancing the
involvement of public and private sectors and vocational training
institutions with policy and decision-making. Social partnerships
MONGOLIA 375
must ensure regular activities to increase the involvement of
representatives from the private sector and vocational institutions in
today’s national council for vocational education and training.
It is advised to newly reorganize government agency structures
which can integrate state policy on vocational education and training
and state budget, through integration of duties distributed to various
organizations. In addition, it is also necessary to take measures to
create a favorable legal environment that guarantees private sector
involvement; establish effective cooperation and partnerships
covering all parties in vocational education and training; and
strengthen a system responsible for the implementation of national
occupational classification, skill standards, and training modules, in
accordance with labor market circumstances.
[Figure 1-11] Financing of TVET
TVET FINANCING /present situation/
Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor
(Employment promotion fund )
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
Labor and Welfare Services
Authority
Short term vocational training
centers
TVET schools (not considering types
of property)
Training cost
Variable cost per a
student
Duration up to 3 months: 400000-500000 tugrics1300Tugric =1$
10 months : 300000 tugrics
376 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Mongolia’s TVET sector receives bits of financing from various
sources, but the bulk of financing is derived from the state budget.
In 2006, more than 80% of financing came from the government
(MECS and MSWL); nearly 10% from tuition; and around 5% from
self-income generating activities of VET schools (Diagram 3). In
contrast, in the higher education sector, only 23.6% of total revenue
came from state financed sources,1) while 57.3% of total revenue
came from non-state sources in the form of tuition fees.2) The higher
education sector has been much more successful in attracting private
investment, given that it has a much higher (98%) private rate of
return-- compared to TVET graduates’ (38%) private rate of return.3)
[Figure 1-12] 2006 revenue sources by sector (%)
Source: World Bank, 2009 “Public Expenditure and Financial Management Review”
1) These are tuition revenues from students, whose tuition is being paid by the state.
2) World Bank (2009) “Public Expenditure and Financial Management Review.”3) World Bank (2009) “Public Expenditure and Financial Management Review.”
MONGOLIA 377
<Table 1-8> Public Expenditure on Education, 1991, 2002 and 2007
1991 2002 2007GDP per capita (US$) (nominal)Education Expenditure as Share of GDP (%)Education Share of Total Public Expenditure (%)% share of total education expenditure: Primary Secondary Technical & vocational TertiaryPer student public spending (as % of GDP p.c.) Primary Secondary Technical & vocational Tertiary
92912%18%
n/an/an/a
15%
17%n/a
10%10%
1,1138%
16%
40%26%
5%15%
17%14%
5%12%
1,4316.2%17%
27%37%
6%10%
13%18%
6%14%
Compared to the other education sectors, TVET has received the
smallest share of the state budget allocation. In 2007, the share of
TVET expenditure in total education spending was only 7%,
compared to 37% for secondary; 27% for primary; and 10% for
tertiary education (graph 10). With tertiary education receiving most
of its financing from tuition fees, and primary and secondary
education getting the bulk of the state’s allocation on education, the
TVET sector finds itself desperately in need of increased financing
from additional sources, if it is to be overhauled to meet growing
needs of the private sector and a growing economy. Total
expenditure on TVET was .37% of total GDP for the year 2007,
which was two times smaller than the average TVET spending of
transition economies in Eastern Europe.4) While public spending is
4) The figure .63% of GDP as calculated in “Financing VET in the EU
378 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
roughly 6% of the education budget, 45 % of the TVET budget is
used for stipends to students (mainly to those recruited after the 8th
grade), and less than one percent on improving infrastructure and
training equipment5). The policy of providing stipends for TVET
students has increased the enrollment of TVET students, and has put
more pressure on existing facilities6).
[Figure 1-13] Percentage of TVET budget in the Total budget for education
TVET Finance
7 6.97
54.344.14.2
3.73.4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
TVET Institutions are financially dependent from the Government. The budget allocated to TVET sector is insufficient (only 7% of total budget for education)
Private sector financial support to the VET institutions is minimal.
There are about 15 private VET institutions that operate on tuition
fee revenues. (These tend to receive erratic support from bilateral
member states and candidate countries” (2005) by European Training Foundation (ETF)
5) World Ban, 2010 “Tertiary Education in Mongolia: Meeting the Challenges of the Global Economy”
6) World Ban, 2010 “Tertiary Education in Mongolia: Meeting the Challenges of the Global Economy”
MONGOLIA 379
partners and the MSWL, and they are specialized by sectors, with
courses of varying duration and quality.) Given that the outcomes
at the public VET schools are below industry standards and
competencies (only 11 schools delivering TVET are accredited, and
only 10% of their programs, accredited7)), the larger mining and
construction companies have started building their own training
facilities, and, in some cases, serving the needs of related companies
in their sectors.
External development partners have been focused more on other
educational sectors, rather than TVET. Primary and secondary
education has so far attracted most of the donor financing, and
rightly so. In 2009, it stood at 14 million USD, while a much smaller
level of assistance, at 390,000 USD, went to the TVET sector (Table
9). More recently, the MCA has pledged over 47 million USD to
upgrade and restructure the sector, a quantum leap in financing for
the sector. The ADB and the GTZ continue to be active in the sector.
<Table 1-9> Current donor commitments for education sector by level(In $US ‘000)
2007 2008 2009Total 28,994 13,699 14,009Pre-primary 529 798 421Primary & Secondary* 42,311 22,789 20,681TVET 1,351 525 390Higher Education 2,118 2,118 2,118Source: World Bank, 2009 “Public Expenditure and Financial Management Review”
7) World Ban, 2010 “Tertiary Education in Mongolia: Meeting the Challenges of the Global Economy”
380 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Section 12. TECHNOLOGY: ICT, E-LEARNING
1. Current Status of ICT in Education
The Erdemnet network of education information and administration
was established. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science;
educational and cultural centers of the aimags and the capital city;
and about 25 universities and colleges, 70 secondary schools of both
state and private sectors (with appropriate conditions) were connected
to the “Erdem” network and were provided with computers and
equipment; internet access; e-mail; and a local administration
network. This network aims to become the united information
network of the Mongolian education sector in the future. As a
beginning, the educational and cultural centers of all aimags were
supplied with network equipment, devices, and appropriate servers.
Multi-leveled training for the teachers and students on the use of
computer and information technology signals a starting point in the
new phase of information technology development in the education
sector. Presently about 513 secondary schools; regional center schools;
and educational organizations have been provided with 2,882
computers.
On March 12, 2008 the government issued resolution number 92
about implementing a program entitled “Computer for Every Child”.
The unit charged with implementing this program was established
by order 354, dated July 3, 2008, of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, and Science, as a part of the resolution. The unit is comprised
MONGOLIA 381
of seven staff members of the Ministry of the Education, Culture,
and Science, and the Agency of Information and Communication
Technology.
In 2007 the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science issued
an order governing certain measures of information technology in
the higher and vocational education sector. Under the order, the
following steps have been initiated and implemented:
(ⅰ) To make specific recommendations to the directors of the
secondary schools about connecting their schools to the
Erdemnet;
(ⅱ) To establish a central electric library of educational organizations;
(ⅲ) To establish an E-School under the University of Sciences
and Technologies, responsible for distance training for the
domestic universities and colleges;
(ⅳ) To provide the universities, colleges, and vocational schools
with information technology teachers and to determine their
efficiencies in the use of English language information
technology language; and
(ⅴ) To connect the vocational training centers to the main
network; help them have own websites; and improve their
publicity via their websites.
2. Best Practices in Teaching and Learning through ICT
Despite the rapid development of information technology in
Mongolia and its recognizance by the state and private sectors, the
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advanced e-training systems have not yet reached proper development.
However some progress has been made in the field.
One of the pioneers in the field is the E-learning center under the
University of Science and Technology. Initially the database of the
internal activities was created, and subsequently the management and
information system was developed and put into operation.
Since 2005, the charge to transform the teaching materials into
electric form, as a part of the universal goal of introducing
E-learning into their activities, have been carried out, and presently
some outputs are employed in the training of master’s program of
the university.
Due attention is paid to strengthen the abilities of teachers in
developing training aids for e-training and applying information
technology in their activities.
3. Issues and Challenges in ICT Education
The most rapidly developing Asian countries see information and
communication technology as their key educational development
factor. More importantly, for Mongolia, a landlocked country with
vast space and sparse population, it is urgent catch all the possibilities
to overcome the distance obstacles. It is very necessary for Mongolia
to introduce the latest information and communication technologies
to the all sectors of Mongolia, specifically the educational sector.
The main hindering factors against the consistent introduction of
information and communication technology in the educational sector are:
MONGOLIA 383
∙ Lack of the primary legal environment;
∙ Lack of organized and universal concept and usage of
information and communication technology at all management
levels and in a unified system;
∙ Lack of the implementation method and uncertainty about
financial resources, despite the effort to initiate information
technology into education sector;
∙ Weak attention to improving use of information technology in
the educational sector, and in preparing technical staff in the
field;
∙ Lack of international information and communication backbone
access via land;
∙ Persistent differences in information access and provision;
∙ Weak tradition of information and communication technology
in the educational sector;
∙ No support or joint efforts made to promote ICT;
∙ Unequal introduction of information and communication
technology throughout the country, coupled with weak provision
of equipment and information and communication technology in
the countryside; and
∙ Inadequate average level of knowledge of ICT among the
population.
4. Future Plans
Currently an E-Education program is in progress to introduce
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information and communication technology in the educational system
of the nation under the framework of the “E-Mongolia” program.
The following goals and objectives are presented under the program:
∙ To ensure equal opportunity for educational access, regardless
of the location of the people, as it is critical for such a country
with vast territory and scarce population.
∙ To make Mongolian education degrees universally recognized,
helping the nation export and ensure the high quality of
education.
Objectives:
∙ To raise the information technology-related educational level of
the population to the world average by 2012;
∙ To create distance training capacities for all towns and
settlements by 2012;
∙ To introduce e-training for all training levels; establish model
schools; and upgrade at least 50% of the schools as e-schools;
and
∙ To strengthen the information technology-oriented schools and
raise their research capacity to international standards.
Activities to be implemented include:
1) Establish a management system to promote the new educational
system;
MONGOLIA 385
2) Develop the information infrastructure in the educational sector;
3) Build human resources while developing education; and
4) Promote public education of information technology.
Section 13. International Cooperation: Bilateral,Multilateral and International Organizations
1. Donors’Activity in TVET
The increased role of vocational education and training in
Mongolia has turned this issue into a key focus of government
policy, and consequent actions have been taken for promoting
national and donor investment in the VET area. The government of
Mongolia has reached an agreement with donors, such as ADB, GTZ,
and Millennium Challenge Corporation, on supporting vocational
education and training.
Mongolia is entering a new period of education sector planning.
With the support of the Asian Development Bank, activity
management in the education sector will be guided by sector-wide
planning, whereby the multilateral development banks, and multilateral
and bilateral donor agencies, will aim to better coordinate and
harmonize investment in the sector according to government
planning priorities. The following proposal for funding from the
Millennium Challenge Account is based on the selection of activity
386 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
in support of the national reform of the TVET system that is
consistent with (a) the Master Plan to Develop Education of
Mongolia, 2006-2015; and (b) progress in sector-wide planning,
including the annual implementation plan for education projects and
activity under MECS.
International support for the national reform of the TVET system
is being provided, initially, through the Third Education Development
Project, or TEDP. With the support of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), proposals are being prepared for
the development of a TVET policy framework. This framework will
focus on a reformed system for initial and continuing vocational
training and education. Proposals from GTZ discuss the need to plan
TVET, taking account of both formal and non formal training
provisions (i.e., a dual system). Examples of early application of non
formal approaches to TVET include the Non formal skills training
for unemployed youth and adult project, jointly funded by ADB and
government of Japan.
Taking account of the parameters of the Master Plan for the TVET
subsector, the TEDP will aim to develop a national policy framework
promoting demand-driven TVET. The proposed policy framework
will (i) streamline legislative, regulatory and institutional arrangements
in support of the reform process; (ii) provide national skills
standards; and (iii) develop a national vocational qualification
system, based on standards of competency set by industry and
MONGOLIA 387
employers. The terms of reference, objectives, and outputs of the
TEDP will go some way forward in preparing the necessary policy
studies and background studies for a range of reforms. Still, key
activity, including definition of the roles of stakeholders; reaching
consensus on national training standards; and preparation of a new
TVET oriented curriculum, will take time.
The MCC funded Vocational Education project will be a valuable
contribution to the VET system reform (47.5 million USD). The
MCC Vocational Education Project will consist of the following
activities:
Activity1. Reforms to TVET Policy and Operational Framework
Activity:
- Legal and regulatory reforms that will create and allow the
implementation of demand driven TVET;
- Establishment and support of the National Advisory Board for
Vocational Education and Training (“NABVET”); and
- Creation of efficient governance and standard-setting, with secure
private sector participation for technical and vocational education
and training.
Activity 2. Creation of Skills Standards and Competencies System
Activity.
- Establishment of national TVET standards for short-term and
long-term career training fields;
388 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
- Development of new, modern, curricula, courses, and instructional
materials for short-term and long-term career training fields;
- Development of an assessment and credentialing system to
support the new standards and modernized TVET system;
- Improvement of the capacity of regional and national methodology
centers to create and distribute materials and training resources
to instructors in all types of TVET institutes; and; and
- Strengthening the linkage between in-service and pre-service
vocational technical teacher training programs to improve the
sustainability of the TVET teacher training system.
Activity 3. Competency-Based Training System Activity.
- Extension of training to vocational teachers and administrators;
- Provision of equipment and materials needed to deliver the new
curriculum; and
- Identification and management of environmental, social, health,
and safety concerns.
Activity 4.Career Guidance System Activity.
- Installation of employment information services in eight regional
methodological centers; and
- Establishment of a career guidance service and web-based career
information system.
MONGOLIA 389
2. Sustainability
To ensure the sustainability of the vocational education projects,
the government of Mongolia
is focusing policy to develop legal and regulatory reforms, which
are expected to improve TVET institutes’ income-generating capacity,
which, in turn, lead to increased funding for TVET institutes. To
ensure the environmental and social sustainability of the vocational
education projects as a whole, the government of Mongolia
organized public consultations with various stakeholders (including
women and other vulnerable groups) to participate in the development
and implementation of vocational education projects and amendment
of existing law on VET.
Section 14. Future Trends and Objectives of TVETs
An Action Plan for Education Development to 2015, which was
developed with support of Asian Development Bank and adopted by
the Government of Mongolia in August of 2006, was highly
evaluated by international donor organizations. The plan included
following objectives and strategies on TVET.
390 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Section 15. TVET Objectives & Strategies (2006 to 2015)
А. TVET coverage will be increased by 56.1 percent.
- To increase share of privately owned vocational schools;
- To expand vocational schools’ service types and coverages;
- To render state support to students of vocational schools;
- To increase operation and capacities of vocational schools; and
- To support new establishment of vocational schools in connection
with national strategy on regional development and local
demands;
B. Improving TVET Content and Creating Supply, Matching the
Demands of Vocational Workers to the L Market
The following objectives are methods of improving content and
creating supply in the labor market:
- To innovate TVET standards and contents in connection with
market demands;
- To develop teaching staff supply, their professional capacities
and skills;
- To increase state support for improving supply of training
materials and textbooks of TVET;
- To increase supply of TVET practice instruments and equipment;
- To improve connection between training and practice;
- To strengthen accrediting capacities of TVET institution and
programs and to create quality control system;
MONGOLIA 391
- To connect TVET training with workforce demands;
- To conduct qualitative and quantitative and social benefits
surveyes on labour market demands;
- To establish information database on labour market demands;
- To develop vocational training contents and standards connected
with labour market demands;
- To increase production and service participation in management,
training and planning of TVET;
- To establish training module database;
- To improve supply of material basis, training equipment, and
materials of TVET;
- To resolve financial issues of repairworks of state-owned TVET
institutions;
- To increase supply of practice workshop equipment, instruments,
and investments of TVET institutions;
- To develop and implement a policy for composing, designing,
and printing textbooks;
- To increase employers’ participation in supply of textbooks and
to develop training standards and modular programs of primary
vocational training that can be conducted in general secondary
schools; and
- To supply general secondary schools with primary vocational
training with practice workshop and laboratory equipment and
training materials.
392 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
C. Training, Re-training and Qualification Upgrading of Teachers
As stated in the master plan of education, proposed is the increase
of finances in this sector to 6.3 percent by 2015, using the general
education budget to increase teachers’ wages and assist with the
practical attainment of education; expenses of training materials; and
qualification upgrading of teachers. Therein are the following
objectives:
- To establish a national system for qualification upgrading of
teachers working in TVET;
- To increase financing for qualification upgrading of teachers
working in TVET;
- To develop standards and contents of training for qualification
upgrading of master teachers;
- To create training center of new technique and updated technologies
for qualification upgrading of vocational teachers; and
- To increase qualified teachers capable to teach theoretical and
practical vocational lessons.
D. Innovating TVET Management
To innovate TVET management it is necessary:
- To update types of management and financing of TVET
institutions;
- To update and follow financing norms on the basis of real
expenses required to prepare vocational workers needed in the
labor market;
MONGOLIA 393
- To implement policies for developing the TVET in the direction
of training, production, enterprenuership, and service;
- To implement policies and programs for improving national and
local schools’ management capacities;
- To strengthen accrediting capacities of TVET institutions and to
create a quality control system; and
- To create favorable environment supporting foreign investments
in TVET institutions.
E. Creating Social Partnership Structure
In creating social partnerships to strengthen TVET, it is critical to:
- Engage representatives of employers and professional unions of
production, service and businesses in the development of policies
and planning at national levels; and
- Match training, production, and service to the structure of social
partnerships and place graduates in the workplace.
PHILIPPINES
PHILIPPINES 397
Chapter 1
TVET POLICY, EXPERIENCE, AND TRENDS
IN THE PHILIPPINES
Section 1. The National Context of TVET
1 Context and Background
1.1 Political and Socio-Cultural Context
The Republic of the Philippines is located in the heart of Southeast
Asia and is the second world’s largest archipelago. It comprises
7,107 islands and islets in the western Pacific Ocean.
The Philippines was under Spanish colonization from 1565 until
its independence in 1898. From 1898 to 1946, it was under the
United States, which strongly influenced the country’s educational
system; the use of English language; and its contemporary pop
culture. The influence of the United States has declined in recent
decades.
398 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
The two official languages in the Philippines are Filipino and
English. Filipino, which is based on Tagalog, is the national language.
English is widely used and is the medium of instruction in education.
The Philippines is a democratic and republican state, with a
presidential form of government. There are three branches of
government: executive, legislative, and judiciary. The highest
authority of the government is the President who is elected for a
six-year term and serves as the Chief Executive. The legislative
branch of the government is bicameral in nature. It consists of the
Senate and the House of the Representatives. The judicial branch,
on the other hand, which consists of systems of courts, is headed
by the Supreme Court.1)
The country is divided into provinces, municipalities, and chartered
cities, each enjoying a certain degree of local autonomy. Within the
municipalities and cities are communities or barangays, which constitute
the smallest political unit. Each of the provinces is headed by a
governor; the municipalities and cities, by a mayor; and the
barangays, by a barangay captain. The Local Government Code of
1991 provided for a more responsive and accountable local-
government structure. Local governments are to be given more
powers, authority, responsibilities, and resources through a system
of decentralization.
As of December 31, 2009, the Philippines had 80 provinces, 137
cities, 1,497 municipalities, and 42,023 barangays.
1) Syjuco, A.G. (2006). The Philippine TVET System. TESDA
PHILIPPINES 399
1.2 Population and Demographics
The Philippine population has been steadily rising, as evidenced
by the results of the census of population and housing. The census
year of 1990 placed the country’s population at 60.70 million. This
increased to 68.62 million in 1995; 76.5 million during the 2000
Census; and further to 88.6 million in the last census in the year
2007. As of 2010, the country’s population was projected at 94.01
million.
The annual growth rate of Philippine population was at 2.36
percent during the 1995 to 2000 period and 2.04 percent for the years
2000 to 2007. The projected average annual population growth for
2005 to 2010 is 1.95%. Population growth impinged a lot on the
provision of social services by the government , especially in terms
of education, health, and nutrition — and even in employment.
<Table 1-1> Philippine Population by Census Year
Census Year Population (in millions)1990 60.701995 68.622000 76.502007 88.57
Source: National Statistics Office
The country’s population is predominantly young, with 43.4
million representing 56.5% Filipinos aged 24 years old and below.
The age group, 25-54 years of age, numbered 28.5 million
representing 37.3%. A little of more than 8 % or 6.4 million belong
to age group 55 years old and over.
400 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Age Group Both Sexes Male FemaleTotal 76,504,077 38,524,267 37,979,810
Under 1 1,917,431 986,506 930,9251-4 7,752,071 3,965,426 3,786,6455-9 9,694,781 4,962,013 4,732,768
10-14 8,949,614 4,541,197 4,408,41715-19 8,017,298 4,017,830 3,999,46820-24 7,069,403 3,522,518 3,546,88525-29 6,071,089 3,053,616 3,017,47330-34 5,546,294 2,804,522 2,741,77235-39 4,901,023 2,496,821 2,404,20240-44 4,163,494 2,120,314 2,043,18045-49 3,330,054 1,696,712 1,633,34250-54 2,622,316 1,318,632 1,303,68455-59 1,903,649 943,133 960,51660-64 1,633,150 786,137 847,01365-69 1,138,843 533,469 605,37470-74 797,970 361,614 436,35675-79 505,356 218,622 286,734
80 and over 490,241 195,185 295,056
There are more males than females with 38.5 million (50.4%) and
38 million (49.6%), respectively. The male-female ratio is registered
at 101:100.
Thirteen percent (13%) or roughly 11.6 million Filipinos are
residing in the National Capital Region (NCR), a highly urbanized
region wherein Manila, the capital of the Philippines and the seat
of the national government is located.
<Table 1-2> Population by Age Group, by Sex and 2000 by Region: 2000
Source: 2000 Census-based projection, NSO
The growing population of the country is manifested with the high
birth rate. As of 2001, birth rate was registered at 22.0%. However,
PHILIPPINES 401
data from the NSO show a decreasing trend in birth rate. Birth rate
in 2015-2020 is projected to go down to 18.5%.
<Table 1-3> Birth Rate, 2001-2005; 2015/2020
Year Birth Rate (per thousand population)2001 22.02002 21.02003 20.62004 20.72005 20.0
2015-2020 18.5
Source: 2000 Census-based projection2008 Philippine Statistical year Book
Educational Attainment
The educational level of the population of the Philippines, as
presented in Table 4, showed that a significant number have not
completed any grade. This means they have not even gone to school
and most likely, lack the necessary knowledge and skills for
employment for those of working age. The bulk of the population
have completed elementary and high school, accounting for 27.9
million and 18.9 million, respectively. This is understandable,
considering that the country’s population is predominantly young.
402 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-4> Household Population 5 Years Old and Over by Highest
Educational Attainment 1990, 1995, 2000
Highest Educational Attainment 1990 1995 2000
Total Population 5Years Old & Over 48,865,341 59,071,714 66,666,156
No grade completed 2,838,844 4,394,719 3,962,330Preschool 432,359 1,931,882 1,542,884Elementary 24,630,569 25,620,407 27,924,770High school 12,780,193 16,448,857 18,903,125Post secondary 1,088,665 1,340,813 2,561,983College undergraduate 3,737,464 4,071,236 6,685,949Academic degree holder 3,121,304 4,380,472 2,876,616Post baccalaureate - 114,839 267,713Not stated 235,943 768,489 1,940,786Source: The Philippines in Figures, 2010, National Statistics Office
Functional Literacy
Results of the 2008 Functional Literacy, Education, and Mass
Media Survey (FLEMMS) indicate a functional literacy rate of 86.4
percent, higher than the 2003 FLEMMS results of 84.1 percent. A
total of 58 million of the estimated 67 million Filipinos who are
10 to 64 years old are functionally literate. A functionally literate
person is one who can read, write, and compute, or one who can
read, write, compute, and comprehend. Persons who completed high
school or a higher level of education are also considered functionally
literate.
The functional literacy rate among the females is higher than
males, with 88.7 percent and 84.2 percent, respectively.
As expected, the functional literacy rate is higher among persons
with a higher level of education. Among those who had reached,
PHILIPPINES 403
but did not finish high school, 89.8 percent were functionally literate,
and, of those who had finished elementary, 80.8 percent were
functionally literate. By comparison, 67.0 percent of those with some
elementary education were functionally literate, while only five
percent among those with no formal education were functionally
literate.
<Table 1-5> Functional Literacy Rate of Population 10-64 Years Old by
Highest Educational Attainment and Sex: Philippines 2008
Population10-64
Yrs. Old
Highest Educational Attainment
No GradeCompleted
Elem. Level
Elem. Graduate
High School Level
High School
Grad. Or Higher
Philippines 86.4 5.3 67.0 80.8 89.8 100.0
Male 84.2 5.3 63.9 79.8 88.6 100.0Female 88.7 5.2 71.1 81.9 91.1 100.0
Note: Persons who graduated from high school or completed higher level of education are, in this tabulation considered functionally literate.
Source: National Statistics Office, 2008 Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS)
Poverty Incidence
The incidence of poverty, or the proportion of individuals whose
annual income falls below the annual poverty threshold in the
country, worsened from 30.0 percent in 2003, to 32.9 percent in
2006. Poverty incidence of Filipino families reached 24.4% in 2003
and rose to 26.9% in 2006.
In absolute terms, this is translated to the number of poor
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households increasing from 4.1 million in 2003, to 4.7 million in
2006. These families failed to meet the minimum income needed by
a family of six to satisfy their food or nutritional requirements and
other non-food basic needs. This can primarily be attributed to rising
food prices; slower growth of incomes; and faster household formation.
The 2006 Family Income and Expenditures Survey (FIES) pointed
out that “33 percent of the population or roughly 27 million are poor
or living on incomes below PhP6,300 (US$137) for a family of five.
This translates to PhP42 (US$0.90) per person per day, or Php210
(US$4.5) a day or PhP75,600 (US$1,637) a year per family.” This
would mean that around one-third of Filipinos are living with less
than US$1 per day, which is considered poor by UN standards.
<Table 1-6> Incidence of Poverty, Philippines: 2003 and 2006
Indicators Year2003 2006
Annual Per Capita Thresholds (PhP) 12,309 15,057Magnitude of Poor Families (‘000) 4,023 4,677Magnitude of Poor Population (‘000) 23,836 27,617Poverty Incidence of Families (%) 24.4 26.9Poverty Incidence of Population (%) 30.0 32.9Source: National Statistics Coordination Board (NSCB)
Migrant Filipinos
One important aspect of the Philippine economy is the fact that
the Philippines is one of the leading sources of migrant workers in
the world. From more than half a million (615,095) migrant Filipinos
registered in 1991, the number continues to increase, and in 2009,
a total of 1,912,000 were working around the world.
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<Table 1-7> Overseas Filipino Workers: 1991-2009
Year Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)1991 615,0191992 723,4481993 696,6301994 719,6021995 654,0221996 660,1221997 747,6961998 831,6431999 837,0202000 841,6282001 867,5992002 891,9082003 867,9692004 933,5882005 988,6152006 1,062,5672007 1,077,6232008 2,002,0022009 1,912,000
Sources of Data: National Statistics Office; Commission of Filipinos Overseas;Philippine Overseas Employment Administration
In 2009, the proportion of male overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)
(52.8%) remained higher than female OFWs (47.2%). Female OFWs
were generally younger than male OFWs, with half of the female
OFWs belonging to ages 25 to 34. Male OFWs have a lesser
proportion (42.7%) in that same age category. There were more male
OFWs (20.9%) than female OFWs (10.8%) in age group 45 and over
(Table 8).
OFWs who were laborers or unskilled workers comprised 32.3
percent of the total OFWs during the period April to September
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2009. Those who worked as trades and related workers made up 14.9
percent; service workers and shop and market sales workers, 14.7
percent; and plant and machine operators and assemblers, 13.8 percent.
<Table 1-8> Number and Percentage Distribution of Overseas Filipino Workers
by Selected Characteristics, Philippines: 2008 and 2009
Selected Characteristics 2008 2009Philippines (‘000) 2002 1912Type 100.0 100.0 Overseas Contract Workers 94.0 98.8 Other overseas Filipino workers 6.0 1.2Sex 100.0 100.0 Male 51.7 52.8 Female 48.3 47.2Age GroupBoth Sexes 100.0 100.0 15-24 10.0 9.8 25-29 25.7 24.8 30-34 21.0 21.7 35-39 15.1 15.5 40-44 11.8 12.0 45 and over 16.4 16.2Male 100.0 100.0 15-24 6.7 7.1 25-29 22.8 22.7 30-34 21.8 20.1 35-39 14.7 15.7 40-44 13.2 13.5 45 and over 20.8 20.9Female 100.0 100.0 15-24 13.5 12.9 25-29 28.8 27.2 30-34 20.3 23.5 35-39 15.6 15.3 40-44 10.3 10.3 45 and over 11.6 10.9Source of Data: National Statistics Office (NSO)
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OFWs by Major Occupation/Place of Work 2008 2009Philippines (‘000) 2,002 1,912Major Occupation 100.0 100.0 Officials of government and special-interest
organizations, corporate executives, managers, managing proprietors and supervisors
2.7 2.5
Professionals 9.6 10.1 Technicians and associate professionals 6.2 6.3 Clerks 5.6 4.9 Service workers and shop and market sales workers 14.3 14.8 Farmers, forestry workers and fishermen 0.6 .03 Trades and related workers 15.7 14.9 Plant and machine operators and assemblers 13.0 13.9 Laborers and unskilled workers 32.4 32.3 Special occupations - 0.1Place of Work (in %) 100.0 100.0 Africa 1.5 2.0 Asia 78.2 79.3 East Asia 18.8 17.5 Hongkong 5.9 6.0 Japan 5.1 4.5 Taiwan 4.2 3.4 Other countries in East Asia 3.6 3.5 (including China and South Korea) Southeast and South Central Asia 10.3 9.6 Malaysia 2.6 1.8 Singapore 6.2 6.0
One out of five (21.6%) OFWs worked in Saudi Arabia, which
remained the top destination of OFWs in April to September 2009.
This was followed by UAE with 15.4%. OFWs in Europe and North
and South America were registered at 8.3% and 7.9%, respectively.
<Table 1-9> OFWs by Major Occupation and by Place of Work: 2008-2009
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OFWs by Major Occupation/Place of Work 2008 2009 Other countries in Southeast and South Central 1.5 1.8 Asia (including Brunei) Western Asia 49.1 52.1 Kuwait 3.7 3.7 Qatar 5.1 6.1 Saudi Arabia 20.4 21.6 United Arab Emirates 14.6 15.4 Other countries in Western Asia (including Bahrain
5.4 5.4
Israel, Lebanon, Jordan)Australia 2.4 2.6Europe 9.4 8.3North and South America 8.4 7.9Other Countries 0.2 -Source of Data: National Statistics Office (NSO)
1.3 The Philippine Economy
Table 10 shows the GDP growth rate from 1994-2009. The
Philippine economy posted positive GDP growth rates (at constant
prices), except for 1998, wherein growth rate was -.58. Highest GDP
growth rate was in 2007 at 7.19%. In 2009, however, the Philippines
posted a GDP2) growth rate of 1.1 percent (at constant prices), lower
than the 3.6% growth of 2008. This was expected, considering the
spike in rice and oil prices and the global financial crisis.
2) Note: Source of GDP data is the National Statistical Coordination Board (website: www.nscb.gov.ph)
PHILIPPINES 409
<Table 1-10> Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate 1994-2009
Year GDP (%)Current Price Constant 1985 Price
1994 14.82 4.391995 12.58 4.681996 13.95 5.851997 11.73 5.191998 9.82 -0.581999 11.70 3.402000 12.69 5.972001 8.25 1.762002 9.15 4.452003 8.89 4.932004 12.86 6.382005 11.75 4.952006 10.82 5.402007 10.20 7.192008 11.45 3.542009 3.64 1.06
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board
By industrial origin, the agricultural sector comprised 15% of GDP
and employed around 34% of total employment. The service sector’s
share to the GDP is registered at 55% (2009) and continuously
expanding and increasing its contribution to the GDP and employment.
This is attributed to the business process outsourcing (BPO) which
is expected to generate around US$11.6B in 2010.
The services sector showed the highest GDP growth in 2009 of
2.8 percent. The Industry sector experienced a decline of 0.9 percent.
Despite the effects of typhoon Ondoy and Pepeng in agriculture,
fisheries, and forestry, the sector was able to maintain the same level
of outputs.
While the GDP registered 1.1% growth rate, the GNP on the other
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hand, grew by 4.0 percent in 2009, attributed largely to the increasing
remittances of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs). The strong and
sustained inflow of OFW remittances has kept the Philippine
economy afloat and not falling into recession. OFW remittances3)
reached US$ 4.722 billion during the 2nd quarter of 2010.
<Table 1-11> Gross National Product and Gross Domestic Product By
Industrial Origin: Annual 2008 and 2009 at Current and
Constant 1985 prices, in Million Pesos
INDUSTRY/INDUSTRY GROUP
At Current Prices At Constant Prices
2008 2009Growth
Rate(%)
2008 2009Growth
Rate(%)
Agri. Fishery, Forestry 1,102,465 1,138,334 3.3 259,410 259,424 0.0Industry Sector 2,347,803 2,318,882 -1.2 464,502 460,205 -0.9Service Sector 3,959,102 4,221,702 6.6 693,176 712,486 2.8GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT 7,409,371 7,678,917 3.6 1,417,087 1,432,115 1.1
(in Million US$) 168,394.8 174,520.8 Net factor incomefrom the rest of the world 852,121 1,131,067 174,022 222,821
GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT 8,261,492 8,809,984 6.6 1,591,109 1,654,936 4.0
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB)
Comparing the 2nd Quarter of 2009 and 2010, a more improved
economic performance, as shown in Table 12, was noted. A more
optimistic growth is expected for the whole year of 2010 and
beyond. This can be attributed to the peaceful national elections;
improved investors’ confidence, especially among local investors; the
3) Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas website: www.bsp.gov.ph
PHILIPPINES 411
global economic recovery; increased capital expenditure of government;
and a low base fueled domestic economy. The continued increase
in the earnings of the country’s overseas workers sustained the
NFIA.
<Table 1-12> Gross National Product and Gross Domestic Product by
Industrial Origin: 2nd Quarter 2009 and 2nd Quarter 2010,
in Million Pesos
INDUSTRY/INDUSTRY GROUP
At Current Prices At Constant 1985 Prices
Q2 2009 Q2 2010Growth
Rate(%)
Q2 2009 Q2 2010Growth
Rate(%)
AGRI.FISHERY,FORESTRY 245,244 248,232 1.2 59,126 57,328 -3.0INDUSTRY SECTOR 561,749 674,986 20.2 117,942 136,594 15.8SERVICE SECTOR 1,052,888 1,166,206 10.8 178,624 189,989 6.4GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT 1,859,880 2,089,424 12.3 355,692 383,911 7.9
Net factor incomefrom the rest of the world 290,521 325,853 57,375 61,788
GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT 2,150,401 2,415,277 12.3 413,067 445,700 7.9
Source: National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB)
1.4 Philippine Education System
The education system in the Philippines embraces formal and
non-formal education. It is closely related to the American model
of education but differs in the number of school years, as other
countries have 12 years basic education. In the Philippines, however,
elementary education is composed of 6 years, and secondary
education is 4 years which, together with the tertiary education,
comprise the formal education system.4)
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[Figure 1-1] Philippine Education System
The Congressional Commission for Education (EDCOM) recommended
that the different levels/categories of education should be managed
separately, so that the specific needs of each category can be
identified and well attended to for effective and efficient
implementation. Thus, the management of the country’s educational
system is trifocalized with the Department of Education managing
basic education (elementary and secondary levels); the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) responsible
for post-secondary technical-vocational education and training; and
the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) managing tertiary
education in community colleges, universities, and specialized colleges.
4) Excerpt from Syjuco, A.G. The Philippine TVET System.
PHILIPPINES 413
As to the magnitude of schools in the Philippines providing
education and training in all levels of education, there are around
44,691 elementary schools;10,066 secondary schools; 2,180 colleges
and universities; and 4,041 TVET institutions.
Basic Education
Despite the fact that basic education is free, not all Filipinos of
school-age population go to school. Around about 2.2 million children
(17% of 13.2 million children aged 6-11) were unable to attend
elementary schools in SY 2006-2007 for various reasons, mostly due
to economic reasons.
In terms of key basic education indicators presented in the
following table, the country is far short of the commitments / targets
set for Education for All (EFA) and the Millennium Development
Goal (MDG).
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<Table 1-13> Key Performance Indicators in Basic Education Basic
Education Performance Indicators, 2004-2009
Indicators 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Target 2010
ELEMENTARY Net Intake Rate in Grade 1 41.3 36.6 39.7 45.6 48.0 48.4 86.3Gross Enrolment Rate 104.2 101.1 99.9 102.0 102.1 100.8 Net Enrolment Ratio 87.1 84.4 83.2 84.8 85.1 85.0 96.0Cohort Survival Rate 71.3 70.0 73.4 75.3 75.3 74.4 80.0Completion Rate 69.1 68.1 71.7 73.1 73.3 72.2 Dropout Rate (School Leaver) 7.0 7.3 6.4 6.0 6.0 6.3 3.0NAT Result (MPS ) 58.73 54.66 59.94 64.81 66.33 69.21**SECONDARY Gross Enrolment Rate 83.9 80.5 79.5 81.4 82.9 82.2 Net Enrolment Ratio 60.0 58.5 58.6 61.9 60.7 62.4 85.0Cohort Survival Rate 78.1 67.3 77.3 79.9 79.7 78.5 93.0Completion Rate 72.4 61.7 72.1 78.7 75.2 73.7 Dropout Rate (School Leaver) 8.0 12.5 6.6 7.5 7.5 8.0 2.0NAT Result (MPS Secondary)* 46.80 46.97 46.64 49.26 47.40 46.38**
* Administered to 4th year students from 2004 to 2005 and 2nd year students from 2006 onwards
** Public onlySource: Department of Education
The total enrolment in elementary level showed an increasing
trend, registering 12,760,243 pupils enrolled in SY 2000-01, to
13,686,643 enrolled in SY 2008-09. In secondary education, enrollment
also showed an increasing trend, from 1,245,682 enrolled in SY
2000-01, to 1,342,296 enrolled in SY 2008-09.
PHILIPPINES 415
<Table 1-14> Elementary and Secondary Enrollment: SY 2000-01 to SY
2008-09
School YearEnrollment
Elementary Secondary2000-01 12,760,243 1,245,6822001-02 12,878,600 1,281,1932002-03 12,980,743 1,219,4032003-04 12,986,360 1,244,2522004-05 13,015,487 1,268,2552005-06 12,913,845 1,287,9852006-07 13,145,210 1,290,7922007-08 13,411,286 1,332,8462008-09 13,686,643 1,342,296
Source: Department of Education
Technical Vocational Education and Training
Total enrollment from 2001 of 624,723 reached 1,982,435 in 2009.
From 2001 to 2007 there is a significant increase in total enrollment,
except in 2004. Then from 2008 to 2009, a downward trend was
observed.
On the other hand, total graduates in 2001 were 567,930 and
reached 1,903,793 in 2009. From 2001 to 2009, there is a significant
increase in total graduates, except in 2003 and 2004.
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<Table 1-15> TVET Enrolled and Graduates: 2001 to 2009
Year Enrolled Graduates2001 624,723 567,9302002 1,240,099 1,127,3632003 1,318,088 1,006,5612004 1,220,438 839,8982005 1,683,382 1,154,3332006 1,736,865 1,340,6202007 2,142,414 1,702,3072008 2,013,920 1,812,5282009 1,982,435 1,903,793
Source: TESDA
Higher Education
The total enrollment in higher education was registered at
2,440,202 in SY 2000-2001, increasing to 2,483,645 in SY 2005-2006.
<Table 1-16> Higher Education Enrollment: SY 2000-01 to SY 2005-06
School Year Enrollment2000-2001 2,430,842 2001-2002 2,466,0562002-2003 2,426,976 2003-2004 2,431,378 2004-2005 2,402,315 2005-2006 2,483,645
Source: CHED
PHILIPPINES 417
1.5 The Medium Term Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP)
MTPDP 2004-2010
The MTPDP is the Philippines’ detailed roadmap towards
economic and social development. For the MTPDP 2004-2010, the
basic task of the plan is to fight poverty by building prosperity for
the greatest number of the Filipino people. The plan also articulated
that the country must open up economic opportunities; maintain
socio-political stability; and promote good stewardship – all to ensure
better quality of life of its citizens. The focus on strategic measures
and activities will spur economic growth and create jobs. This can
only be done with a common purpose of putting the economic house
back in order.
The 10-point agenda of the government to be achieved by 2010
as contained in the plan are as follows:
LIVELIHOOD - Ten (10) million jobs shall have been created.
EDUCATION - Everyone of school age will be in school, in an
uncrowded classroom, in surroundings conducive to learning. Three
thousand school buildings a year shall have been build and a
computer put in every high school.
FISCAL STRENGTH - The budget shall have been balanced with
the right revenues collected and spending on the right things ensured.
DECENTRALIZED DEVELOPMENT
1. The network of transport and digital infrastructure on which the
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government embarked in 2002 shall have linked the entire
country.
2. Power and water shall have been regularly provided to the entire
country.
3. Metro Manila will have been decongested with economic
activity growing and spreading to new centers of government,
business, and community in Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao.
4. The Subic-Clark corridor will have become the most competitive
international service and logistics center in the Southeast Asian
region.
NATIONAL HARMONY
1. Elections will no longer raise a doubt about their integrity. The
electoral process will have been completely computerized.
2. Peace will have come to Mindanao and all insurgency areas.
3. The divisive issues generated by EDSA 1, 2 and 3 will have
had a just closure.
Based on the 10-Point Agenda, the targets of the MTPDP
2004-2010 are as follows:
∙ GDP growth accelerating to 7-8% by the years 2009 and 2010;
∙ An investment in GDP ratio nearing 28% by 2010;
∙ Exports exceeding $50 billion by 2006;
∙ A balanced budget by 2010;
∙ Annual job creation exceeding 1.7 million jobs by 2009; and
∙ Poverty incidence reduced to below 20% by 2009.
PHILIPPINES 419
MTPDP 2011- 2016
The Philippines is now in the process of crafting the Medium-
Term Philippine Development Plan for 2011-2016. The new plan will
focus on translating President Benigno S. Aquino’s III development
agenda, as contained in his “Social Contract with the Filipino
People”, into strategies, polices, and programs. The social contract
specifies changes leading to the following:
A. Transparent and accountable governance;
B. Upliftment and empowerment of the poor and vulnerable;
C. Growing the economy through:
1. Public infrastructure development,
2. Strategic public-private partnerships, and
3. Policy environment for greater governance;
D. Creating sustainable development for reform through:
1. Peace,
2. Justice, and
3. Integrity of natural resources.
The plan formulation, given the intended changes, shall focus on
the following approaches:
A. Attain a high and sustained economic growth;
B. Provide equal access to development opportunities; and
C. Formulate effective social safety nets.
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2. Employment and Labor Market
Correspondingly, with the rise in population, the Philippine labor
force is also increasing. From 28.1 M Filipinos in the labor force in
1995, the figure grew to 37.9 M in 2009. However, the labor force
participation rate decreased from 65.6% in 1995, to 64.0% in 2009. The
highest labor force participation rate was registered in 2003 at 67.5%.
Over the last 15 years, employment rate was highest in 2007 at
93.7%, and unemployment rate at the manageable level of 6.3%. As
of July 2010, the country’s employment rate was 93.1% (36.3
million) and is slightly higher than in 2009.
<Table 1-17> Household Population 15 and Over by Employment Status:
1995-2010
Year Household Population,
15 Years Old and Over (in 000)
In the Labor Force (in 000)
Labor Force Participation
Rate (%)Employment
Rate (%)Unemploymen
t Rate (%)
1995 42,770 28,057 65.6 91.6 8.41996 45,034 29,632 65.8 92.6 7.41997 46,214 30,270 65.5 92.1 7.91998 47,415 31,294 66.0 90.4 9.61999 48,637 32,003 65.8 90.6 9.42000 48,076 30,913 64.3 89.9 10.12001 49,424 33,361 67.5 90.2 9.82002 50,841 33,657 66.2 89.8 10.22003 52,305 35,097 67.1 89.8 10.12004 53,569 35,623 66.5 89.1 10.92005 54,799 35,510 64.8 92.6 7.42006 55,988 35,832 64.0 92.1 7.92007 56,845 35,926 63.2 93.7 6.32008 58,183 37,063 63.7 92.9 7.12009 59,237 37,912 64.0 92.5 7.5
2010* 60,934 38,993 64.0 93.1 6.9* as of July 2010
PHILIPPINES 421
Source: National Statistical Coordination BoardAs to the employment rate by sex, it will be noted that from 2000
to 2010, the female employment rate was higher than that of their
male counterparts. In terms of total magnitude, however, there are
more males employed than females. It is interesting to note also that
employment rates are higher in the older age groups, i.e. 35-44,
45-54, and 64 and over categories. The age group 15-24 registered
the lowest employment rate across age groups and periods. This
could be attributed to the fact that most of the young people have
just completed their schooling and have yet to earn experience which
is one the requirements of the employers in hiring. Others, however,
are inadequately educated and lack the necessary skills and
qualifications to be employable.
<Table 1-18> Employment Rate by Sex, By Age Group: 2000-2010
Sex and Age Group YearBy Sex 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Male 89.7 90.6 89.9 90.0 89.6 92.6 92.4 93.6 93.0 92.6 Female 90.1 89.7 89.8 89.7 88.3 92.6 93.2 94.0 93.4 93.3 By Age Group 15-24 78.8 81.0 78.6 80.3 78.3 83.6 83.1 85.1 83.5 83.4 25-34 89.3 88.9 89.3 90.4 89.7 92.0 92.0 93.2 93.0 92.0 35-44 94.7 94.8 94.6 94.8 94.3 96.3 96.5 97.3 97.0 96.8 45-54 95.0 95.0 95.2 93.9 93.5 96.6 97.0 97.6 97.3 97.3 55-64 94.6 94.6 94.6 92.7 92.4 97.5 97.5 97.6 97.3 97.6 65 and over 93.4 93.1 92.7 93.4 92.5 98.9 98.9 99.0 99.0 98.9
Source: Labor Force Survey, National Statistics Office
Of the estimated 36.3 million employed persons in July 2010, the
services sector was the largest group, comprising more than half
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(51.2%) of the total employed population. The highest employed
workforce in the services sector were in wholesale and retail trade;
repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles; and personal and household
goods (19.4% of the total employed).
Workers in the agriculture sector accounted for 33.9 percent of
the total employed, with those engaged in the agriculture, hunting,
and forestry sub-sector making up the largest sub-sector (29.9% of
the total employed). Only 14.9 percent of the total employed were
in the industry sector, with the manufacturing sub-sector making up
the largest percentage (8.3% of the total employed).
Among the various occupation groups, the laborers and unskilled
workers comprised the largest group, posting 31.8 percent of the total
employed population.
By class of worker, wage and salary workers in July 2010
accounted for 53.2 percent of the total employed. Government
workers, or those working for government corporations, comprised
only 8.4 percent of the total employed, while 5.0 percent were
workers in private households.
PHILIPPINES 423
<Table 1-19> Employed Persons by Industry, Occupation, Class of Worker
and Hours Worked, Philippines: July 2009 and July 2010 (in
Percent)
Selected Indicators July 2009 July 2010Employed Persons (in ‘000) 35,508 36,285Industry Sector 100.0 100.0 Agriculture 33.6 33.9 Industry 14.9 14.9 Services 51.5 51.2Occupation 100.0 100.0 Officials of government and special interest organization, corporate executives, managers, managing proprietors and supervisors
13.8 13.6
Professionals 4.5 4.7 Technicians and associate professionals 2.6 2.6 Clerks 5.1 5.7 Service workers and shop and market sales workers 10.5 10.3 Farmers, forestry workers and fishermen 16.2 16.8 Trades and related workers 7.8 7.8 Plant and machine operators and assemblers 6.1 6.2 Laborers and unskilled workers 33.0 31.8 Special Occupations 0.4 0.4Class of Worker 100.0 100.0 Wage and salary workers 55.3 53.2 Own Account 33.9 34.8 Unpaid family workers 10.8 12.0Hours Worked 100.0 100.0 Working: Less than 40 hours 34.1 35.0 40 hours and over 64.9 64.3 Did not work 1.0 0.8Source: July 2010 LFS, National Statistics Office
The number of unemployed persons was higher among males
(62.6%), than among females (37.4%). More than half (52.4%) of
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the unemployed were in the age group of 15 to 24 years. About
one-third (32.5%) of the unemployed were high school graduates;
22.7 percent were college undergraduates; and 20.5 percent were
college graduates.
<Table 1-20> Unemployed Person by Age Group, Sex, and Highest Grade
Completed, Philippines: July 2009 and 2010
Selected Indicators July 2009 July 2010Unemployed Persons (in ‘000) 2,922 2,708Age Group 100.0 100.0 15-24 52.8 52.4 25-34 28.0 28.4 35-44 9.3 9.7 45-54 6.1 6.1 55-64 3.1 3.0 65 and Over 0.7 0.4Sex 100.0 100.0 Male 62.6 62.6 Female 37.4 37.4Highest Grade Completed 100.0 100.0 No Grade Completed 0.5 0.4 Elementary 13.4 12.4 Undergraduate 6.3 5.8 Graduate 7.2 6.6 High School 45.0 44.0 Undergraduate 12.0 11.5 Graduate 33.0 32.5 College 41.1 43.2 Undergraduate 21.5 22.7 Graduate 19.6 20.5
Source: July 2010 LFS, National Statistics Office
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2.1 Skill Supply and Demand: Skill Level and Numbers
Skill Supply
There are only two (2) government agencies that have a licensing/
certification mandate. TESDA is for certification of skilled workers/
middle-level manpower, while the Professional Regulation Commission
(PRC) is for the professionals. On the average, almost 500 thousand
certified workers in different qualifications are added to the pool of
qualified / skilled workers. On the other hand, around 200 thousand
professionals from different fields are licensed.
<Table 1-21> Persons Assessed and Certified by Priority Sector: 2005-2009
Sector2007 2008 2009*
A C % A C % A C %Agriculture & Fishery 3,704 2,743 74 2,751 2,377 86 4,958 4,513 91Automotive 39,361 21,736 55 37,107 28,216 76 60,233 45,391 75Construction 26,495 18,855 71 20,295 17,179 85 50,168 40,968 82Electronics 11,519 5,877 51 15,801 11,318 72 37,185 25,607 69
Footwear & Leathergoods - - - - - - 35 35 100
Furniture 310 212 68 1 1 100 - - -Garments 3,998 2,309 58 3,799 2,984 79 8,177 6,575 80Health 107,963 97,294 90 122,283 115,939 95 187,052 173,791 93HVAC-R 4,314 3,233 75 4,584 3,892 85 9,818 8,060 82ICT 82,540 42,744 52 126,364 74,706 59 132,618 86,791 65Maritime 62,195 59,137 95 50,632 48,699 96 61,117 58,629 96Metals & Engineering 21,462 14,981 70 24,999 19,931 80 63,929 51,848 81Tourism 34,148 23,505 69 69,113 59,191 86 210,067 178,646 85Processed Foods - - - - - - 10,775 9,983 93Utilities 702 593 84 - - - - - -Others - - - 74,627 47,054 63 - - -
Total 398,711 293,219 74 552,356 431,487 78 836,131 690,836 83Note: A – Assessed, C – CertifiedSource: TESDA
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Annually, the higher education system is producing around
500,000 graduates of degree courses. Performance in licensure
examination recorded in the PRC, however, shows an average
passing rate of only 36.26% across all disciplines as of 2009.
<Table 1-22> Enrolment and Graduates of Degree Program by Discipline:
2007-2009
Discipline Group 2006-2007 2007-20082 2008-20091
Enrollment Graduates2 Enrollment Graduates Enrollment GraduatesAgri, Forestry, Fisheries, Vet. Med. 59,397 15,555 63,074 15,980 60,759 16,861Architectural and Town Planning 19,015 3,485 20,305 3,623 20,040 3,865Business Admin. And Related 572,174 111,283 520,711 111,530 511,301 114,872Education and Teacher Training 331,416 87,351 339,065 90,691 329,279 96,646Engineering and Teachnology 315,412 57,817 309,130 60,003 308,376 63,919Fine and Applied Arts 12,216 2,002 12,225 2,087 12,694 2,232General 20,698 2,568 15,892 2,120 10,803 1,717Home Economic 5,568 1,371 4,684 1,431 4,354 1,532Humanities 26,558 5,725 29,300 5,928 30,343 6,302Information Technology 251,661 44,133 259,384 45,985 266,903 49,168Law and Jurisprudence 16,977 3,796 18,080 4,028 18,068 4,379Maritime 54,870 7,160 55,521 5,287 49,961 3,504Mass Communication and Documentation 30,020 5,466 26,150 5,564 25,812 5,820
Mathematics 14,553 2,028 12,697 1,969 12,843 1,962Medical and Allied Services 609,659 73,781 622,548 79,647 693,240 87,900Natural Science 23,149 4,661 22,819 4,659 22,315 4,787Religion and Theology 8,568 1,608 6,729 1,662 6,421 1,764Service Trades 19,740 2,469 17,650 2,465 18,352 2,529Social and Behavioral Science 67,452 15,821 70,506 16,270 71,705 17,184Trade, Craft and Industrial 9,891 3,438 11,807 3,853 13,322 4,388Other Disciplines4 135,455 22,095 127,257 23,741 132,904 26,096Total Enrollment of Priority Discipline 1,679,132 295,971 1,704,543 307,844 1,763,716 328,612
Grand Total 2,604,449 473,613 2,565,534 488,523 2,619,795 517,427Note: Shaded row refers to Priority Discipline
1 Forecasted data2 Preliminary dataIncludes graduates in pre-bacalaureate, post-baccalaureate, master’s and doctorate programsAs of 03 December 2008
PHILIPPINES 427
Demand for Professionals and Skilled Workers
The in-demand occupations refer to active occupations/job vacancies
posted/advertised recurrently by and across industries/establishments.
On the other hand, hard-to-fill occupations refer to job vacancies for
which an establishment has encountered difficulties in managing the
recruitment process for various reasons, such as no applicants,
applicant’s lack of experience, skill or license, preference for
working abroad, seeking higher salary, problem with location, and
other reasons.
The Bureau of Labor and Employment (BLES) 2008 Occupational
Shortages and Surpluses Survey provided statistical figures that
substantiate the initial findings in the PROJECT JOBSFIT.
Table 22 shows the hard-to-fill and in-demand occupations in the
different industry sectors. The results are only in qualitative Form,
and there are no indications on the level and quantity.
The Project JobsFit validated the existence of labor supply and
demand mismatch with the following major issues and gaps raised
by the stakeholders:
1. Lack of experienced and highly skilled workers;
2. School curriculum not responsive to industry needs; and
3. Poor dissemination of labor market information.
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INDUSTRY IN-DEMAND HARD-TO-FILLA. KEY EMPLOYMENT
GENERATORS
1. AGRIBUSINESS
Animal HusbandryAgricultural EconomistAqua-culturistCoconut FarmerEntomologist(Plant)Farmer(Fruit, Vegetable and Root Crops)FishermanHorticulturistPlant MechanicRice Tresher Operator-MechanicVeterinarianPathologist
Feed Processor/Food Technician Fishery Technologist
2.CYBERSERVICES
Animation
Back Office Processing
Customer Contact
Medical Transcription
Software Development
AnimatorAccountantHR Outsourcing SpecialistCall Center AgentMedical Transcription EditorMedical TranscriptionComputer ProgrammersDeveloper (Software, Web)IT(MIS Developer,PlatformEngineer)Specialist (Learning Solution,System and Technical Support)
3. HEALTH AND WELLNESS
NurseHerbologistOpticianOptometrist
DoctorPhysical TherapistPharmacistMedical TechnologistPhysician/SurgeonSpa/Massage TherapistMasseur
4. HOTEL AND RESTAURANT & TOURISM
Front Office Agent/AttendantBakerFood Server and HandlerFood and Beverage ServiceAttendantWaiterBartenderRoom AttendantOther Housekeeping ServicesReservations Officer and otherFrontline OccupationTour Guides
Cook
5. MINING GeologistMining Engineer
<Table 1-23> Hard-to-Fill and In-Demand Occupations
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INDUSTRY IN-DEMAND HARD-TO-FILLGeodetic EngineerMetallurgical EngineerMining & Metallurgical Technicians
6. CONSTRUCTION FabricatorPipe FitterWelder
Engineer (Civil, Electrical,Design,Structural,Planning and Contract)
7. BANKING & FINANCE Operations ManagerTeller
Accounting ClerksBookkeepersAuditorCashierCredit Card AnalystFinance Analyst/SpecialistAccountant (Account Officer, Analyst)Risk Management Officer/Manager
8. MANUFACTURING Electrical TechniciansFinance and Accounting Managers Food TechnologistMachine OperatorsSewer
ChemistElectrical EngineerIndustrial EngineerIT SpecialistMachinistMechanical EngineersMechanical TechniciansChemical Engineer
9. OWNERSHIP DWELLINGS & REAL ESTAE
Building ManagerConstruction ManagerConstruction WorkerForemanMasonWelderReal Estate Agents/BrokersMarketer
Civil EngineerMechanical EngineerSurveyorArchitect
10. TRANSPORT & LOGISTICS
CheckerMaintenance MechanicsStewardess
Gantry OperatorGround EngineerHeavy Equipment OperatorLong Haul DriverPilotTransport and Logistics MachineryOperatorAircraft Mechanic and other related skills
11. WHOLESALE & RETAIL TRADE
Merchandiser/BuyerSalesman/SalesladyPromodizer
Cashier
Source: Project Jobsfit DOLE 2020 Vision
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New Demands: Industry and government policy
Annually, the Philippines, through the Board of Investments (BOI),
formulates the Investment Priorities Plan (IPP) which is approved
by the President. The IPP provides a platform for the country to
maximize the opportunities and benefits of global economic
developments and the implementation of its international agreements.
It provides for priority investment areas which are covered by
incentives. In 2010, the priority areas identified are those that can
provide the greatest push for the country to attract more investments
and generate more jobs. This covers the Regular List, which contains
priority investment areas to support the current priority programs of
the government; the Export Activities, which covers manufacture of
export products, export services, and activities in support of
exporters; the Mandatory List, which now includes the recently
passed Republic Act No. 9593; the Tourism Act of 2009, which
covers all areas/activities where the inclusion in the IPP and/or the
grant of incentives under Executive Order 226 is mandated by law;
and the ARMM List, which covers priority investment areas that
have been determined by the Regional Board of Investments of the
Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (RBOI-ARMM), in
accordance with Executive Order 458. The economic activities listed
in the ARMM shall be entitled to incentives, provided that the said
activities are undertaken in the ARMM region.
Information on industry demand and priorities, such as those in
the IPP, is regularly monitored, as this is critical in determining the
PHILIPPINES 431
availability of employment opportunities.
Section 2. The Philippine TVET System5)
Technical vocational education and training (TVET) in the
Philippines has long been recognized as an instrument in preparing
students and other clients for employment. It also addresses the skills
training requirements of those who are already in the labor market
and would need to upgrade or acquire new competencies to enhance
employability; improve productivity; or facilitate career shift.
The challenge for TVET remains as to how to make it more
responsive to the dynamic changes in the local labor market,
particularly with the structural adjustment and the changing patterns
of trade and competition in the world economy. The continuing
pressure on the technical vocational education and training sector to
develop skills more efficiently in the face of globalization; the fast
pace of technology change; and the need to effectively address the
issue of jobs and skills mismatch calls for a TVET system that can
address these concerns.
The paradigm of SEEK+FIND+TRAIN+CERTIFY=EMPLOYABILITY
fully illustrates the order of business in the TVET sector to enhance
the employability of the TVET graduates. As the mandated government
agency for TVET, TESDA seeks the jobs; finds the people that can
5) Excerpts ased from the Investing on the Filipinos Thru TVET: TESDA Report. July 201
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fill them; and trains them based on the standards of industry;
assessed and certified the workers, as evidence of competence and
qualification of the jobs; and facilitate the employment of the
qualified graduate for available jobs.
[Figure 1-2] The TVET Development Loop to Employability
This paradigm is operationalized through the TVET Development
Loop to Employability. This consists of four main components: the
TVET Support System; the TVET Delivery System; TVET Financing;
and the TVET Quality Assurance System, which are interrelated and
mutually reinforcing.
PHILIPPINES 433
1. TVET Support System
This pertains to pre- and post-training support to ensure the
best-job-fit of workers and students. The major components include
social marketing and advocacy campaign to elevate the status of
TVET; labor market intelligence; career profiling and guidance
services; job bridging and placement assistance; TVET scholarships;
and TVET Trainer Development.
Support is done in the form of labor market intelligence from our
industry sector partners. In this respect, the availability of timely,
relevant labor market information is very critical. The needed
information from employers include where and when the jobs are
needed and what specific skills and competencies are required from
the workers. At the same time, information on how many; what skills
and competencies are possessed by the graduates of the education
and training system; and where are they located, are also essential
features of a truly functional labor market information system.
TESDA also utilizes labor information for career guidance
activities. There are two mechanisms available in the Philippines to
facilitate career guidance. One is the National Career Assessment
Examination (NCAE) of the DepEd administered to 4th year high
school students. TESDA has career profiling services for other
clientele not reached by NCAE. The Career Profiling Program is a
complete guidance delivery system to help young Filipinos make
right career choices and displaced workers redirect themselves to
new occupation paths, based on an objective assessment of their
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strengths and interests, coupled with information on job/employment
opportunities. Through this program, students and parents are
equipped adequately to make the right career decision leading to a
greater job fit and greater value to education and training investment.
The career profiling efforts for the youth are anchored in the
Seek-Find-Train Paradigm and proactive job-skills matching approach
that aims for the BEST JOB FIT. The industry provides the cues
to industry need; the Department of Labor and Employment- Public
Employment Service Office (DOLE PESO) provides job facilitation
services; and the network of public and private TVET providers
delivers the training programs.
After training, job referral and placement services are provided to
shorten the job search period. It is also very critical that a tracking
system is established to measure the effectiveness of our training
interventions. In TESDA, the regular tracking of TVET graduates
is being done every two years to determine their employability. At
the institutional level, the TVET institutions are also encouraged to
monitor the employment of their graduates within six months to one
year after the end of the training program.
The TVET Trainer is an important and critical element in the
delivery of quality TVET programs. More than increasing the
trainers in number, the greater challenge is ensuring their quality.
TESDA has adopted the Philippine TVET Trainers Qualifications
Framework (PTTQF) to guide the development and recognition of
qualifications of trainers in the TVET sector.
The PTTQF has the following features:
PHILIPPINES 435
∙ Qualification Levels I to IV, from Trainer I to Mentor/Master
Trainer;
∙ The qualification level is a combination of Competencies in
Technology and Methodology / Professional streams;
∙ The technology levels follow the Philippine TVET Qualification
Framework, a system of assessment and certification for workers;
∙ A trainer must have a National Certificate level higher than the
qualification level of the trade he/she is teaching;
∙ A TVET trainer must be at least NC II certified;
∙ Only Mentors/Master Trainers are allowed to handle training of
Trainers; and
∙ The methodology levels shall follow the Trainers development
paradigm.
With the PTTQF as the framework, TESDA has embarked on an
intensified effort to capacitate the TVET trainers through the TVET
Trainers Development Program (TTP). As a matter of policy, all
TVET trainers must be at least TQ1 qualified to be allowed to teach
TVET programs registered in qualifications with Training Regulations.
Being TQ1 means the TVET Trainer is a qualified trainer and
assessor. The trainer/assessor development program is a continuing
initiative to raise the level of the TVET trainers from TQ1 to TQ2,
and higher.
TESDA’s recognition of the importance of the TVET trainer is
clearly manifested by the establishment of the National TVET
Trainers Academy (NTTA). The NTTA is tasked to manage the
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nationwide conduct of the Trainers/Assessors Methodology Program
and ensure the development of qualified TVET trainers. From 2005
to 2009, a total of 20,381 TVET trainers have been certified as TQ1.
2. TVET Delivery
The Philippine technical-vocational education and training (TVET)
system can be characterized as competency-based, accessible and
open, flexible and responsive to industry requirements and quality
assurances. TVET in the Philippines is delivered through by the
network of public and private institutions through the following
modes: school-, center-, enterprise--, and community-based technology
training programs. The programs are registered with TESDA to
ensure that they meet the minimum standards set by industry.
∙ School-Based Programs - These programs refer to the direct
delivery or provision of TVET programs by the public and
private providers, including the TESDA administered schools.
These school-based programs include post-secondary course
offerings of varying duration depending on the training regulation.
∙ Center-Based Programs - These programs refer to training
programs being undertaken in the 16 TESDA Regional Training
Centers (RTC); 45 provincial training centers (PTC); and
specialized centers, such as the TESDA Women’s Center,
TESDA Training Center Taguig Campus Enterprise (TTCTCE),
and Korea-Philippines Training Centers, as well as private
PHILIPPINES 437
training centers. Program offerings in the centers are also
qualification- or TR-based, similar to the TVET schools.
∙ Enterprise-Based Programs – These programs are training
programs being implemented within companies/firms. They
programs can be any of the following:
- Learnership Program is practical, on-the-job training for
approved learnable occupations for a period not exceeding
three (3) months. Only companies with TESDA approved and
registered learnership programs can hire learners. Learners are
absorbed by the companies after training.
- Dual Training System (DTS) is an instructional delivery
system that involves two venues of learning – 30% in the
school/training center and 70% in the company/ establishment.
The training is based on a training plan collaboratively
designed and implemented by an accredited dual system
educational institution/training center and accredited dual
system of agricultural, industrial, and business establishments.
The dual system aims to 1) encourage increasing levels of
investments in TVET by both public and private institutions;
2) enhance the employability and productivity of graduates;
and 3) strengthen training cooperation between the
establishments and educational institutions. Schools/training
centers and business establishments interested in adopting
DTS must register their programs and apply for accreditation
through TESDA.
- Apprenticeship Program - This is an enterprise-based training
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undertaken within the company which involves a contract
between a trainee and an enterprise on an approved
apprenticeable occupation. The program serves as a bridging
mechanism to enhance the government’s skills development
and employment facilitation programs, and it provides new
entrants to the labor force with the opportunity to acquire
basic skills and work experience, which are of prime importance
to employers in hiring new employees.
∙ Community-based Training – These are TVET programs conducted
in the communities, mostly in partnership with local government
units (LGUs) and non-government organizations. Programs
conducted are usually based on the local skills requirements and
resources available in the area.
∙ Community-based Training – These are TVET programs conducted
in the communities, mostly in partnership with local government
units (LGUs) and non-government organizations. Programs
conducted are usually based on the local skills requirements and
resources available in the area.
As of December 2009, there were 4,041 public and private TVET
institutions nationwide. TESDA directly administers 126 TESDA
Technology Institutions, including specialized centers like the TESDA
Women’s Center; the TESDA Language Skills Institutes; and the
Korea-Philippines Information Technology Centers.
Within a 5-year time frame from 2005-2009, total TVET output
has been on the rise, reaching 1.9 million graduates in FY 2009,
PHILIPPINES 439
from only 1.2 million in FY 2005, representing a 65% increase over
the 5-year period.
The total number TVET graduates from 2005 to 2009 is 7,913,581.
These graduates are equipped with the necessary skills and
competencies that can make them employable and productive.
3. TVET in Secondary Education
One of the priority programs of the Department of Education
(DepEd) from 2007 to 2010 is the Strengthened Technical-
Vocational Education (STVEP). This program is aimed at providing
the tech-voc (technical-vocational) high school students with relevant
and certifiable skills to give them greater chances of being employed,
even if they drop out of high school or do not proceed to college.
STVEP is also directed at linking basic education to post-secondary
and/or higher education through the ladderized education system.
DepEd recognizes the need to ensure that the tech-voc programs
in high school comply with standards prescribed by industry through
the training regulations promulgated by TESDA. TESDA provided
assistance to DepEd in the training of more than a thousand
principals, administrators, head teachers and teachers from 282
tech-voc high schools on competency-based system; training
methodology; and curriculum and learning materials development.
Support was also provided in the development of the competency-
based curriculum (CBC); conceptual learning materials (CLM); and
learning materials. The DepEd is now implementing the CBC, CLM,
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and instructional modules in their tech-voc high schools.
A total of 1,676 DepEd teachers have been certified in various
qualifications, 102 of which have CoCs; 182 have NC I; and 1,392
have NC II.
4. TVET Quality Assurance
TESDA ensures that all TVET programs are delivered in
accordance with the minimum national standards through the
enforcement of mandatory TVET program registration. As a vital
quality assurance mechanism, TESDA also enforces mandatory
assessment of all TVET graduates. All trainees who pass the
assessment are given their certificates of competency which serve
as a national trade credential. At the moment, TESDA is now
working towards an ISO 2001-2008 certification.
The TVET quality assurance mechanisms in place are described,
as follows:
4.1 Training Regulations (TRs)
Training Regulations (TRs) are developed in consultation with
industry and promulgated by the TESDA Board.
The TRs contain the national qualification; competency standards;
training standards; and assessment and certification arrangements.
They spell out the parameters for ensuring quality in delivery of a
TVET program. They also serve as the bases for competency
assessment and certification, registration, and delivery of TVET
PHILIPPINES 441
programs, and development of curriculum and assessment instruments.
As of September 2010, a total of 218 training regulations have
been promulgated by the TESDA Board.
4.2 Unified TVET Program Registration and Accreditation
System (UTPRAS)
The Unified TVET Program Registration and Accreditation
System is the quality assurance mechanism for the mandatory
registration of technical-vocational programs with TESDA.
Registration signifies compliance of the TVET program in the
following: curriculum design, qualification of trainers, facilities, and
tools and equipment.
UTPRAS is primarily intended to promote public interest and
welfare by ensuring the quality of TVET Programs.
The registration system is anchored on the competency-based
system, wherein TVET programs adopt the qualification titles being
prepared for and the competency or set of competencies that are to
be acquired. The system prescribes compliance with minimum
standards provided in the TRs promulgated by the TESDA Board.
The registration system is referenced on the Philippine TVET
Qualification and Certification System (PTQCS). As such, TVET
programs shall be categorized on the basis of the qualification levels
in the Philippine TVET Qualification Framework (PTQF) namely:
National Certificate (NC) I; National Certificate (NC) II; National
Certificate (NC) III and National Certificate (NC) IV. It leads to a
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more efficient and effective management of the TVET sector.
In order to ensure and monitor adherence to prescribed standards,
compliance audits are being done regularly by the field offices.
There were 19,706 registered TVET Programs as of September
2010.
A component of UTPRAS is voluntary accreditation, which refers
to the process of assessing and upgrading the quality of TVET
programs through self-evaluation and external assessment by a
TESDA-recognized accrediting body. The system provides multi-level
accreditation status, public recognition, and conferment that a TVET
program meets the standards set beyond the minimum requirements
of program registration.
TESDA has recognized the Asia Pacific Accreditation and
Certification Commission (APACC) as one of the accrediting bodies
for TVET. The APACC is a regional accreditation and certification
body established by Colombo Plan member governments which
recognize the need to cope with the rapid changes in the labor market
and skills taught in technical and vocational education and training
(TVET) institutions. The 7 APACC Accreditation Criteria used in
the process include:
∙ Governance and Management;
∙ Teaching and Learning;
∙ Faculty and Staff;
∙ Research and Development;
∙ Extension, Consultancy, and Linkages;
∙ Resources, Financial Resources, Physical Plant and Facilities,
PHILIPPINES 443
Library, Workshops/Laboratories Information Technology; and
∙ Student Services.
The implementation of program accreditation through APACC is
initially focused on the 126 TESDA technology institutions (TTIs).
As of 2009, there were three (3) TTIs that have been accredited as
silver by APACC, and eight (8) were given Bronze Level accreditation.
4.3 Assessment and Certification
Assessment and certification ensures that the TVET graduates and
skilled workers have the necessary competence to perform the tasks
consistent with the required standards in the workplace. As a matter
of policy, TESDA requires mandatory assessment for graduation in
qualifications covered by a promulgated training regulation.
The assessment process is done to confirm that the graduate or
worker can perform to the standard expected in the work place,
based on the defined competency standards. Certification is provided
to those who meet the standards. This ensures the productivity,
quality, and global competitiveness of the middle-level workers. The
national certificate (NC) issued to the worker/graduate is renewable
every 5 years.
TESDA has a registry of certified workers which provides
information on the pool of certified workers for certain occupations
nationwide. TESDA also has accredited assessment centers, as well
as competency assessors, who conduct competency assessment
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processes for persons applying for certification.
TESDA is one of the only two (2) government agencies that have
licensing/certification mandate. The Professional Regulation Commission
(PRC) is for the professionals, while TESDA is for skilled workers/
middle-level manpower.
The assessment and certification performance for the past 5 years
showed an upward trend, signifying an increasing number of
competent and skilled workers who are job-ready and meet the
standards of industry. This also reflects the response of TVET
institutions in meeting quality and competency standards defined in
the training regulations.
The number of persons assessed has risen considerably, from
223,984 in 2005, to 836,131 in 2009, or an increase of more than
270%, from the 2005 level. The number of persons certified
increased from 108,361 in 2005, to 690,836 in 2009, or an increase
of more than 500%. The certification rates also increased over time
from 48.3% in 2005, to 82.6% in 2009.
Section 3. GOVERNANCE OF THE TVET SYSTEM
1. Institutional Framework
1.1 The Creation of TESDA
The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) was created through the enactment of Republic Act No.
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7796, otherwise known as the “Technical Education and Skills
Development Act of 1994”. It was signed by President Fidel V.
Ramos on August 25, 1994.
Under TESDA, the functions of the National Manpower and Youth
Council (NMYC); the Bureau of Technical Vocational Education
(BTVE) of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports
(DECS); and the apprenticeship program of the Department of Labor
and Employment (DOLE) were integrated. The creation of TESDA
was initiated by virtue of the findings of the Congressional
Commission on Education (EDCOM) way back in 1991. The
EDCOM was tasked to review and assess the Philippine education
and manpower training system. The major finding of the EDCOM
is that the quality of education is continuously deteriorating, as
indicated by the following:
∙ Elementary and high-schools are failing to teach the competence
the average citizen needs to become responsible, productive, and
self-fulfilling;
∙ College and technical vocational education are not producing the
manpower needed to develop the economy; and
∙ Graduate education is mediocre and does not generate the
research-based knowledge needed to create more jobs and raise
the value of production.
The EDCOM concluded that the education and manpower training
system is deteriorating because of the following reasons:
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∙ The government is not adequately investing in the education
system; and
∙ The education system is poorly managed.
1.2 Mandate and Objectives
Mandate
TESDA is mandated by law, “to provide relevant, accessible, high
quality and efficient technical education and skills development in
support of the development of high quality Filipino middle-level
manpower responsive to and in accordance with Philippine
development goals and priorities. It shall encourage active
participation of various concerned sectors, particularly private
enterprises, being direct participants in and immediate beneficiaries
of trained and skilled workforce, in providing technical education
and skills development opportunities”. (Sec. 2 R.A. 7796).
Objectives
TESDA is tasked to meet the following goals and objectives:
∙ Promote and strengthen the quality of technical education and
skills development programs to attain international competitiveness;
∙ Focus technical education and skills development on meeting
the changing demands for quality manpower;
∙ Encourage critical and creative thinking by disseminating the
scientific and technical knowledge base of the middle-level
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manpower development programs;
∙ Recognize and encourage the complementary roles of public and
private institutions in technical education and skills development
and training systems; and
∙ Inculcate desirable values through the development of moral
character with emphasis on work ethics, self-discipline, self-reliance
and nationalism.
1.3 Vision, Mission and Value Statement
The vision, mission, and value statement of TESDA express its
highest aspirations and reasons for being and serve as the unifying
framework for all its activities.
Vision - TESDA is the leading partner in the development of the
Filipino workforce with world class competence and positive work
values.
Mission - TESDA provides directions, policies, programs, and
standards towards quality technical education and skills development.
Value Statement - TESDA believes in demonstrated competence,
institutional integrity, personal commitment, and a deep sense of
nationalism.
Quality Policy - We measure our worth by the satisfaction of the
customers we serve through: Strategic decisions, Effectiveness,
Responsiveness, Value Adding, Integrity, Citizen Focus, and Efficiency.
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1.4 The Straddling Role of TESDA
TESDA’s socio-economic objectives and the multiplicity of its
mandates and responsibilities, requires it to straddle three essential
roles: education and training, employment, and poverty alleviation.
As an education and training agency, its objectives call for the
development of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will
empower the Filipino workers to harness their potential and become
creative citizens.
As an agency contributing to employment, it provides the
necessary competencies to make the person employable and
economically productive.
Both the education and training and employment objectives of
TESDA and TVET ultimately, contribute to poverty alleviation.
1.5 Organizational Structure
TESDA is composed of both the Board and the Secretariat.
Together, they constitute TESDA as an authority.
The TESDA Board
The TESDA Board is the highest policy-making body, and it also
represents the public-private partnership that works together for the
benefit of its constituents. Its composition includes the key
stakeholders of the whole TESD sector. As the Authority’s highest
policy-making body, the composition of the TESDA Board reflects
the public-private partnership that operates in the technical vocational
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and education (TVET) system.
The Board has twenty-two (22) members, with the majority (14)
coming from the private sector, consisting of 4 employers groups;
2 from investors groups; 6 labor groups;, 2 from associations of
TVET institutions; and the remaining 8 from the government sector.
The Secretary of the Department of Labor is the chair of the TESDA
Board. Sitting as co-chairs are the Secretaries of Trade and Industry
and Education.
Powers and Functions
Under Sec. 8 of RA No. 7796, the TESDA Board shall be
primarily responsible for the formulation of continuing, coordinated,
and fully integrated technical education and skills development
policies, plans, and programs.
The TESDA Board has the following powers:
a) Approve and promulgate, after due consultation with industry
groups, trade associations, associations of technical-vocational
schools, employers and workers, the National Technical
Education and Skills Development Plan for middle-level
manpower and the policies, programs and guidelines as may
be necessary for the effective implementation of the plan and
of the Act.
b) Organize and constitute various standing committees, subsidiary
groups, or technical and working groups for efficient integration,
coordination, and monitoring of technical education and skills
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development programs at the national, regional, and local
levels;
c) Enter into, make, execute, perform, and carry out domestic and
foreign contracts subject to existing laws, rules, and regulations;
d) Restructure the entire sub-sector, consisting of all institutions
and programs involved in the promotion and development of
middle-level manpower through upgrading, merger, and/or
phase out, following a user-led strategy;
e) Approve trade skills standards and trade tests, as established
and conducted by private industries;
f) Establish and administer a system of accreditation of both
public and private institutions;
g) Establish, develop, and support trainor’s training and/or programs;
h) Lend support and encourage increasing utilization of the dual
training system, as provided for by Republic Act No. 7686;
i) Extract reasonable fees and charges for such tests and trainings
conducted, and retain such earnings for the use of the TESDA,
subject to guidelines promulgated by the TESDA Board;
j) Allocate resources, based on the TESDA Secretariat’s
recommendations, for the programs and projects it shall
undertake pursuant to an approved national technical education
and skills development plan;
k) Determine and approve systematic funding schemes, such as
the levy-and-grant scheme for technical education and skills
development purposes;
l) Create, when deemed necessary, an advisory committee which
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shall approve expert and technical advice to the board to be
chosen from the academe and the private sector: Provided, that
in case the advisory committee is created, the board is hereby
authorized to set aside a portion of its appropriation for its
operation;
m) Create such offices, as it may deem necessary, to carry out
objectives, policies, and functions of the TESDA;
n) Review and approve annual and other reports to the President
on technical education and skills development;
o) Manage and administer the TESDA Development Fund and
formulate its implementing guidelines; and
p) Perform such other duties and functions necessary to carry out
the provisions of the Act.
The TESDA Secretariat
The TESDA Secretariat is the development and implementing arm
of the Authority. At present, TESDA’s organizational structure is
largely based on the proposed Rationalization Plan (per E.O 366)
approved by the TESDA Board in 2005 which rationalized the
structure by the creation of additional units to address more
efficiently and effectively the needs of the TVET sector.
Functions and Responsibilities
The TESDA Secretariat is mandated to have the following
functions and responsibilities:
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a) To establish and maintain a planning process and formulate a
national technical education and skills development plan in
which the member-agencies and other concerned entities of the
Authority at various levels participate;
b) To provide analytical inputs to policy decision-making of the
Authority on allocation of resources and institutional roles and
responsibilities, as shall be embodied in annual agencies
technical education and skills development plans, in accordance
with the manpower plan for middle-level skilled worker as
approved by the Authority;
c) To recommend measures, and implement the same upon
approval by the Authority, for the effective and efficient
implementation of the national technical education and skills
development plan;
d) To propose to the Authority the specific allocation of resources
for the programs and projects it shall undertake, pursuant to
the approved national technical education and skills development
plan;
e) To submit to the Authority periodic reports on the progress and
accomplishment of work programs for the implementation of
plans and policies on technical education and skills development;
f) To prepare for approval by the Authority an annual report to
the President on technical education and skills development;
g) To implement and administer the apprenticeship program, as
provided for in Section 18 of this Act;
h) To prepare and implement upon approval by the Authority a
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program for the training of trainers, supervisors, planners, and
managers, as provided for in Section 23 of this Act;
i) To enter into agreement to implement approved plans and
programs and perform activities as shall implement the declared
policy of this Act; and
j) To perform such other functions and duties as may be assigned
by the Board.
The TESDA Secretariat is headed by the Director General who
exercises general supervision and control over TESDA’s technical
and administrative personnel.
The Technical Education and Skills Development Committee
As mandated by the law, TESDA established the Technical
Education and Skills Development Committees (TESDCs) at the
regional and local levels to coordinate and monitor the delivery of
all skills development activities by the public and private sectors.
The TESDCs perform their functions based on the principle of
subsidiary. They have full authority and power to address and act
on TVET issues and concerns specific to their area of responsibility,
provided that their actions are within the bounds of the general
guidelines promulgated by the TESDA Board or other relevant
bodies. The TESDCs do not exercise powers vested solely to the
TESDA Board unless provided with appropriate authority by the
TESDA Board.
Consistent with the principle of subsidiary, the TESDCs primarily
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support and attend to the core business of TESDA on direction
setting, quality assurance, support to TVET provision, and institutional
capacity building. They ensure policy coherence, particularly at the
sub-national level.
To date, there are 17 regional TESDCs; 86 provincial TESDCs
; and 3 city TESDCs established nationwide.
2. National Development and TVET Policy6)
TESDA is mandated to formulate the National Technical Education
and Skills Development Plan (NTESDP) which serves as a roadmap
towards improving the quality of training and the development of
the Filipino workforce to enhance their competitiveness and chances
of success in the global market. The NTESDP is anchored to the
Medium Term Philippine Development Plan. Together with the
NTESDP, regional and provincial TESDP plans are formulated and
implemented at the sub-national level.
The NTESDP serves as the plan for technical education and skills
development for the entire country. It became the basis for resource
allocation decisions within the middle level skills development
sub-sector.
Guided by the government’s 10-point Agenda and the MTPDP
2004-2010, the Second Cycle NTESDP 2005-2009 responds to the
national development objectives in terms of generating 6-10 million
6) Taken from the National Technical Education and Skills Development Plan 2004-2010, the new framework is still ongoing
PHILIPPINES 455
jobs until 2010, especially in the agriculture and fisheries sector.
These national development objectives are:
Decent and Productive Employment. This means that productive
employment is available, from which is derived adequate income for
all at work. Sufficient productive employment is available, and
workers have full access to income earning opportunities. Essential
to decent employment is a continuous enhancement of competencies
through building up of capabilities for skills training on global
competitiveness and positive work ethic to make them more
productive, under conditions of freedom, equity, security, and respect
for fundamental rights at work. Industry and employees shall support
this process by pursuing their institutional human resources
development programs for their workers.
Quality TVET Provision. Standards on systems, processes, and
procedures among TVET providers will be applied accordingly to
ensure quality graduates/workforce.
Supply Matches Demand. It is recognized that economic growth
triggers socio-economic improvements. However, the provision of
training programs will be guided by adequate and timely labor
market information, both in terms of quantity and quality set by
industries, especially in critical occupations and in areas where there
are high demand.
2.1 Strategic Framework
The plan operates within the context of the PSALM approach to
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TVET planning: Policy-oriented; Sector-focused; Area-based and
Labor Market-driven. It considers development imperatives; labor
market conditions, both local and overseas; and TVET interventions.
Development Imperatives. These are social development concerns
lined up by the national government, particularly for the special or
socially excluded sectors of society, such as the poor, differently-
abled persons, out-of-school youths, and unemployed.
Labor Market Conditions. These cover area and industry
requirements, both local and overseas, gathered and disseminated
with the assistance of the private sector.
TVET Interventions. These are policies, programs, and standards
developed through a process of participation among stakeholders and
partners, and carried out through established networks of
participative public and private TVET providers.
TVET for Social Integration. Based on the universal principle of
social inclusion, this puts people, particularly those who are socially
excluded, in the mainstream of development, not only as
beneficiaries, but also as active participants in the development
process. It also addresses the provision of a wide range of economic
and social options among poor and other needy Filipinos.
TVET for Rural Development. This mainstreams the countryside
in national development by addressing the skills requirements of
economic activities in the rural areas, especially in pursuing
technology-based and greater value-adding agriculture and fishery
development.
TVET for Global Competitiveness. This addresses the skills
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required by export-oriented activities, catalytic industries, industries
undergoing economic adjustments, support industries, and overseas
industries vis-à-vis acceptable global standards, in providing human
resources capable of delivering quality products and services.
2.2 Three key result areas have been identified:
Improved Access and Equity in TVET. This describes the state
where opportunities are available and affordable for all clients that
include, but are not limited to special clientele groups, like women,
differently-abled persons, and indigenous people, among others.
Relevant, timely information on training opportunities will be made
available for prospective beneficiaries.
Improved Assessment and Certification. There is an increased
number of TVET graduates with verified/validated competence to
perform a particular skill according to quality standards defined by
industry. Also, the registry of certified TVET graduates is readily
available to prospective employers, both for local and overseas
employment.
Enhanced Employability of TVET Graduates. This is the environment
where TVET graduates have improved access to employment
opportunities, both here and abroad. Graduates will also have
improved prospects for entrepreneurial and self-employment endeavors.
2.3 Objectives of the Plan
With this framework and the overall vision to generate a globally
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competent Filipino workforce, the plan has three key objectives:
1. TVET shall help in ensuring that priority sectors are assured
of their critical skills requirements;
2. TVET shall help in poverty alleviation, by giving equitable
TVET opportunities for the poor, deserving, and qualified
clients in filling up gaps in critical skills; and
3. TVET shall help communities achieve self-sufficiency in skills
and bridge them to the local and overseas labor markets.
3. Assessment of TVET Policy7)
Improved access and equity in TVET (Efficiency)
Despite limited public resources, TVET grew at a moderate pace,
with the private sector contributing heavily, specially through school-
and center-based delivery.
Private institutions account for about 70 percent of total enrolment
in formal TVET financed almost exclusively by tuition fees and
endowment income, with minimal government subsidy.
Over the years, TVET enrollment and graduates continued to
increase, due to the expanded provision of TVET opportunities and
the availability of additional scholarships given by the government.
7) Taken from the Impact Evaluation Studies 2008 and the National Technical Education and Skills Development Plan 2004-2010 and the TVET Statistics…
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Increased private and local government units’ (LGUs) investments
and accountability in TVET
TESDA has capitalized on its partnership with the LGUs through
the TESDA initiative project “Invigorating Constituents Assistance
in Reinforcing Employment (I-CARE). I-CARE is a counterparting
funding arrangement between TESDA and the legislators through
their priority development assistance funds, the local government
units, and other non-government organizations.
A number of scholarship programs were implemented, resulting
in a notable increase of scholarship slots available for deserving
TVET clients. Beneficiaries of scholarship programs, specifically the
Training for Work Scholarship Program (TWSP) which started in
mid 2006, totaled 1,265,864 for the period 2006-2009.
TESDA has also embarked on partnership arrangements and
linkages. Full participation and mobilization of the industry, labor,
and LGUs were maximized in the development of TVET systems
and standards; policies and plans; advancement of TVET agenda;
implementation of TVET programs and scholarships; and
co-management partnership for shared responsibilities.
Improved assessment and certification (Effectiveness)
The number of takers of competency assessment showed an
increasing trend. This increase can be attributed to the mandatory
assessment policy as pronounced by the TESDA Board. This can also
be due to the free assessment service of TESDA (FAST). Improvements
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in certification rates are also observed over the years which could be
an indication also of the quality of TVET provision. The installation
of a quality assurance system from standards development, to program
registration, and up to assessment and certification, also contributed
significantly to improvements in TVET performance.
Improved employability of TVET graduates (relevance, effectiveness,
and social impact)
To measure the possible impact of TVET programs for its
graduates, Impact Evaluation Studies of TVET programs are
regularly conducted. They aim to measure the TVET graduates’
employability, relevance, and effectiveness of training, among other
criteria.
The relevance and responsiveness of TVET interventions, as
measured in terms of the labor market performance of graduates, has
reached decent levels when gauged against the average employment
rates of the youth age group in the labor market. Based on the July
2010 labor force survey, youth (age 15-24) employment rate is
registered at 47.6%. This indicates high unemployment among the
youth, which is placed at 52.4%.
Based on the 2008 Impact Evaluation Study (IES) commissioned
by TESDA, the employment rate (as a percentage of the labor force)
of TVET graduates was 55.1 percent, which is lesser than the 2005
IES figure of 64.6 percent. The decline can be attributed to factors
like: the effects of the global financial crisis, which slowed down
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economic activities and resulted to job losses; skills mismatch
between the requirements of the available jobs and the skills
possessed by workers; and geographical mismatch between locations
of job openings and job seekers, among others.
Section 4. Financing TVET
TVET financing largely comes from the government. The TVET
share of the total education budget from the General Appropriations
Act (GAA) averaged 2.6% in 2005-2009. Basic education, through
DepEd, has the highest share at 84.7%, while higher education,
composed of CHED and SUC budgets, accounted for 12.7% of the
total education budget. The total budget for TVET for the last five
years fluctuated, from PhP 1.70B in 2005, to PhP 3.48B in 2009
(GAA Regular Operations).
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[Figure 1-3] Average Annual Education Budget, 2005-2009
TESDA had been a recipient of foreign assisted projects (FAPs)
from 2005 to 2009 which were all aimed at addressing the relevance,
quality, and equity improvement of the delivery of TVET programs.
<Table 1-24> TESDA Foreign Assisted Projects (‘000 pesos): 2005-2009Foreign Assisted Projects 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
TOTAL 685,766 633,766 633,766 271,000 249,177ADB-TESDP 504,202 578,766 466,167 102,656 Expansion of Dual Education
and Training Project (EDETP) 127,064Center of Excellence in Modern Manufacturing Technologies (CEMMT) 2,500 55,000 167,599 168,344 249,177Korea-Philippines Training Centers (IT and Agriculture) 55,000
With funding assistance from various sources, including the
foreign assisted programs (FAPs), support for TVET increased
tremendously from 2006-2009. The Training for Work Scholarship
(TWSP), which was launched in 2006, increased substantially the
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total financial resources of TESDA by PhP 8.07 billion for the 2006
to 2009 period.
TESDA also capitalized on its partnership with the local government
units (LGUs) through I-CARE. A total of PhP 897 M in additional
TVET financing was generated out of the PDAF of the Senators and
Congressmen from 2005 to 2009.
However, the study, “Investment in TVET in the Philippines”,
conducted by the UNESCO11 in 2003 indicates the following
findings:
With 53.5%, the private sector contributes more than the government
in funding TVET in the Philippines. In the private sector, according
to the study:
∙ Trainees contribute 26.8% through tuition fees;
∙ Companies fund apprenticeship and learnership programs with
15.6%; and
∙ NGOs, with 6.8%.
Also, the UNESCO study8) identified three main market sectors
by funding mode:
∙ A regulated sector, in which access to government funds is
limited to public (primarily TESDA) institutions, and in which
resource allocation and training delivery are subject to relatively
high levels of government planning and regulations;
8) David Atchoaréna, et al.,Investment in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in the Philippine (International Institute for Educational Planning, 2008), 11
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∙ A partially regulated or quasi-market sector, in which public
funds are allocated to public and private providers via regulated
processes, such as funding submissions. These funding programs
are subject to partial government regulation (provider and
program registration) and coordinated at the local level, in
particular community-based programs.
∙ An open-market or commercial sector, in which trainees directly
purchase training programs from providers under free market
conditions, providers being in direct competition for clients and
resources and delivering training relatively free from
government regulation.
Section 5. Internationalization of TVET
1. Impact on TVET Policy
1.1 Impact on TVET: FTA and DOHA Agreement
At present, the Philippines has not made any commitment on the
TVET sector in any international or free trade agreements, such as
the GATS-WTO or ASEAN. There are constitutional provisions/
limitations and other laws and regulations that have to be observed
by the foreign TVET providers intending to enter into the Philippine
market.
In this respect, there has been no significant impact yet on TVET
as expected to be brought about by free trade and DOHA agreements.
PHILIPPINES 465
Nevertheless, the opening up of markets to global competition,
such as the free trade agreements and DOHA agreements, has put
pressures on TVET to meet the changing requirements of industry
for highly skilled and qualified workers.
1.2 Labor Market Change: Migration and International Providers
The Philippines has to take into account the significantly large and
continuously growing population of overseas workers. The government
is under tremendous pressure to address the growing scarcity of skills
needed by domestic industries, as more and more workers leave the
country and avail themselves of opportunities abroad. The government,
at the same time, is under pressure to provide training and other
services that will enable these workers to qualify for better paying
foreign jobs that will them to more easily assimilate into foreign
countries. The prospect of earning much higher incomes from skilled
work abroad has lead to a significant increase in the demand for
education and training in the country.
Raising the quality of TVET graduates to meet international
standards has become necessary. This is important to gain
recognition of the competencies possessed by the workers in their
countries of destination.
1.3 Technology: ICT and E-learning
Information and communications technology (ICT), including the
development of new broadband communication services and the
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convergence of telecommunication with computers, offers opportunities
for TVET to expand its capacity and enhance the learning process.
In the Philippines, there are already initiatives to maximize the use
of ICT in TVET. TESDA has established an e-portal which is
envisioned to eventually provide viable technical learning online, as
well as blended learning. This is expected to broaden the reach and
capacity of the TVET system, thereby expanding access to training
opportunities, including those persons who are difficult to reach.
2. International Cooperation: Bilateral, Multilateral, and
International Organization
As indicated in the discussion under Financing TVET, the
Philippines has been supported by donors under bilateral and
multilateral arrangements. Other than the loans from the Asian
Development Bank and the KfW, TESDA is also a recipient of
various grants on TVET from the Australian government, through
AusAid; the German government, through GTZ; the Korean
government, through KOICA; and the Japanese government, through
JICA. International organizations, such as the ILO and other UN
organizations, have also provided support to TVET in the Philippines.
The assistance is wide-ranging and comes in the form of financing;
facilities and equipment; learning materials; provision of technical
experts / consultants who assist in policy development; and standards
and systems development, among others.
TESDA also actively participates in international fora, such as the
PHILIPPINES 467
ASEAN and APEC. In all these fora, key policy positions being
advocated include the use of competency-based systems in education
and training; job-focused skills development; and seamless and
borderless development of an education system that establishes
bridges and pathways in all the education ladders, among others.
TVET is being advocated as a strategic and viable option for
developing human resources.
Efforts are also being worked out by the Philippines for mutually
beneficial arrangements with labor-receiving countries where
bilateral arrangements on technical cooperation are available to allow
the assessment of workers based on the host country’s qualification
standards. This allows for comparability and benchmarking of the
country’s standards against the standards of the host countries
3. Internationalization of TVET
The Philippines maintains its position not yet to liberalize the
post-secondary education or TVET. Foreign nationals intending to
establish TVET schools in the Philippines must comply with the
Philippine Constitutional provision of 60-40 equity. However, as
provided in the Philippine Constitution, the management of
institutions is solely by Filipino citizens. In addition, compliance
with the domestic laws and regulations, relative to TVET establishments,
has to be addressed. This includes meeting the minimum set of
standards set by TESDA for registration TVET programs in terms
of curriculum, facilities and equipment, and trainer qualification.
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To date, there are some TVET institutions in the Philippines that
have existing partnership arrangements with foreign institutions, or
with investments from foreign nationals. Their partnerships are in
course/skills offerings which are highly in-demand, like tourism
(hotels and restaurants), ICT, and languages.
Section 6. NEW AGENDA AND PLANS FOR THEFUTURE
1. Expanding Access and Equity to TVET Opportunities
TVET is recognized as a poverty alleviation tool. It serves as the
common man’s ticket to upward social and economic mobility.
TVET must be made accessible and available to the broad range of
clientele, particularly the poor and the marginalized sectors.
TVET aims to reach the grassroots and empower those already
reached. TVET will assure quality training and lifelong education
to develop and enable all TVET learners with job opportunities
through employability enhancement and provision of technical skills.
Modular progression in training design is applied in TVET for
quality short-term courses resulting in National Certifications (NC
I, II, III, IV) that can be easily attained at the grassroots level by
the TVET clients — eventually opening opportunities for employment.
Scholarships, student financial assistance and free training in public
TVET institutions serve as the mechanisms to expand access and
PHILIPPINES 469
equity to TVET opportunities. Sustainable and adequate TVET
financing is therefore crucial to realize this objective.
Alternative modes of delivery in TVET, such as on-line and
blended learning, facilitated by ICT can also help expand access to
TVET opportunities.
2. Ensuring Sustainable and Adequate Financing for TVET
and Funding the TESDA Development Fund
Quality TVET provision, by nature, is expensive, considering the
cost of training equipment, tools, facilities, and supplies and
materials and the need for highly competent trainers. To be effective,
there is a need for adequate and sustainable TVET financing.
TESDA’s proposals on TVET Financing are as follows:
∙ Funding the TESDA Development Fund
Despite the provision in the TESDA Law, the TESDA
Development Fund (TDF) remains unfunded in terms of the
one-time lump sum appropriation from the national government
and contributions from the OWWA.
The TDF should have been an additional sustainable source of
TVET financing to award grants and provide assistance to
training institutions, industries, and local government units for
improving the quality, relevance, efficiency, and effectiveness
of TVET provision.
At present TVET financing, particularly, scholarships, comes
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mainly from the General Appropriations Act (GAA) and in the
past, from the Contingency Fund of the Office of the President.
There might be a need for legislation to identify other sources
of funds for the TDF to make it fully operational. Options
include:
∙ Increasing budgetary allocation in the GAA for education,
including TVET;
∙ Increasing allocation for PESFA – TVET under the
GASTPE; and
∙ Maintaining the budget allocation for training for work
scholarship program (TWSP).
3. Strengthening Industry-TVET Linkage, including
Enterprise-based Training
The involvement of industry/employers is essential to link training
supply with demand. Being the end-user of skilled manpower,
industry is in the best position to determine what type of skills and
competencies have to be developed. Its involvement in the
development of competency standards and in the design of
curriculum has to be strengthened and sustained.
More importantly, given the fact that skills are better learned in
the workplace, enterprise-based training, such as apprenticeship, dual
training, on-the-job training, and other related schemes need to be
intensified and realigned to suit industry requirements.
To fully harness the participation of industry / employers in the
PHILIPPINES 471
delivery of skills training, TESDA proposes the passage of the
Enterprise-Based Training Bill. This bill aims to strengthen
enterprise-based training by consolidating the apprenticeship/learnership,
dual training, on-the-job training, and all other industry-based
training arrangements into one (1) rationalized system of enterprise-
based training.
TESDA is also making efforts to revive/organize industry boards
or associations to increase participation of the industry and
employers in TVET.
These initiatives will help improve industry-academe linkage and
address the perennial problem of skills and jobs mismatch.
Participation of Industry in TVET
To facilitate sustainable systems of quality TVET programs, the
involvement of the private sector is necessary. With its scarce
resources, there are limits in what the government can offer in terms
of skills formation. The delivery of TVET programs is a very costly
undertaking, especially with the vast capital outlay for facilities,
tools, and equipment. The private sector needs to do their share in
skills formation by bearing some of the costs of skills formation.
The cooperation of the private sector for much needed help and
contribution can be done through sharing of expertise and training
resources.
Contributions in cash or in kind, like the use of their facilities in
training, can be shared by the private sector.
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Government needs to provide the policy environment and
mechanisms to encourage industry participation in TVET. The
provision of incentives to industry/enterprises, which should have
been funded under the TDF, is one mechanism to encourage industry
participation.
4. Institutionalizing the Philippine National Qualifications
Framework and a System of Skills /Qualification
Progression /Career Shifts and Lifelong Learning
The Philippine National Qualifications Framework was developed
and approved in principle by the three (3) education agencies in 2005
through the National Coordinating Council on Education (NCCE).
It has also been presented to the Presidential Task Force on
Education (PTFE).
The PNQF has been developed to establish a coherent national and
internationally benchmarked structure for all qualifications awarded
in the Philippines.
The PNQF unifies the three sectors of the Philippine education
system (Elementary, Secondary, and Tertiary which covers both
higher education and post-secondary TVET). It is a national system
covering all levels of formal and non-formal education qualifications,
from the pre-school levels to doctoral degrees. All qualifications
listed in the PNQF are quality assured so that there may be
confidence not only in their academic standards and vocational
relevance, but also in the quality of teaching, assessment, and the
PHILIPPINES 473
awarding of credentials.
The PNQF promotes lifelong learning, building flexible pathways,
with a variety of learning entry and exit points and access ramps
across levels of education; it also facilitates the international
recognition of qualifications and labor mobility.
The development of national qualifications framework is deemed
critical in the light of international developments, such as the
Bologna Process, the Washington Accord, and other agreements that
deal with comparability, benchmarking and recognition of academic
degrees, professions, and skills qualifications which the Philippines
is now pursuing.
The Training Regulations are aligned with the TVET component
of the PNQF.
The enhancement and formal adoption of the PNQF by the
education agencies is deemed critical for a seamless and flexible
education system.
Promoting TVET as a Viable Career
Career in TVET is viewed as a dead-end with limited options for
qualification progression. This image contributed to the traditional
bias against TVET as inferior to college education.
Deliberate social marketing efforts and strong career guidance to
improve awareness and appreciation of TVET, including “blue-collar”
occupations, should be made. Advocacy should be made to all
sectors, particularly the students, parents, and the industry.
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Recognition of Prior Learning and Career Progression
TVET provision should also be part of continuing education within
the framework of lifelong learning to expand the opportunities of
the graduates and the skilled workers, allowing them to move up
in career ladders. Broad provision should be made for enabling all
persons, whatever their prior qualifications, to continue their
education by facilitating seamless educational pathways through
articulation, accreditation, and recognition of all prior learning and
relevant work experience.
TVET should develop close interfaces with all other education
sectors to facilitate seamless pathways for learners, with an emphasis
on articulation, accreditation, and recognition of prior learning.
5. Improving Labor Market Information and Addressing
the Labor Supply and Demand Gaps and Matching
Problems
Strong labor market intelligence and a functional labor market
information system are critical to address the jobs and skills
mismatch. This means ensuring the availability and accessibility of
the relevant labor market information, anytime, anywhere to the
industry, students, parents, educational institutions, and other
stakeholders.
The industry/employers play a very crucial role in making this a
reality, since they provide the information on jobs and skills in
demand. TVET is directed towards employment, and the availability
PHILIPPINES 475
of timely and relevant information on where and what the jobs are
will contribute significantly in making TVET provision more relevant,
thereby enhancing the employment chances of the graduates.
The DOLE’s PhilJob Net, and the Public Employment Service
Offices (PESOs), as well as other public and private job boards, are
essential elements of the country’s labor market information system.
TESDA’s efforts to address the job-skills mismatch, other than
directing training to available jobs, include the Job Bridging and
Referral program. This program is aimed at shortening the job search
period and assisting the TVET graduates, particularly the TVET
scholars, in finding immediate employment. It is implemented
through the establishment of “blue desks” in all TESDA regional and
provincial/district offices; TTIs and private TVIs; and jobs’ bridging
events all over the country. The “blue desks” served as one-stop
centers for TESDA information and services to include, but not be
limited to job referral and placement assistance services, career
profiling, and coaching.
6. Continuing Quality Improvement in TVET Provision
TVET needs to continuously adjust and adapt to technological
changes and advancement. Training inputs, such as curriculum,
facilities, equipment, tools, equipment, and materials, need to be
regularly upgraded. TESDA ensures that program offerings of TVET
institutions comply with the minimum standards prescribed by
industry, as contained in the training regulations, through a quality
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assurance mechanism called the Unified TVET Program Registration
and Accreditation System (UTPRAS).
The TESDA policy on mandatory assessment of TVET graduates
in programs/qualifications covered by training regulations should be
fully supported and strengthened. Assessment and certification
ensures that the TVET graduates and skilled workers have the
necessary competence to perform tasks consistent with the required
standards in the workplace. Industry acceptance of certification shall
also be promoted.
7. TVET Trainers’ Development
The TVET Trainer is an important and critical element in the
delivery of quality TVET programs. More than increasing the
number of trainers, the greater challenge is ensuring their quality.
This calls for an extensive implementation of development programs
for TVET trainers, with an estimated stock of 23,000 nationwide.
In addition to qualifying the trainers, industry exposure/ immersion
is also crucial in upgrading their competence. This is an area that
will have to be addressed.
8. TVET for Sustainable Development
Education for sustainable development is a global concern, given
the issues on climate change and the need to protect the environment.
There is a need to re-orient curriculum towards sustainability,
PHILIPPINES 477
keeping the principles of the 5Rs: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Repair,
and Rethink in the subject domain. Entire teaching and learning need
to be geared up to take up these challenges. This is a new initiative
that shall have to be addressed in the Philippines
9. Preparing the Workers for the Knowledge Society
The rapid pace of innovation and technological change, especially
in the areas of information and communication technology and
biotechnology, impacts heavily on the country’s education and
training system. The lack of relevant skills, if the education and
training system is not able to respond, may be a major impediment
to the ability of a country to restructure its economy and industries;
exploit emerging opportunities; and undertake technological innovations.
The deepening of technical knowledge raises more demand for
knowledge workers with a competitive edge in performing work fit
for high-end and emerging technologies. The integration of
technological knowledge and skills in education training needs to be
emphasized to expand the life- long capabilities of a knowledge-
based worker.
The need to upscale the competencies of the current and future
workforce to meet these requirements is essential. The development
of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) which includes critical
thinking, creative thinking, innovation, and problem solving, can
augment and enhance learning outcomes in education and training.
Teaching generic soft skills is also a pre-requisite in effectively
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preparing the workforce for the world of work and to be more
flexible. Skills including cognitive, interpersonal, work values, and
adaptability are skills requirements to complement core technical
skills. “Learning to learn” is the key to survival in an era of rapid
technological change. These are the essential elements that shall have
to be addressed by TVET in the country.
PHILIPPINES 479
References
TESDA Reports and Other TVET Related Sources
1. Department of Labor (2010): Project Jobs Fit: DOLE 2020
Vision or PROJECT JOBSFIT
2. Syjuco, A.G. (2006). The Philippine TVET System. TESDA
3. The Medium Term Philippine Development Plan 2004-2009
4. Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (2010)
Report: July 2010
5. Technical Education and Skills Development Authority. (2006).
2nd Cycle National Technical Education and Skills Development
Plan 2004-2009
6. Technical Education and Skills Development Authority. (2006).
TVET Outlook
7. TVET Statistics 2005-2009
8. Valisno, M. (2009). Beat the Odds: The Philippine Main
Education Highway. Towards a Knowledge-Based Economy.
Department of Education. Philippines
Websites
1. Department of Education at www.deped.gov.ph
2. Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas at www.bsp.gov.ph
3. National Statistical Coordination Board at www.nscb.gov.ph
4. National Statistics Office at www.census.gov.ph
480 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
5. Philippine Overseas Employment Authority at www.poea.gov.ph
6. TESDA at www.tesda.gov.ph
7. The Philippine Business Registration at
http://philippinesbusinessregistration.com/foreign-owned
8. Wikepedia on Culture of the Philippines at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Philippines on Oct.
7, 2010
Philippine Laws
1. 1987 Philippine Constitution
2. Executive Order 358: Ladderized Education
3. Republic Act 7796: TESDA LAW
4. Republic Act 7722: CHED Law
5. Republic Act 7686: Dual Training System
SRI LANKA
SRI LANKA 483
Chapter 1
TVET Policies and Implementation Process of
Sri Lanka
Section 1. Political and Socio-Cultural context,
1. Government and political party system in Sri Lanka.
Politics of Sri Lanka take place within the framework of a
presidential, representative, democratic republic, whereby the President
of Sri Lanka is both head of state and head of government, and of
a multi – party system. Executive power is exercised by the
government. Legislative power is invested in both the government
and parliament. Since the beginning, the party system has been
dominated by the socialist Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the
conservative United National Party. The Judiciary is independent
of the executive branch and the legislature.
At independence in 1948, Sri Lanka, then called Ceylon, was a
commonwealth realm, with the monarch represented by the Governor
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General. The parliament was bicameral, consisting of a Senate and
a House of Representatives. In 1971 the Senate was abolished, and
the following year, Ceylon was renamed Sri Lanka, and became a
republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, with the last Governor
General becoming the first President of Sri Lanka. Under the first
republican constitution, the unicameral legislature was known as the
National State Assembly.
In 1978, a new constitution was adopted, which provided for an
executive president, and the legislature was renamed Parliament. Sri
Lanka’s two major political polities, the United National Party
(UNP) and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) embrace democratic
values, international nonalignment, and encouragement of Sri Lankan
culture. Past differences between the two on foreign and economic
policy have narrowed.
The President, directly elected for a six year term, is head of state,
head of government, and commander-in-chief of the army forces.
The election occurs under the Sri Lankan form of the preferential
vote. Responsible to Parliament for the exercise of duties under the
constitution and laws, the President may be removed from office by
a two third vote of parliament with the concurrence of the Supreme
Court. The President appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers
responsible to Parliament. The President’s deputy is the Prime
Minister, who leads the ruling party in Parliament. A parliamentary
“no-confidence vote” requires dissolution of the Cabinet and
appointment of a new one by the President.
SRI LANKA 485
Alliances and Parties Votes % SeatsDistrict National Total
United People’s Freedom Alliance. ∙ All Ceylon Muslim Congress ∙ Ceylon Workers Congress ∙ Communist Party of Sri Lanka ∙ Eelam People’s Democratic Party ∙ Jathika Hela Urumaya ∙ Lanka Sama Samaja Party ∙ Mahajana Eksatha Peramuna ∙ National Congress ∙ National Freedom Party ∙ Sri Lanka Freedom Party ∙ UP- country People’s Front
4,846,388 68.33 127 17 144
United National Front ∙ Democratic People’s Front ∙ Sri Lanka Muslin Congress ∙ United National Party
2,357,057 29.34 51 9 60
2. Legislative
The Parliament has 225 members, elected for a six year term; 196
members, elected in multi-seat constituencies; and 29 by proportional
representation. The President may summon, suspend, or end a
legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has
served for one year. Parliament reserves the power to make all laws.
The primary modification is that the party that receives the largest
number of valid votes in each constituency gains a unique “bonus
seat”.
3. Summery of the 2010 Sri Lankan Parliamentary Election
<Table 1-1> Summery of the 2010 Sri Lankan Parliamentary Election
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Alliances and Parties Votes % SeatsDistrict National Total
Tamil National Alliance ∙ Eelam People’s Revolutionary
Liberation Front ∙ Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi ∙ Tamil Ealam Liberation
Organization
233,190 2.90 13 1 14
Democratic National Alliance ∙ Janatha Wimukthi Peramuna
441,251 5.49 5 2 7
Independence List 38.947 0.48 0 0 0
Up Country People’s Front 24,670 0.31 0 0 0
Tamil Makkai Viduthalai Pulikal 20,284 0.25 0 0 0
Sinhalaye Mahasammatha Bhoomiputhra Pakshaya
12,170 0.15 0 0 0
Tamil United Liberation Front. 9,223 0.11 0 0 0
Tamil National People’s Front ∙ All Ceylon Tamil Congress
7,544 0.09 0 0 0
Democratic People’s Liberation Front 6,036 0.08 0 0 0
Sri Lanka National Front 5,313 0.07 0 0 0
Others 31,644 0.39 0 0 0
Valid Votes 8,033,717 100 196 29 225
Rejected Votes 596,972
Total Polled 8,630,689
Registered Electors 14,088,500
Turnout 61.26
Source: Department of Elections Sri Lanka.
SRI LANKA 487
4. Civil Service Structure
The country is divided into 25 Districts, each of which has a
district secretary, the GA or Government Agent, who is appointed.
Each district comprises 5-16 divisions, each with a DS or divisional
secretary, again appointed. At the village level Grama Niladhari
(Village Officers), Samurdhi Niladhari, and agriculture extension
officers work for the divisional Secretary.
5. Local Government System Provincial council structure
The centralized system of Sri Lanka which is a unitary state, failed
to satisfy the aspirations of the people, and there was growing
insistence on decentralization of administrative processes in order to
achieve rapid economic and social development of the country.
Many attempts have been made to decentralize administrative
decision–making. As early as 1955, there were proposals for
decentralization, but they were declined for political and other
reasons. There were repeated demands for decentralization, and
those demands resulted in the following attempts:
• 1973/74 District political authority system;
• 1970/80 District development councils; and
• 1987/88 Provincial council system.
In the Sri Lankan context, devolution means transferring political
and administrative decision-making authority from the central
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government to elected bodies at lower levels.
6. The Instruments of Devolution
Ⅰ. The thirteenth Amendment to the constitution (1987); and
Ⅱ. The provincial councils Act No 42 of 1987.
The thirteenth Amendment to the constitution provides for:
• The establishment of provincial councils;
• The appointment and powers of the Governor of provinces;
• Membership and tenure of provincial councils;
• The appointment and power of the Board of Ministers;
• The Legislative powers of the provincial councils;
• Alternative arrangement where there is a failure in the
administrative machinery;
• The establishment of High Courts of the province; and
• The establishment of the Finance Commission.
The Provincials councils act No. 42 of 1987 provides for:
• The membership of provincial councils;
• Meetings and conduct of business in provincial councils;
• The financial procedure of the provincial council; and
• The establishment of provincial public service.
A provincial council is not:
• A government ministry or department;
SRI LANKA 489
• A Local Authority;
• A statutory corporation or Authority; or
• A public company.
A provincial council:
• Is an autonomous body and is not under any ministry;
• Derives its authority and powers from the constitution and
acts of Parliament;
• Undertakes activities which had earlier been undertaken by
the central government ministry, Departments, corporations
and statutory Authorities.
There are nine (9) provinces in Sri Lanka. However only eight
(8) provincial councils were established because the Northern and
Eastern provinces have been temporarily merged into one in terms
of the Indo Sri Lanka Accord. They were originally established in
1988 for a period of five years and were dissolved in 1993. Fresh
elections were held after five years.
Powers Devolved to provinces:
• Executive power to the Governor; and
• Legislative power for the Provincial Council.
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7. Functions of Provincial Councils
The functions of the Government and the provincial councils are
listed in the Ninth schedule to the constitution, which comprises
three lists:
List ⅰ. - Provincial council list;
List ⅱ. - Reserved List; and
List ⅲ. - Concurrent list.
Organization of Provincial Councils:
ⅰ. The Governor;
ⅱ. The Council (Legislature);
ⅲ. The Chief Minister;
ⅳ. Four Provincial Ministers;
ⅴ. The Provincial Public Service Commission;
ⅵ. The Chief Secretary;
ⅶ. The Provincial Secretariat; and
ⅷ. The Provincial Fund.
SRI LANKA 491
Indicator Ref. Year Sri LankaMid-Year Population. Mn. 1980
19902000200620072008
14.816.318.519.920.020.2
Population Growth % 200620072008
1.10.61.0
Section 2. Population and Demographics <Table 1-2> Population
Item 1981/82 1986/87 1996/97Population by Sex and Age Groups, %
MaleFemale13 Years and Below14-18 Years 19-25 Years26-35 Years36-45 Years46-55 YearsAbove 55 Years
49.051.034.011.313.514.49.98.08.9
48.551.530.811.712.514.311.28.411.1
48.451.625.111.511.714.413.310.713.3
Literacy Rate, %MaleFemale
85.489.981.1
88.692.285.2
91.894.389.4
Educational Attainment, %No SchoolingPrimarySecondaryTertiary
15.142.929.212.8
11.841.132.115.0
8.635.235.520.7
1. Demography
<Table 1-3> Demography
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Indicator Ref. Year Sri LankaDensity of Population (Persons per Sq.Km.)Population By Age Group, %0-14 Years15-64 Years65 Years and AboveUrban Population, %Crude Birth Rate, per 1,000Crude Death Rate, per 1,000
2008
200720072007200720072007
321.9
23707
15.119.06.0
Total Fertility Rate, Birth per WomanInfant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 Live Births)Maternal Mortality Rate (per 100,000 Live Births)
200720072005
1.9
58Life Expectancy at Birth, Year 2007 74.0
Indicator Ref. Year Sri LankaGross National Product (GNP), Mn. US $ 2000
200620072008
16,29227,87832,33239,744
GNP Per Capita, US $ 2000200620072008
8811,4011,6171,968
GDP Per Capita PPP, US $ 2007 4,243
Real GDP Growth, % 2005200620072008
6.27.76.86.0
Sectoral Composition of GDP,%AgricultureIndustryServices
200820082008
15.230.654.1
2. National Accounts
<Table 1-4> National Accounts
SRI LANKA 493
Expenditure and Savings, % of GDPPrivate ConsumptionGovernment ConsumptionGross Capital FormationDomestic SavingsNational Savings
20082008200820082008
69.716.227.014.118.2
Source: Sri Lanka Socio – Economic Data – 2010Central Bank of Sri Lanka – 2010 JuneVol XXXIII
Section 3. Governance of the TVET system
1. Institutional Framework
The Technical Education and Vocational Training (TVET) sector
in Sri Lanka comprises a diverse mix of study programs offered by
the government, private sector, and non-government organizations
(NGOs) catering to a variety of target groups, including the poor.
Sri Lanka’s TVET system has evolved over a period of 117 years.
It is officially recorded that the technical education in Sri Lanka was
initiated in the year 1893. The specific event was the establishment
of the very first technical training institute by the government. From
there on the technical and vocational education and training (TVET)
sector has developed to the present state. It is now estimated that
there are more than 5000 training institutes in Sri Lanka belonging
to the government, private and non-governmental organizations.
Even today the government plays a key role in providing education
and training in the TVET sector through a number of government
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departments and other agencies. Under the present government, the
Ministry of Youth Affairs (former Ministry of Vocational and
Technical Training) has been mandated the vocational education and
technical training subject. Almost all leading public sector TVET
institutions, whose primary function is training, function under the
Ministry of Youth Affairs. In addition, many ministries and
provincial councils through the Departments and corporations under
their purview, undertake training as an associate function.
2. Government Bodies Responsible for TVET
Outlined here are the evolution mandates and functions of the key
agencies which are mainly responsible for policy formulation,
planning, and delivery of technical education and vocational training.
2.1 Central Government Level
Ministry of Youth Affairs
The main responsibility of formulating and implementing the
national policy for technical education and vocational training is
vested in the Ministry of Youth Affairs (former Ministry of
Vocational and Technical Training).
Objectives of the Ministry
▪ Promote knowledge and skills for productive employment in
the field of Technical Education and Vocational Training;
▪ Produce trained labor for productive job opportunities in the
SRI LANKA 495
industrial sector;
▪ Contribute to the national development process by way of
reducing poverty through the provision of more jobs in the
field of TVET; and
▪ Make awareness to reach the higher professional level (Degree
level) in the TVET sector.
Functions
▪ Introduce develop and implement training courses for public
and private sector training institutions which conduct technical
education and vocational training in complying with national
and international labor market requirements;
▪ Extend TVET to rural areas of the country and increase access
to this sector for women, the disabled, and poor;
▪ Promote private sector participation for the TVET sector;
▪ Implement entrepreneur development programs and promote
self employment opportunities for trained youth;
▪ Invest intensely in developing a sufficient and high quality
teaching staff which possesses pedagogical qualifications and
professional skills;
▪ Encourage stakeholders, such as industries and the corporate
sector that provide funding for TVET initiation;
▪ Work with donor agencies to support implementation of TVET
related reform programs;
▪ Develop and disseminate career and training information to
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students, graduates (job seekers), employers and, members of
the community;
▪ Maintain international relations to get technical, technological,
and financial assistance to develop the TVET sector.
2.2 Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC)
The Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, which
functions under the Ministry of Youth Affairs, is the national level
apex body responsible for policy formulation, planning, quality
assurance, coordination, and development of tertiary and vocational
education in the country. The major programs of the TVET are:
Ⅰ. Vocational Education and Training Plans (TVET);
Ⅱ. Quality Assurance;
Ⅲ. Labor Market Information System; and
Ⅳ. Systems Development;
Vocational Education and Training (VET) plans have been
prepared for selected growing industry sectors. A VET plan for a
particular industry identifies the manpower and training needs;
assesses the existing training supply; analyzes the gaps and surpluses
between the demand and supply of skills; and introduces interventions
to provide required human resources to the industry sector. These
TVET plans are regularly updated in consultation with the industry,
and the training providers are advised to be guided by the target of
the plans.
TVET’s quality assurance responsibilities are performed through
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the program of registration of institutes and accreditation of courses.
Over 1,500 training institutes have been registered with the TVEC,
and national training standards are prepared to provide the basis for
course accreditation.
The Labor Market Information system provides a series of
Labor Market Information Bulletins, which provide signals to the
training providers on trends in the job market on a regular basis.
System development is mainly through new projects and
development work for the benefit of the TVET system. The national
skill profile of Sri Lanka is the recent system development project
accomplished. The National Skill profile provides data on the
educated skill base and the output of the TVET system. This
information is valuable for prospective investors and employers.
2.3 Department of Technical Education and Training
This department has a 116 year history. It delivers formal,
institutional type training at 38 technical colleges located in major
provincial and district capitals.
The objective of this department is to produce competent and
productive man power for better livelihood through quality and
relevant occupational training to meet the challenges of changing
global socio-economic and technological goals.
Its main study areas are:
∙ Technician Studies;
∙ Craft Studies;
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∙ Business Studies; and
∙ General Studies.
Under the recent reforms, 9 colleges have been upgraded as
colleges of technology, to offer middle level technician study
programs.
2.4 Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka
The Vocational Training Authority was established in 1995 as a
statutory body, with the intention of providing vocational training
for the cut-off schools and unemployed youths. It facilitates self
employment and supplies urgently needed skills, particularly for the
informal sector through employment-oriented short courses. The
Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka consists of six (6)
national training institutes; 22 district vocational training centers; and
237 rural vocational training centers.
Functions
▪ Conduct carrier guidance and counseling programs;
▪ Conduct national trade tests;
▪ Carry out research and development programs;
▪ Facilitate the trained youth for further training and provide
employment or self-employment opportunities;
▪ Provide bank loans for the trained youths to start small scale
self-employment projects;
▪ Establish public and private sector partnership programs with
the industry; and
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▪ Liaise and establish links with International vocational training
organizations and institutions.
2.5 National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority
Formal Apprenticeship is the responsibility of the National
Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA), which was
established in 1990. The main task of the authority is to impart skills
pertaining to an occupation through industry- based apprenticeship
training. In this connection, about 3,500 government and private
sector, industrial/service organizations participate, and, in addition to
that, dual apprenticeship training (imparted at the center and in
industry) is implemented by the 3 national institutes and 54 regional
apprenticeship training centers. Apprenticeship is essentially a
contract between a learner, employer, and the government, which is
normally the regulatory body. For Sri Lanka, NAITA represents the
government. The learner agrees to be trained on the job under an
employer for a fixed period, depending on the trade or occupation.
The employer is committed to provide training and pays wages
according to the stipulated norms. In the case of NAITA, it pays
a stipend to the apprentices, not to the employers. Training
conducted in industry is supplemented by theoretical and related
instructions given on full or part time basis at an institution.
Functions:
▪ Plans, organizes, and provides vocational training;
▪ Specifies standards in relating to vocational training;
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▪ Conducts examinations and issues certificates and other awards
in relation to vocational training;
▪ Conducts National Trade Test;
▪ Conducts research and development in vocational training;
▪ Holds competitions to promote the developments of various
skills;
▪ Develops the training capacities of establishments and other
institutions which provide vocational training;
▪ Advises the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission in
regard to vocational training;
▪ Links with institutions in Sri Lanka and abroad having similar
objects and equates or validate certificates, diplomas, and
degrees in allied subjects and courses.
▪ Provides on-the-job training to trainees of other vocational
training organizations;
▪ Provides in-plant training to engineering undergraduates of the
universities;
▪ Issues National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) certificates
through recognition of prior learning (RPL) in respect of
informally skills acquired craftsman.
▪ Conducts entrepreneurship development programs and refers
trainees to grant loans.
▪ Conducts career guidance programs for school children school
leavers and other targeted groups; and
▪ Develops national competency standards for the vocational
training sector.
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2.6 University of Vocational Technology
The University of Vocational Technology (UNIVOTEC) was
established as the first ever university for the vocational education
and training sector in 2008.
Functions:
▪ Facilitates the students of vocational and technical training
sector to continue their education up to university level;
▪ Provides training on training technology for the employees of
the vocational sector and industry;
▪ Creates opportunity for middle level technicians by developing
educational programs to enter the university; and
▪ Establishes partnerships with state and private sector
organizations to develop degree level programs.
3. Regional Level
Technical education and vocational training remains a national
functions, as it has not been constitutionally devolved in provincial
councils. The training centers and technical colleges though located
in the districts and rural areas, are planned and managed by their
head offices in Colombo. However, decentralized management
arrangements have been made through the establishment of provincial/
district offices. The practice of planning and management from the
centers has hindered the orientation of training to the needs of
provinces, districts, and rural areas. Attempts are now being made
to prepare district plans based on district needs and to allocate
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human and physical resources based on such plans by the relevant
training organizations. However, much is needed to decentralize the
TVET planning and management through developing institutional
capability at the provincial /district level for training need analysis,
ordination, and evaluation .
The Department of Technical Education and Training, which has
the biggest training network in the country, is in the process of
upgrading nine (9) technical colleges as colleges of technology (COT)
on a provincial basis. Students who have completed National Vocational
Qualification level 4 courses (certificate courses) from district technical
colleges will attend to colleges of technology to follow diploma and
higher diploma courses (NVQ level5 and 6 courses). Students who
have completed NVQ level 4 courses from other districts and
regional training centers, and state training organizations (such as the
Vocational Training Authority and National Apprentice and Industrial
Training Authority) also can attend the provincial colleges of
technology to follow diploma and higher diploma courses. In addition
to this state training network, a large number of private and non
government organizations conduct training programs in district and
rural level.
4. Relationship between Government Bodies
Sri Lanka’s TVET system has evolved over a period of more than
100 years, registering rapid expansion after her independence in the
1950s and, thereafter, from 1970-1990. The expansion was largely
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driven by the concerns of the successive governments to find
solutions for unemployment in TVET, an initiative that received the
support of donors. During 1970-1990, several training agencies and
institutions were establish under different ministries.
The proliferation of TVET institutions and programs and resultant
duplication of misguided effort were much of the debate in the latter
part of 1980’s. This led to the creation of agencies such as the
Human Resource Development Council and Tertiary and Vocational
Education Commission, for planning and coordination, and the
National Institute of Technical Education of Sri Lanka (NITESL) for
specialist services, such as curriculum development and technical
teacher training.
The public sector is the largest provider of institutional training.
Public policies on education and training, employment, human
resources development, poverty alleviations, and underpinning equity
concerns have created an expanded network of training institutions
in the public sector spreading across a number of ministries. There
are two types of agencies undertaking training in the public sector.
They are:
Ⅰ. Agencies whose primary responsibility is training; and
Ⅱ. Agencies that undertake training as a subsidiary function.
4.1 Agencies Whose Primary Responsibility Is Training
Ⅰ. Sri Lanka Institute of Advanced Technical Education
(SLIATE). SLIATE has a network of 12 colleges offering
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National Diploma courses in technical and commerce subjects.
Ⅱ. Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET).
DTET manages 29 technical colleges located in the city
centers of the districts and 9 colleges of technology (COTS)
in which there is one college per province. Annually, about
16,000 youths are admitted to the technological, technical, and
craft-level courses of these colleges.
Ⅲ. Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka (VTA). The focus
of the VTA is on training for rural youths, For this purpose,
it maintains a network of 237 rural vocational training centers
(RVTC); 22 district vocational training centers (DVTC); and
6 national level training centers.
4.2 Public Sector Agencies that Undertake Training as a
Subsidiary Function
Sectoral ministries and their major departments and statutory
bodies maintain training centers mainly to provide training for new
entrants and skills upgrading for existing employees in support of
their specialized technical functions. The departments of Agriculture,
Fisheries, Posts, Health, Railways, Social Services and Cooperatives
are major examples. The National Youth Service Council also has
a network of training center that provide skills training. Provincial
departments of Industries, Textiles, etc., have small training centers
that provide skills training in their respective fields. There has been
a tendency to offer pre-employment training by these agencies, as
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well.
All the agencies where primary responsibility is training have been
instructed to follow the national TVET policy. They have been
advised to get their training curricula accredited by the Tertiary and
Vocational Education Commission.
5. National Vision and Strategic Direction of TVET.
With socio-economic development, various opportunities are
evolving in the technical and vocational sector, which seems to be
expanding in Sri Lanka. Though technical and vocational education
and training (TVET) is conceived as the industrial sector in the
present context. It is, in fact, the “service sector” that dominates the
other. For example, sectors such as agriculture, and sub sectors, like
civil, mechanical, chemical, electrical, electronics, production, mining,
materials, textile and garment, etc., are providing avenues for so
called blue color jobs, and had been dominant in TVET. But, on
the other hand, Accounting, Human Resources, Administration,
Management, Marketing, Banking, Hospitality, Health, Insurance,
Security, Trade and Commerce, Transport and Logistics, etc., could
encompass a major portion of the service sector, which is considered
white color.
Following are increased vocational opportunities in the industry
and service sectors. The tertiary education system, in particular, has
not adequately made appropriate reforms. Nor have they guided
youth in a direction which will help them set and achieve goals, or
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enabling them to acquire skills and competencies required to meet
the demands of both sectors. The national education system, which
leads to ordinary level and advanced level certificates, does not
provide competencies for youth to be employable in the TVET
sector. As such, the demand for technical and vocational training
courses is high, and as a result public, private, and NGO’s have
mushroomed in the country to cater to the demand, formally and
non formally.
Employers and employees are faced with the dilemma as to what
type of vocational training courses / or diploma they should choose
or recognize among the vast spectrum of vocational training courses
available in public, private, and NGO sectors in Sri Lanka. In the
meantime, it is also observed that the Tertiary and Vocational
Education Commission (TVEC) as an apex body of the TVET sector
under the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training, has
introduced a national vocational qualification (NVQ) framework; this
new reform seeks a unified system for TVET in the country.
The following issues have been identified and need to be
addressed in the technical and vocational sector, as set forth in the
“Ten Year Horizon Development Framework 2006-2016” of the
“Mahinda Chinthana” vision for a “New Sri Lanka”:
• Lack of focus on knowledge, skills, and attitudes to perform
a particular occupation in a rapidly changing technical
environment;
• Absence of mechanisms to ensure the quality of trainee output
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against set standards;
• Absence of trustworthy qualifications that reflect the level of
competency of the trainee against the publicly known standard;
• Internal and external inefficiencies, including duplication of
courses, outdated curricula and equipment, shortage of good
trainers, as well as in-optimal utilization of workshops,
laboratories, training, and equipment — leading to a high
dropout rate of around 20% - 25%;
• Lower social acceptance of technical and vocational education
and training and, hence, the inability to attract persons to
training courses;
• Gender imbalance in enrollment;
• Need for the diversification of providers and creation of an
enabling environment for the private sector investment;
• Inadequate coordination and linkage among public, private,
and non-government stake holders;
• Lack of sufficient awareness of the available opportunities;
• Need for sustainability through cost recovery and other
means; and
• Inadequate linkage between technical and vocational
education and general education, on the other hand, and
university education, on the other.
In resolving or finding solutions to the key issues above, a policy
framework to achieve a theme of “Skills for Life – Jobs for Skills”
has been proposed; it will provide nationally and internationally
recognized training in keeping with advancing technology that meets
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the demand of labor markets, at home and abroad. A new network
of vocational training institutes will be set up to significantly
increase student output. The priorities of this policy framework
entail.
∙ Improving the quality and relevance of programs;
∙ Improving quality and opportunities for upward career paths;
∙ Ensuring uniformity in national standards;
∙ Promoting the relevance of courses; and
∙ Increasing enrollment in technical and vocational Institutions.
Section 4. Government Policy
1. Evolution of TVET Policies
The TVET institutional framework and training policies have
evolved over the past three decades. One policy objective, however,
had remained constant: government provision of pre–employment
technical and vocational training to address the problem of high
youth unemployment. However, other policy considerations have
emerged with changes in the macroeconomic environment, including
meeting the skill needs of industrial restructuring and
competitiveness in the global economy.
The State Council in the 1940s and the Parliament after
independence have considered many proposals or expansion of
TVET systems as a measure of human resources development. In
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1961, a national committee to review technical education had been
appointed to make recommendations on the development and
management of technical education in Sri Lanka. Thereafter, TVET
has undergone fast expansion, focused on solving unemployment and
training skilled technicians for work. On the “demand” side, the
promotion of TVET began with the post-1977 pro-market reforms,
which continued through the 1980s. The 1977 policy reforms of
trade and industry and the adoption of export-led growth strategies
led to expansion of the secondary and tertiary sectors of the
economy, creating additional demand for skilled, semi-skilled, and
unskilled labor. The state TVET sector did not have the resources
or the institutional flexibility to respond, which created opportunities
for private sector providers to enter and fill this unsatisfied demand
for training. The private sector training role was explicitly
recognized as part of a larger strategy of promoting TVET for
national competitiveness within the 1989 industrialization plan of the
Ministry of Industrial Development, but, this expansion did not focus
on quality and relevance. Therefore, from 1990 an attempt has been
made to coordinate different training institutions to deliver relevant,
quality training according to the nationally agreed plan. This was
symbolized by the establishment of the Tertiary and Vocational
Education Commission (TVEC), the apex body in TVET, and the
creation of a separate ministry for TVET in 1994. The policy
statement issued by the President in January 1995 is instructive; it
stated that “despite its high levels of literacy, the Sri Lankan work
force lacks the requisite skills that are essentials for industrial
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upgrading and diversification. The numerous short-run skill
development programs and the general education system are
essentially supply-driven and therefore have a poor record of
providing industry-relevant skills. The vocational training system
will be extensively restructured so as to be demand-driven, in
cooperation with the private sector who will be the eventual
employers.” The 1995 budget speech emphasized the importance of
“consolidating the variety of dispersed and uncoordinated facilities
for vocational training and directing them to create skills which are
sorely needed by the growing economy.”
In 1995, the Ministry of Industrial Development identified three
major areas for TVET reforms;
Ⅰ. Restructuring tertiary education and vocational training, system;
Ⅱ. Setting up a skills development fund; and
Ⅲ. Reorienting public sector technical institutes to meet market
needs.
In October, 1997 a special task force was established to study
inter-ministerial barriers and to come up with policy recommendations
for TVET sector development involving both the public and private
sectors. Its findings led to major changes in the TVET sector in
terms of rationalization; recognition of vocational training as a
ministerial function; and coordination of TVET activities at the
national level.
Since 2001, a large number of policy documents have been
published highlighting the challenges facing the TVET sector;
proposing further reforms to and rationalization of public training
SRI LANKA 511
institutions; introducing competency standards and accreditation; and
offering new financial incentives and policy instruments for fostering
demand-led training.
“Vision 2010” (2001) identified three major challenges facing the
TVET sector: quantitative and qualitative mismatches in certain areas
of skills demand; external and internal inefficiencies in the sector
with duplication of courses, outdated equipment and curricula,
shortage of good trainers, and high dropout rates; and sub-optimal
use of public sector workshop and laboratories. In response to these
challenges, policies in the TVET sector should:
Ⅰ. Promote private sector – led skills training;
Ⅱ. Target youth with an entrepreneurial mind-set;
Ⅲ. Link performance and budgets and provide institutions with
increased autonomy;
Ⅳ. Foster more skilled training through a system of skill
accreditation;
Ⅴ. Provide skills to compete in global labor market; and
Ⅵ. Train to match industry’s skill needs.
“Regaining Sri Lanka“ (Sri Lankan government, 2001), noted that,
“post secondary skills training institutes suffer from a mismatch
between the training offered and the skills required in a modern,
market economy. Management deficiencies, outdated equipment and
curricular and shortage of capable trainers lead to high dropout rates
and low returns of training.” It proposed that:
Ⅰ. Performance standards for vocational training be revised along
the line of competency based training based on standards
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derived from industry, and
Ⅱ. A higher Institute of applied technology is established to lead
the vocational training process and provide a recognized
system of professional certification in the vocational trends.
The “Draft National Employment Policy” (Ministry of Employment
and Labor, 2002) recommended six major policy reforms for the
TVET sector:
Ⅰ. Training systems restructured to meet future demands.
Ⅱ. Promotion of vocational training for the informal sector;
Ⅲ. Fostering government – industry partnership in training;
Ⅳ. The government to function as a facilitator, standard setter,
and regulator of training; and
Ⅴ. Financial incentives for training targeting the corporate sector
and provision to disadvantaged groups of financial assistance
for training.
The budget speech for 2003 and 2004 elaborated on the operational
details of these recommendations, including the establishment of
Human Resource Endowment Fund (HREF) that would provide
training vouchers for unemployed youth and skills upgrading for
employees, as well as soft loans to upgrade training facilities for
providers.
The “National Policy and Action Plan for the Development of
Technical Education” (National Education Council, 2002) called for
the reorganization and upgrading of the TVET sector. Seven major
elements are to considered essential in formulating the national
policy framework for the TVET sector:
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Ⅰ. Skills laddering to facilitate upward mobility of skills acquisition;
Ⅱ. Better linkages of TVET with the school and university
systems;
Ⅲ. Private sector participation in training;
Ⅳ. Improved functions of the technical and vocational Education
commission (TVEC) as the apex body for TVET;
Ⅴ. Accreditation and quality monitoring of public and private
training institution;
Ⅵ. Nationalization of the public sector TVET system and;
Ⅶ. Setting up a degree awarding institution for TVET.
In 1995 a presidential task force was appointed to make
recommendations on the development of the TVET sector. As a
result, in 1998 then Ministry of Skill Development, Vocational and
Technical Education, established a skill development project with the
assistance of the Asian Development Bank to introduce major
reforms to the VT sector with following objectives:
• Establish a unified qualification framework based on national
occupational standards to issue VT qualifications;
• Convert certificate level VT courses into competency based
training (CBT) to facilitate issue of level I to 4 NVA
certificates;
• Establish a network of career guidance centers and a learning
resource development center with a network of learning
resource utilization centers;
• Incorporate entrepreneurship development into TVET;
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• Establish a quality assurance system in each training center
awarding NVQ certificates and leading them to accreditation;
• Develop a management Information system and labor market
Information system; and
• Develop institutional capacity to conduct research in TVET.
The Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training established
another ADB assisted project. The Technical Education Development
Project (DEDP) transitioned the NVQ framework from level 5 to level
7. In addition, actions have been taken to develop 9 technical colleges
in 9 provinces as colleges of technology to award NVQ level 5 an
6 qualification. Further, the first ever university for the TVET sector,
the University of Vocational Technology was established in 2009 to
award NVQ level 7 (degree) qualifications. According to the above
analysis, the TVET sector has evolved with the establishment of
different institutions from time to time. Due to wide diversity in
training needs in the TVET sector, different institutions have focused
on different aspects of vocational training. Legislations of TVET
institutions have listed certain policies. The presidential task force has
focused some policy issues. NVQ framework has introduced some
policies. The “Mahinda Chinthana “election manifesto of the present
government and 10 year development plan have outlined some policies.
Unfortunately the numerous and varying policies are unknown to many
stakeholders in the TVET sector, and different aspects of these policies
will not be effective in addressing the range of needs in the TVET
sector. It is, therefore, imperative to have one unified policy document
SRI LANKA 515
covering all issues relevant to the TVET sector.
2. Assessment of TVET Policies
The strategies adopted by the Sri Lankan government over the last
decade have been highly relevant to evolving needs, opportunities,
and government priorities. One distinctive theme was reducing the
gap between education/training and the needs of the labor market
by improving the quality, relevance, and efficiency of education and
training over time. The sector strategy also addressed the reduction
of disparities in access to quality education and training by the poor
and disadvantaged. The sector strategy and program has been in
harmony with government priorities on promoting equity, social
mobility, and human development. The government has been committed
to improving quality access, equity, and student competencies
throughout the country’s education system – a system that covers
general education, TVET, and institutions of advanced learning. The
focus on human capital enhancement and knowledge creation is a
cornerstone for developing the economy, reducing poverty, and
fostering social harmony; more specifically, recent programs and
propjets have been structured to meet critical needs and gaps in
programs.
Two projects in TVET implemented by the Asian Development
Bank (ADB) — the skills Development Project and the Technical
Education Development Project — have supported strategies to
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achieve the government objective of reforming this sector to increase
its external efficiency. Project components are relevant to reforming
the high incidence of male and female youth unemployment, and
meeting increased demand for skills at craft, at middle and higher
technological levels and for entrepreneurship development. They also
meet the need to establish a structure that permits an alternative
career path to higher education. Poverty reduction strategy focuses
on the need of making education and TVET responsive to market
needs and broadening access to education-supported economic
growth and social development. The sector strategy and program
aimed to reduce the gender gap in access to TVET and information
technology, and recognize that education and skills development
must be complemented by women’s access to microcredit and other
vital services. This was consistent with expanding women’s
economic opportunities to reduce poverty, and it was aligned with
the government’s policy on gender and development in support of
strategic and multifaceted solutions to redress gender disparities.
3. Effectiveness
In the TVET sector a planned set of strategies and programs
implemented through foreign funded projects has replaced ad-hoc
interventions in national policy. A sense of direction has been given
to this sector, as seen in the following summary of achievements:
Ⅰ. An institutionalized competency based training system, starting
with 45 trades, was introduced in all state training institutions
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and for the private sector, as well;
Ⅱ. More than 20 courses are being conducted in competency
based training (CBT) mode;
Ⅲ. The NVQ system comprises seven levels that established
standards from craft level, to middle level and higher level
technological course (offering a career path as an alternative
avenue to higher education, while vocational training centers
have worked toward the goal of offering courses, approved
for NVQ levels);
∙ 341 training centers (public and private) were registered and
renewed under (TVEC);
∙ 145 courses were accredited by TVEC;
∙ Opportunities have been provided for local and overseas staff
development programs;
∙ Career guidance and placement by district career guidance
units of around 20,000 persons for on-the-job training and
linkages with the job net program of the Ministry of Labor;
∙ 9 technical colleges were up graded as colleges of technology
in 9 provinces;
∙ A separate university, University of Vocational Technology
(UNIVOTEC) was established in 2006 for the TVET sector;
∙ Introduced modular based certificate, diploma and degree
level teacher training courses for trainers in the TVET sector
by the UNIVOTEC;
∙ Introduced Bachelors Degree of Education in Technology
(B.Ed.Tec) of National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) Level 7;
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∙ Developed 18 new curriculum for the B.Ed.Tec. (technology
degree) of the University;
∙ Set up 7 sector policy and training derisory councils (SPTACS)
for Construction, Plantation, Production and Mechanical,
Handicrafts, Hotel and Restaurant, Creative Arts and ICT;
∙ Implementation of quality management system in training
institutions, where 15 quality manuals have been prepared and
8 quality procedures have been reviewed by TVET;
∙ Local and foreign job opportunities were provided to the
students who have passed out from technical colleges,
providing local employment to 2,806 persons and foreign
employment to 1,246 during 2009;
∙ Provided 887 TVET course training programs to 46,007
students in technical colleges during 2009;
∙ 47 people were directed by the Sri Lanka Vocational Training
Authority (SLVTA) to foreign employment; 338 self
employment; and 4,197 to local employment during 2009;
and
∙ Autonomy was granted to two technical colleges at Kandy
(central province) and Maradana (Colombo capital) to
generate income through special mechanisms (i.e., issuance of
a ministerial order and establishment of a private guaranteed
company) to ensure sustainability.
Although significant progress has been made, equity in the
distribution of physical and human resources needs to be further
SRI LANKA 519
addressed. For instance, while there are well equipped skills
development programs in district vocational centers, some rural
vocational training centers have limited curricula, minimal staff, and
little prospect of accreditation for NVQ levels. There is a shortage
of qualified staff.
4. Efficiency
The skills development project (SDP) implemented under the
Asian Development Bank’s (ADB) loan scheme has seen steady
progress. It has achieved its targets in developing skills standards
and competency based training. Vocational training center registration
and accreditation; training of around 800 staff; and establishment of
a learning resource development center (LRDC) in Colombo and 50
learning resource utilization centers (LRUCC) for vocational training
in different districts. The project has also established a national
information center; 5 regional centers; and 59 village centers conducting
fee-levying national certificate courses and a 1 – year diploma course
in Information Technology, and 52 career guidance units. It has
organized a management Information system in 90 vocational
centers, established linkages with industry; and conducted awareness
programs to improve the social image of TVET.
Under the ADB assisted Technical Education Development
Project, almost all the programs and activities that were planned
during the project period have been successfully completed. It paved
the way for a alternative career path in technology and technical
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education by successfully implementing NVQ level 5 Diploma
programs in 6 colleges of technology from the 1st Quarter of 2009,
and it established the University of Vocational Technology. There
has been institutionalization of technical teacher education; voluntary
registration and accreditation with active peer participation for
training institutions and programs; facilitation of the Tertiary and
Vocational Education Commission (TVEC) to strengthen policies
which upgrade TVEC sector’s laddering system; and linkage with
higher education for tertiary and vocational education and training
based on Internationally benchmarked training standards, among
other achieved objectives.
But, in a sector which has a multiplicity of centers and at least
four island-wide institutionalized networks, inevitably much more
needs to be done to reduce disparities.
5. Impact
The Sri Lankan TVET sector has achieved a significant
development with the implementation of the projects funded by the
Asian Development Bank (ADB), KOICA, JICA, and G.T.Z.
Specifically the ADB’s distinctive contributions to the TVET sector
have been in:
Ⅰ. Streamlining TVET under the Ministry of Vocational &
Technical Training, which brought multiple and fragmented
TVET institutions under a single umbrella;
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Ⅱ. Establishing an NVQ framework, which has served as a
unifying policy mechanism for bringing coherence to the
TVET sector and for formulating qualification standards;
Ⅲ. Introducing competency -based training; and
Ⅳ. Strengthening the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission
as a policy making and regulatory body for TVET.
One impact study on TVET in Sri Lanka conducted by the Asian
Development Bank found that the project-funded technical colleges
have underutilized and operated below capacity, due to the lack of
recurrent expenditure budget. The effectiveness of the teaching-
learning process was hampered by the lack of textbooks; teachers’
lack of practical skills; and absence of continuing staff development.
More proactive social marketing programs are necessary to change
the negative attitude of private sector employers, parents, and
students to state TVET institutions. The poor employment record of
those who have attended short courses needs to be considered in
planning programs. Career guidance centers in isolated locations
have had little impact. Six months of on-the-job training after the
completion of a course facilitated access to employment but support
services are inadequate to utilize loans for self employment. While
policies have been gender sensitive, they have been relatively
ineffective without concomitant motivation programs to encourage
women to enroll in technical training programs.
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Section 5. Legal Framework of TVET for Students and
Adolescents
a) Part 1 of the Tertiary and Vocational Education (TVE) Act No.
20 of 1990, establishes the Tertiary and Vocational Education
Commission with a mandate to set general policy, planning, and
coordination, as well as to set standards and regulate the TVET
sector. This act was revised in 1990 with the provision of
additional powers granted to the Commission for Funding and
Research.
b) Part II of the TVET Act No. 20 of 1990, which converted the
National Apprentice Board (NAB ) to the National Apprentice
and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA), undertakes the
public sector apprenticeship program trade tests.
The Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission has the
legal authority to prepare guidelines for initial training, the
maximum number of trainees to be trained under different
categories; qualification of staff; provision of on-the-job
training etc.
c) The Sri Lanka Institute of Advance Technical Education Act
No. 29 of 1995 provides training towards Higher National
Diploma and Diploma level qualifications.
d) The Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka Act No. 12
of 1995 establishes the Vocational Training Authority with a
special focus on training youth in rural areas.
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e) The National Institute of Technical Education of Sri Lanka
established under Act No.59 of 1998 performs the functions of
technical teacher training and curriculum development activity
for the TVET sector, and also provides training at the certificate
and diploma levels, as well as planning degree level programs.
f) UNIVOTEC will be included.
In the past, many acts have been carried out in isolation.
Therefore, many acts show repetition. Unlike in the past, there is
now more coordination and cooperation among institutions and their
staff. From 1990, attempts have been made to co-coordinate different
training institutions to deliver training with quality and relevance
according to the nationally agreed plan. This was symbolized by the
establishment in 1990 of the Tertiary and Vocational Education
Commission, the apex body in TVET, and establishment of a
separate ministry for the TVET in 1994. A presidential taskforce was
appointed in 1995 to make recommendations on the development of
the TVET sector. The NVQ framework, which was introduced by
order of the Minister, also has well explained the role of each
institution, as it provides a context for rationalization.
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Section 6. Qualifications
1. National Culture of Skill and the Skilled
A significant feature of Sri Lankan technical and vocational
education (TVET) is its heterogeneity with regard to training delivery
and assessment of skills and knowledge on completion of training
programs. Training is delivered mainly by registered, as well as non-
registered training institutions belonging to public, private, and
non-governmental organizations. In addition, the upgrading of
programs organized by business companies allows them to cater their
own skills requirements — a key feature of training delivery.
Traditional craftsmanship has been a conventional mode of skill
acquisition in rural areas, where skills are transferred to the next
generation, without properly organized training and assessment of
skills. In this context, to cope up with skills’ needs of the growing
economy of Sri Lanka and the demands of international labor market,
it is of utmost importance to assure quality of training delivery and
consistency of assessment, so that national and international skills
demands can be fulfilled. It is, therefore, very important to provide
the right competencies, as required by the industry, so that the
employability of skilled craftsman can be increased, and industry can
be strengthened with an appropriately qualified labor force.
In 2005, The Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training of
Sri Lanka introduced a national vocational qualification framework
(NVQ). It provides the opportunity for sustainable, strategic solutions
SRI LANKA 525
for national training needs, as well as for the employment mis-match
in both the formal and the informal sectors. The NVQ qualification
system will easily be able to achieve international recognition for
qualification, skills, and knowledge of Sri Lankans in an increasingly
globalized and competitive world.
This will enhance the mobility of Sri Lanka workers nationally
and internationally.
The expectations sought from the establishment of the national
vocational qualification framework relate to increasing the relevance
and quality of skills development of vocational and technical
education and training. Specifically there shall be:
• Greater alignment with national goals;
• Strengthened linkages with industry, commerce, and other
external state holders;
• Increased responsiveness to industry training needs;
• Convenient and flexible access for potential trainees;
• More proactive education and training strategies;
• Improved international linkages and recognition;
• Collaboration and nationalization among the training agencies;
• Enhanced quality, relevance, performance effectiveness,
efficiency, and transparency; and
• An education and training culture of responsiveness and
excellence.
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2. National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) System
Developing the NVQ system shall ensure that all current and
newly emerging technical and vocational education and training
activities are well coordinated.
<Table 1-5> The system awards qualifications of seven levels as given
below.
Level No. Qualification DescriptionLevel 1 National Certificate This level I recognizes the acquisition
of a core entry level skill.Level 2Level 3Level 4
National CertificateLevels 2, 3, and 4, recognize increasing levels of competencies. Level 4 qualification provides for full national Craftsmanship.
Level 5Level 6 Diploma
Levels 5 and 6 recognize the increasing levels of competencies, ranging from technician level, to management level.
Level 7 Bachelors Degree or Equivalent
This level includes resource planning and management processes.
3. Private Qualification System
Before the introduction of NVQ, the private and NGQ sector
training providers were conducting different types and levels of
training programs. The programs varied in content and duration
according to the educational attainment, age, and experience of the
learners. Those who planned and provided technical education and
vocational training had a diversity of interests and overlapping
SRI LANKA 527
mandates. Training programs conducted by the private sector training
providers were not always market oriented. Duplication of training
was provided, absent of unified standards, and curricula often did
not match the requirements of the labor market. In most cases
teachers and instructors were not qualified. In order to establish a
unified technical and vocational education and training system, the
Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training formulated policies
and guidelines for the public, private, and NGQ training providers.
Private sector training providers are required to be registered under
the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), if they
want to award NVQ certificates which are certified and issued by
the Director General of the TVEC for the trainers who have
successfully completed the training programs. In order to maintain
the quality and relevance of the TVET sector in the country, the
TVEC has advised the private sector training providers on the
following aspects:
• Registration of training Institutions at the TVET;
• Accreditation of courses;
• Quality management systems;
• Selection and training of competency based assessors;
• Apprenticeship training;
• Good practices for efficient and effective delivery of training;
and
• Access to TVET for vulnerable groups.
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All the structured programs conducted by the public and private
sectors can be considered as formal and can be recognized under
the NVQ framework. All the other non-structured programs that are
conducted by the private sector fall into the category of non-formal.
The number of vocational training programs conducted by private
and non-governmental organizations in Sri Lanka is too numerous
to list. Even to prepare a list of all the training providers in Sri Lanka
is a difficult task, as many of them may not have registered with
the register of companies, or with the TVEC. Most of the private
sector training providers are conducting only certificate level courses,
while a very few private sector training institutions offer diploma
certificates, but no signal private sector training institute has obtained
accreditation with the TVEC to be eligible to offer diploma level
certificates.
4. Role of Qualification in Labor Market
A recent survey conducted by the Technical Education Development
Project (TEDP), funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB)
under the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training, revealed
that most employers were of the opinion that employees were needed
in Plant training. Sixty-eight percent of the employers were satisfied
with the training that they had received and were willing to train
them further. About 75% of the employees at the national level; 60%
at the regional level; and about 25% at the village level felt that
their employers were satisfied with the skills acquired. Employers
SRI LANKA 529
also provide in-house training to trainees to supplement their training
obtained at vocational institutes. Employer satisfaction of the
qualifications and training of the employees ranged from 50%, to
72% among the various institutes. About 8% of the employees
reported employers’ dissatisfaction. The main reason for employers’
dissatisfaction was low productivity and low skill level.
Section 7. National Development and TVET Policy
The principal policy document of the present government is the
“Mahinda Chinthana” vision for a new Sri Lanka. A ten year
development framework 2006-2016 identifies three distinct sub
sectors: General Education, Technical & Vocational Education, and
Higher Education. This document identifies three main policy
initiatives in the technical and vocational education and training
(TVET) sub sector:
Ⅰ. Improving the quality and relevance of programs;
Ⅱ. Increasing enrollment at TVET institutions; and
Ⅲ. Improving operational and management efficiency at TVE
institutions.
Policy relating to financial and economic aspects of TVET is
closely related to the third policy initiative stated in the Mahinda
Chinthana policy document. This policy document also identifies key
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issues to address in policy formulation, such as:
1. Lack of focus on knowledge, skills, and attitudes to perform
a particular occupation in a rapidly changing technological
environment;
2. Absences of mechanisms to ensure that the quality of trainee
out-put conforms to set standards in the labor market;
3. Absence of a trustworthy qualification that reflects the level of
competency of the trainee against a publicly known standard;
4. Internal and external inefficiencies, including duplication of
courses; outdated curricular and equipment; shortage of good
trainees; and in-optimal utilization of worships, laboratories and
training equipment, leading to a high dropout rate of around
30 percent; and
5. Need for sustainability through cost recovery and other means.
Taking the above key issues into consideration, the government
has initiated the following strategies for implementation by
relevant agencies:
Ⅰ. Improving the quality and relevance of programs;
Ⅱ. Increasing enrollment in technical and vocational
institutions from secondary schools and the workforce;
Ⅲ. Improving the operating and managerial efficiency of
technical and vocational education institutions;
Ⅳ. Providing opportunities for upward carrier path; and
Ⅴ. Ensuring uniformity in national standards.
SRI LANKA 531
1. Economic Development and TVET
In Sri Lanka a large member of students who are successful at
the G.C.E.(A/L) examinations are not able to gain entry to university
education, due to the lack of capacity in the university system.
Vocational training provides a ready alternative to these students for
continuing their higher education goals. The vocational training
system provides a wide variety of job-oriented courses from which
these students can choose to pursue higher education and training.
Despite the shortcomings in the current TVET system, evidence
shows that only about 25% of the trainees remain unemployed after
vocational training. With a few adjustments and improvements to the
curriculum, quality certification, and market orientation of courses
in the vocational training sector, it is likely that the unemployment
rate can be brought down further, providing greater opportunities for
G.C.E. (A/L) qualified young persons to be absorbed into the
economic mainstream of the country. Foreign employment is another
avenue that vocational trainees can pursue. There is high demand
for personnel in certain types of vocational trades. Thus, another
tangible benefit of vocational education is the opportunity created
by vocational training for employment abroad, particularly in the
Middle East. The economic benefits include higher pay, and greater
savings in income sent back to the country, resulting in greater
wealth creation and further economic development. The housing
sector received considerable investment from such inflows. The
income flow originating from the vocational trade sector does have
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a multiplication effect on the general economy — creating more
employment, income, investments, and contribution to the country’s
GDP. The estimated direct contribution of the TVET sector, as
worked out from the models developed by consultants under the
Technical Education Development project (TEDP, funded by the
Asian Development Bank, ADB, functioning under the Ministry of
Vocational and Technical Training Technical) is Rs.22 billion per
annum, or the equivalent of 0.8% of the national GDP (current
market price) of Rs. 2802 billion for 2006.This estimate is based
on the extrapolation of the study carried out by the said consultants
for the entire TVET sector, comprising only the registered VT
institutes as published by the Ministry. If the unregistered VT
institutes are included, the actual contribution may be higher.
2. Social Development and TVET
A recent survey carried out by the Ministry of Vocational and
Technical Education (through the Technical Education Development
Project (TEDP) under the ADB, Asian Development Bank) reveals
that a greater proportion of national level trainees reported housing
improvements and increases in movable and fixed asserts, than other
trainees. Investment in fixed assets remained around 17% and was
more or less similar for all types and levels of institutes. Investment
in real estate was low, but with a higher proportion reporting from
national level institutions. Except for trainees from village level
institutes, over 50% of trainees from all other types and levels of
SRI LANKA 533
institutes reported increases in food and other expenditures.
Improvement in family nutrition was reported by a greater proportion
of trainees in national institutes. Only a small proportion (13%) of
trainees reported being indebted before training, with highest
percentage reported by national level private trainees. Except for
village level trainees, over 50 % of those indebted had commenced
repayment after training A very small proportion of trainees had
taken life insurance, and most had taken such insurance after the
training.
About 7.2 million persons (excluding those in the northern and
eastern provinces) were employed in the 1st Quarter of 2009; of these
employed persons, about 4.7 million (64%) were males, and 2.6
million (36%) were female. The employment rate gradually increased
from 2003 through 2008. Agriculture sector recorded the highest
employment (about 2.5 million) in the 1st quarter of 2009. The lowest
employment of 7,000 persons was recorded in the industries. More
than 80 percent were eligible for the Employment Provident Fund
(EPF). Pensions for the occupational categories of senior officials
and managers; professionals, technicians, and associate professionals;
and unspecified workers accounted for only 13 percent of the total
skilled. Agricultural and fishery workers were eligible for
EPF/pension in the 1st half of 2009. From January to June 2009,
a large member of workers, 116,961, have sought foreign
employment. The highest number of departures for foreign employment
was recorded for Saudi Arabia; female participation in foreign
employment (54%) was higher than male participation (46%). The
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highest departures were recorded for the Housemaid category.
The TVET sector contributes substantially to the economy. It was
estimated that the TVET sector contributes up to 0.8% of the GDP
of the country. Individual trainees have also received considerable
economic and social benefits, in addition to the financial benefits
of employment. Their housing, nutrition, social acceptance, and
expenditures have increased. Over 60% have obtained wage or self
employment, and a further 15% have sought more training to
improve their chances of employment, although 24S of the trainees
remain unemployed. The overall benefits to the country and trainees
have been positive. In addition, the income generated by the TVET
sector will have multiplier effects and contribute further to the
country’s economy, as 60% of the previously unemployed trainees
begin spending their newly earned incomes.
Section 8. TVET System by Target Groups
1. TVET for Students by Level of Education under the
Secondary Level Compulsory Education
Sri Lanka’s education is divided into five parts: primary, junior
secondary, senior secondary, collegiate and tertiary. Primary education
lasts five to six years (Grades 1-5) and at the end of this period,
the students may elect to take a national exam called, “The
Scholarship Exam”, which allows students with exceptional skills to
SRI LANKA 535
move on to better schools. After primary education, the junior
secondary level lasts for 4 years (Grades 6-9), followed by 2 years
(Grade 10-11) of the senior secondary level, which is the preparation
for the General Certificate of Education (GCE) Ordinary Level
(O/Ls). According to Sri Lankan Law, it is compulsory that all
children go to school until grade 9 (age 14), at which point they
can choose to continue their education, or drop out and engage in
apprenticeship for a job or farming. However, the Ministry of
Education strongly advises all students to continue with their studies
at least till the GCE Ordinary Level. Students who are pursuing
tertiary education must pass GCE/OL in order to enter the collegiate
level to study for another 2 years (Grades 12-13) and sit for the GCE
Advanced Level. On successful completion of this exam, students
can move on to tertiary education. Therefore, the GCE A/L is the
university entrance exam in Sri Lanka.
2. Government Schools
Most of the schools in Sri Lanka are maintained by the government
as a part of the free education. Currently there are 9,410 government
schools. With the establishment of the provincial council system in
the 1980s, the central government handed control of most schools
to the provincial councils. There are two types of government
schools:
• National schools; and
• Provincial schools.
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National schools come under the direct control of the Ministry of
Education and therefore are directly funded by the state. Most of
these schools were established during the colonial period and were
well established institutions.
Provincial schools constitute the vast majority of schools in Sri
Lanka. Funded and controlled by the local governments, many suffer
from poor facilities and a shortage of teachers.
3. Private School
There has been a considerable increase in the number of private
schools in Sri Lanka, due to the emergence of the upper-middle class
during the colonial era. Private schools follow the local curriculum
set up by the Ministry of Education in the local language medium
of Sinhala, Tamil, or English. Many of the private schools have
better access to new facilities than state run schools. Currently there
are 98 private schools approved by the government.
Enrollment rates are provided from 2006 through 2009:
<Table 1-6> Enrollment rate (2006-2009)
Item 2006 2007 2008 2009Total No of Schools 10,461 10,430 10,445 10,205Government 9,714 9,678 9,662 9,410Private 93 94 92 98Total No. of Pupils 4,000,714 4,111,022 4,101,509 4,032,760Government Schools 3,837,548 3,942,185 3,930,374 3,860,176Private Schools 107,874 113,884 115,070 114,486
Source: Ministry of EducationSri Lanka socio – Economic Data – 2010Central Bank of Sri Lanka – June 2010
SRI LANKA 537
4. Secondary Level, Upper Secondary Level, and Non-
schooling Level; Vocational and Academic Rate; and
Apprenticeship Enrollment Rate
Most trainees (70%) have either completed the A/L or have studied
up to the A/L classes. About 43% of the trainees have obtained
apprenticeship training. A further 38% have obtained institutional
training, while 15% have completed dual training. Thus, there
appears to be greater preference for apprenticeship training, which
may due to the market demand for such trained persons.
Certificate level training was the main type of training provided,
with about 80% trainees following such courses. Diploma training
was reported by only 6% of the trainees. It may be useful to establish
whether the low enrollment in diploma course is due to the lack of
facilities in the institution, or whether it is due to fewer institutions
providing such training. The low level of enrollment in diploma level
courses may also be attributed to the lack of demand in the job
market; longer duration and higher cost; stringent entry requirements;
lack of capacity to meet demand; or poor quality of training.
Student enrollment and output statistics are provided for the institutions functioning under the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training which are the major training providers of the country. The entry level qualification for the trainees is secondary or upper secondary level.
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<Table 1-7> Student enrollment and output statistics
Institution Year Intake Completed Dropout DropoutRate
Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET)
2006/2007 18,604 14,630 3,690 19.83%2007/2008 21,984 11,673 6,486 29.50%2008/2009 13,958 16,857 3,568 26.51%
Vocational Training Authority (VTA)
2006 21,495 16,322 3,192 14.85%2007 24,302 18,471 3,884 15.98%2008 25,362 21,068 4,507 17.77%
National Apprentice and Industrials Training Authority (NAITA)
2006 15,810 8,368 4,016 25.40%2007 18,261 10,732 4,653 25.48%2008 25,585 15,428 4,250 16.61%
National Institute of Technical Education ofSri Lanka
2006 1,973 1,647 14 1.00%2007 1,144 898 23 1.69%2008 1,359 1,259 33 2.43%
National Institute of Business Management (NIBM)
2006 3,899 3,654 38 1.00%2007 3,671 2,871 54 1.50%2008 7,932 4,159 164 2.00%
Total2006 63,040 45,725 11,031 17.49%2007 70,470 45,655 15,198 21.56%2008 74,595 60,115 12,707 17.03%
Source: Statistical unit – Ministry of vocational and Technical Training.
More than two thirds of the trainees have followed or passed ALs,
indicating that training is a major vocational avenue for those who
have failed to enter universities. An additional economic benefit of
vocational training is that it provides greater opportunities for
educated youth to contribute to the economy; it provides further
education and training and fills job vacancies less preferable to
University graduates.
SRI LANKA 539
5. Training Scheme for Non-schooling
Recognition of prior learning (RPL) is a kind of terminal assessment
conducted mainly in the workplace. The main objective of RPL is
to recognize skills and competencies acquired through non-institutional
training, informal training, or work place experience. RPL is one
route to awarding National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) certificates.
This route helps people obtain NVQ qualification without following
a structured course.
Those who acquire skills through the following means are eligible
to appear for RPL assessments:
∙ Workplace experience; life experience; self directed study;
informal/uncertified learning; formal uncertified learning;
informal study; on the job-training; open learning or distance
education; community-based learning; and overseas education,
training, or experience.
RPL assessments are conducted based on the requirements of the
national skills standards. RPL assessments are conducted mostly with
the use of supportive evidence.
6. TVET and Enterprises
Young people are the current and future leaders of any community.
Encouraging civic enrollment and investing in youths key concerns
must be and urgent priority of the government and civil society.
Young people are the forefront of social, economic, and political
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developments, and they are often agents of change and innovation.
The world of work provides the environment through which youth
can actively participate in society; contribute their talents and visions
for the future; and develop a sensor of commitment.
There is a growing realization about the potential contribution of
small enterprises in Sri Lanka. Healthy small business is rightly
considered to be the backbone of the economy. Entrepreneurship
training is increasingly tried to promote local business, and it
accelerates the pace of small enterprise development. It is needless
to emphasize that quality and quantity of entrepreneurship input are
crucial in the process of entrepreneurship development. The subject
of entrepreneurship has, thus, become important and necessary for
the education sector which is widely responsible for the development
of the economy. Sri Lanka has identified the small business sector
as an important sector of economy. The technical and vocational
education and training (TVET) sub sector within the education sector
is specifically responsible for providing technical and skilled
manpower to the large medium and small scale enterprises and
industries. The government, private, and NGO vocational training
providers have introduced entrepreneurship concepts and initiated
entrepreneurship programs in their instructions.
Training cannot create employment. However, training is a powerful
means of preparing young people for employment. But training alone
is not sufficient for self employment. The key government training
providers, Vocational Training Authority (VTA) Department of
Technical Education and Training (DTET) and National Apprentice
SRI LANKA 541
and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA) of Sri Lanka, focused
more attention on promoting self employment programs by providing
necessary skills, start-up capital, business know how, access to raw
materials, and markets.
7. Self Employment Promotion Initiative (SEPI)
The government of Sri Lanka entered in to a loan agreement with
the Asia Development Bank (ADB) in 2004 to improve the quality
and relevance of training and build a high quality workforce; they
restructured and reoriented the vocational training system by
introducing competency based training (CBT). One of the components
of this project is innovative Interventions and NGO private sector
participation. Under this component, the Self Employment Promotion
Initiative (SEPI) was established to provide skills training through
qualified government, NGO, and private sector institutions, including
a credit component to provide graduates with resources to purchase
basic equipment and raw materials required for start up businesses.
SEPI was a pilot initiative to support poor people who had
completed skills training programs. It provided initial financial
support to establish a small-scale entrepreneurial or self employment
activity. This was mainly covered the initial purchase of basic
equipment and materials. Seventy percent of beneficiaries were
males selected according to agreed upon criteria. The project was
implemented in 18 districts.
The issuing of loans began in January 2004, and a sum of Rs.
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94,542,103.37 (US. $ 851,730) was issued among 886 loan applicants.
It was the responsibility of the vocational training institute officers
to guide the youth who were selected and provide them with
knowledge to maintain a successful enterprise. Although there had
been a high recovery rate of 83.38%, it was observed that the failure
of some was due to several factors:.
1. Adverse selection of prospective borrowers, due to inadequate
screening to ascertain their honesty, integrity, and repayment
capacity;
2. Poor quality of products/services;
3. Lack of marketing facilities and marketing linkages;
4. Inadequate skills training; and
5. Weak entrepreneurial skills.
8. TVET Infrastructure
8.1 Teachers and Instructors
Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is a
comprehensive educational process that goes beyond general education,
helping trainees to achieve knowledge, skills, attitudes and mental
preparedness necessary for a variety of vocations and jobs. It ensures
that those who are educated and trained will enter the labor market
and be employed in the workplace using their acquired knowledge
and skills. It is important to develop high quality human resources
in the TVET sector. The most important issues are the qualifications
SRI LANKA 543
and the quality of teaching and training staff. As a result, the
achievement of the goals of the TVET sector depends mainly on the
TVET system, in general, and on the compliances and qualifications
of the trainers, in particular.
The quality of TVET programs is directly impacted by the
qualification and compliances of staff delivering the training and
assessment. Presently there are no specific or distinct human
resource management and development policies in the TVET sector
in this country. The rules, regulations, and procedures drawn by the
government are generally adapted by the training organizations in
the public sector. Although these organizations adapt personal
management practices, only a few organizations really pursue HRD
policies. Currently there are no policies or guidelines stipulated for
training organizations that cover all the areas — recruitment,
development, transfers, promotions, and staff development, to name
a few. Although there were certain guidelines and procedures laid
down for recruitment, deployment, and transfers, there seem to be
anomalies creating disadvantages for staff members of different
organizations. Therefore, it has become important to introduce a
common and nationally accepted HR development policy for the
entire TVET sector.
All organizations perform HR planning, formally or informally. At
present a common process for recruitment is not practiced by either
public or private sector training organizations. Although the open
advertisement procedure is mostly applied for recruitment, qualifications
considered for a post seem to vary from organization to organization.
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Particulars of teaching and training staff in major organizations
functioning under the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training
at the end of 2009 are as follows.
<Table 1-8> Particulars of teaching and training staff in major organizations
functioning under the Ministry of Vocational and Technical
Training at the end of 2009
Institute No. of Centers
No. of courses Employee strengthPart-time
Full time Academic Non
academicDepartment of Technical Education and Training (DTET)
38 24 46 240 2045
Vocational Training Authority (VTA) Rural Training Centers Regional Training CentersNational Training Centers
265
2372206
148 884 1075 559
National Apprenticeship & Industrial Training Authority (NAITA)National InstituteRegional Training CentersRural Training InstitutesAffiliated Centers
104
05065538
83 235 582 367
9. Staff Development & Teacher Training
At present there is no proper policy for staff development.
Although in-service training is provided for the staff of many
organizations in an ad-hoc manner, pre-service training, which is
comparatively important, could not be seen in the public or private
sector. Faced by socio-economic and technology challenges, human
resource management in TVET providers needs to bring to the
SRI LANKA 545
forefront the development of multi skill and core competencies of
the staff. Knowledge and competencies of both academic and
non-academic staff of TVET providers will continuously be updated
and upgraded in par with current global trends.
The National Institute of Technical Education of Sri Lanka
(NITE-SL) was responsible for professional services in Human
Resources, learning resources, research curriculum development, and
consultancy for public sector technical teachers and vocational
trainers. In 2009, with the establishment of the University of
Vocational Technology, the functions of the NITE-SL were absorbed
by the university. The University of Vocational Technology
(UNIVOTEC) provides training in technology for the employees of
the vocational and technical training sector and industry. The
UNIVOTEC has introduced a modular-based certificate, with
diploma & degree level teacher training for trainers in the TVET
sector.
9.1 Issues to be Addressed
Because the TVET management staff are not adequately exposed
to the changing dynamics of TVET, their thinking is stereotyped and
conventional, making them non-responsive to market demand.
Though there is a significant change in the education sector in Sri
Lanka, in terms of quality and quantity, some important issues
emerge in the teaching and training of staff in technical and
vocational education, including:
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• Lack of qualified staff in technical and vocational education;
• Uneven distribution of teachers and the imbalance between
the supply and the demand of teachers;
• Mismatches between the teachers’ educational background
and the subjects being taught;
• High percentage of unqualified and under qualified teachers
in the technical and vocational schools;
• Low quality in teacher performance and conservative teaching
methods; and
• Weaknesses in continuing education; employment and career
development; the rights and responsibilities of teachers;
teachers’ salaries; and social security.
Section 9. Employment and the Labor Market
The total labor force within Sri Lanka is approximately 7.5
million, and it is estimated that approximately 1.5 million Sri
Lankans work overseas at any given time. According to the survey
results of the Department of Census and Statistics, only about 16%
of the labor force have received formal vocational or technical
training. Approximately 25% of those who have received vocational
training are unemployed, proving that their training was not in
keeping with labor market demands.
SRI LANKA 547
Year
HouseholdPopulation(10 Years & Over)
Labor Force
Not in Labor force
Number
Total Labor Force
Labor Force
Partici: Rate (%)
Employed Unemployed
Number
Rate (% to total Labor Force)
Number
Rate (% To Total
Labor Force)
1990 11573941 6001148 51.9 5047354 84.1 953794 15.9 5572793
1991 11795793 5877198 49.8 5015517 85.3 861680 14.7 5918596
1992 12058463 5808062 48.2 4962105 85.4 845957 14.6 6250400
1993 12278055 6032383 49.1 5201474 86.2 830910 13.8 6245675
1994 12492850 6078863 48.7 5281272 86.9 797591 13.1 6413985
1995 12736185 6106138 47.9 5357117 87.7 749021 12.3 6630048
1996 12831240 6241889 48.6 5537285 88.7 704604 11.3 6589365
1997 12870791 6266160 48.7 5607881 89.5 658279 10.5 6604630
1998 12881790 6660520 51.7 6049238 90.8 611285 9.2 6221274
1999 13169250 6673487 50.7 6082641 91.2 590846 8.9 6495782
2000 13564660 6827312 50.3 6310145 92.4 517168 7.6 6737345
2001 13870479 6772834 48.8 6235588 92.1 537246 7.9 7097644
<Table 1-9>Statistics for 2009
Sri Lanka Male FemaleLabor Force Employed PopulationEmployment Rate
8,073,6887,602,414
94.2%
5,186,4574,963,176
95.7%
2,887,2112,639,238
91.4%
(Sri Lanka Labor Force Survey, Annual Report – 2009)Employment: Number of Employed 1990-2009
Employment Rate by Gender andAge 2000-2010
<Table 1-10> Historical Table of Labor Force Status (Current) of the
Household Population. 10 Years of Age and Over – Both Sexes
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Year
HouseholdPopulation(10 Years & Over)
Labor Force
Not in Labor force
Number
Total Labor Force
Labor Force
Partici: Rate (%)
Employed Unemployed
Number
Rate (% to total Labor Force)
Number
Rate (% To Total
Labor Force)
2002 14201396 7145382 50.3 6519415 91.2 625967 8.8 7056014
*2003 15651479 7653716 48.9 7012755 91.6 640961 8.4 7997763
**2004 16593431 8061354 48.6 7394029 91.7 667324 8.3 8532077
***2005 16870976 8141347 48.3 7518007 92.3 623341 7.7 8729628
#2006 14833801 7598762 51.2 7105322 93.5 493440 6.5 7235040
#2007 15047882 7488896 49.8 7041874 94.0 447021 6.0 7558986
*2008 16319065 8081702 49.5 7648305 94.6 433397 5.4 8237363
#2008 15078016 7568715 50.2 7174706 94.8 394009 5.2 7509301
*2009 16578628 8073668 48.7 7602414 94.2 471254 5.8 8504961
#2009 15397595 7572388 49.2 7139537 94.3 432852 5.7 7825206* Including Eastern province, but Excluding Northern province** Excluding Mulathivu, Kilinochchi districts.*** All the districts are included# Excluding Northern & Eastern provinces.Source – Labor Force Survey – Annual Report 2009
SRI LANKA 549
<Table 1-11> Historical Table of Labor Force Status (Current) of the
Household Population. 10 Years of Age and Over –Male.
Year
HouseholdPopulation(10 Years & Over)
Labor Force
Not in Labor force
Number
Total Labor Force
Labor Force
Partici: Rate (%)
Employed Unemployed
Number
Rate (% to total
Labor Force)
Number
Rate (% To Total Labor Force)
*1993 6109486 3989443 65.3 3601779 90.3 387663 9.7 2120044*1994 6228064 4072937 65.4 3678648 90.3 394289 9.7 2155127*1995 6318003 4068608 64.4 3700951 91.0 367656 9.0 2249395*1996 6373670 4200886 65.9 3857147 91.8 343741 8.2 2172784*1997 6372365 4184248 65.6 3862087 92.3 322168 7.7 2188110*1998 6344453 4281996 67.5 4004504 93.5 277491 6.5 2062456*1999 6506662 4402713 67.7 5107497 93.3 295217 6.7 2103953*2000 6702871 4501597 67.2 4241477 94.2 260120 5.8 2201274*2001 6837264 4529016 66.2 4248877 93.8 280139 6.2 2308248*2002 6935012 4705586 67.9 4395164 93.4 310421 6.6 2229427
**2003 7657368 5144206 67.2 4833483 94.0 310723 6.0 2513162***2004 8049643 5372897 66.7 5049426 94.0 323471 6.0 2676746
****2005 8103016 5436362 67.1 5134765 94.5 301597 5.5 2666654*2006 7098813 4837308 68.1 4610643 95.3 226664 4.7 2261505*2007 7174676 4862788 67.8 4653067 95.7 209721 4.3 2311888
**2008 7713680 5227427 67.8 5033449 96.3 193978 3.7 2486253*2008 7122164 4838462 67.9 4663277 96.4 175184 3.6 2283702
**2009 7783492 5186457 66.6 4963176 95.7 223281 4.3 2597035*2009 7221475 48155541 66.7 4609198 95.7 206343 4.3 2405934
* Excluding Northern & Eastern provinces.** Including Eastern province but Excluding Northern province*** Excluding Mulathivu, Kilinochchi districts.**** All the districts are included Source – Labor Force Survey – Annual Report 2009
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<Table 1-12> Historical Table of Labor Force Status (Current) of the
Household Population. 10 Years of Age and Over – Female.
Year
HouseholdPopulation
(10 Years & Over)
Labor Force
Not in Labor force
Number
Total Labor Force
Labor Force Partici: Rate
(%)
Employed Unemployed
Number
Rate (% to total
Labor Force)
Number
Rate (% To Total Labor Force)
*1993 6168572 2042941 33.1 1599695 78.3 443247 21.7 4125631*1994 6264782 2005927 32.0 1602625 79.9 403302 20.1 4258857*1995 6418183 2037530 31.7 1656166 81.3 381364 18.7 4380652*1996 6457583 2041002 31.6 1680138 82.3 360864 17.7 4416583*1997 6498427 2081906 32.0 1745794 83.9 336112 16.1 4416521*1998 6537344 2378526 36.4 2044732 86.0 333795 14.0 4158818*1999 6662613 2270782 34.1 1975153 87.0 295629 13.0 4392047*2000 6861794 2325716 33.9 2068667 89.0 257048 11.0 4536078*2001 7033214 2243818 31.9 1986711 88.5 257107 11.5 4789396*2002 7266384 2439796 33.6 2124250 87.1 315546 12.9 4826588
**2003 7994111 2509510 31.4 2179272 86.8 330238 13.2 5484600***2004 8543788 2688457 31.5 2344604 87.2 343853 12.8 5855331
****2005 8767960 2704985 30.9 2383241 88. 32744 11.9 6062975*2006 7734989 2761454 35.7 2494679 90.3 266775 9.7 4973535*2007 7873206 2626108 33.4 2388807 91.0 237300 9.0 5247098
**2008 8605385 2854275 33.2 2614856 91.6 239419 8.4 5751110*2008 7955852 2730253 34.3 2511429 92.0 218825 8.0 5225599
**2009 8795136 2887211 32.8 2639238 91.4 247973 8.6 5907926*2009 8176119 2756847 33.7 2530339 91.8 226508 8.2 5419272
* Excluding Northern & Eastern provinces.** Including Eastern province but Excluding Northern province*** Excluding Mulathivu, Kilinochchi districts.**** All the districts are includedSource – Labor Force Survey – Annual Report 2009
SRI LANKA 551
1. Skills supply and demand
The main responsibility of the technical and vocational educational
programs is the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes
necessary for ensuring placements in the workforce, at levels ranging
from trade, through to professional. The national vocational
qualification framework, implemented by the state and private sector
training providers, offers a unified technical education system. It
Identifies levels of training according to process and learning
demand.
The stakeholders of TVET are aware of the features of the
qualification system on national standards; competency-based
curricula; competency-based assessments; and unified certification.
Fifty three percent (53%) of the vocational pass outs are employed
in the private sector. This is about three times the number employed
by the government sector. A comparatively high percentage of
vocational pass outs have acquired the competencies that are needed
at employment.
2. Skills Mismatch, Skill Shortage, and unemployment.
Employment in the service and production sectors have indicated
that the training received and skills gathered were not adequate to
keep pace with employer demands. In the workplace, new employees
confront unfamiliar machines, equipment, tools, and procedures to
which they had no prior exposure. Some of the machines, such as
552 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
CNC Lathes, are so sophisticated and expensive that the employers
were reluctant to provide on-the-job training to the trainees.
In the field of information technology trainees, had no opportunity
to learn new software packages. Especially given the rapid
development of technology, employed vocational pass outs are not
able to meet all the requirements of the employer.
About 10% of the vocational graduates were either partly
satisfied or not satisfied. The main reasons for dissatisfaction with
the courses at national level were: 1) poor quality of training; and
2) courses and curricula were not broad enough to enable trainees
to work in a wider field of employment. At the regional and village
levels the main reasons for dissatisfaction with the training courses
were: 1) poor job market demand; and 2) limited scope of courses
offered by employers.
Some of the employees feel that there is a demand for knowledge
and skills at the workplace on certain items, like electronic fuel
injection (EFI); automatic transmission; sensors/digital technologies;
modern vehicle repairs; IC programing/ robotics; machine/transformer
installation; English to understand manuals; gas analyzers /emission
test; mechtronics; computer assisted drawing (CAD); customer
service; and handling of construction equipment.
A high percentage of employers is in favor of vocational pass outs
in the fields of practical knowledge; attitude to learn; improving
mathematics; English and scientific theory; and general updating of
trainer knowledge. Sixty eight percent (68%) of the employees have
said the mismatch between employer requirements and training skills
SRI LANKA 553
gathered at the technical training Institution is nil, or at a very low
extent. Only 33% have said that there is a mismatch.
3. New Demands
Seventy seven present (77%) of the employees are in favor of
upgrading their knowledge and skills to meet employer demand. The
highest percentage of responses is for the need of practical
knowledge in the field (20%). The lowest percentage is for
management & planning skills (11%). The employees are confident
that they have acquired the basic theoretical knowledge; the basic
practical skills; and the ability to manipulate equipments and tools,
as required by the employer at the training. However, some of the
employees feel that there is a demand for knowledge and skills on
modern equipment at the work place. Considering the future labor
market demand for vocational pass outs, the trades can be ranked
based on the responses of employers.
Rank Order of Trades
Rank Order Trade/Field
1 - Welder
2 - Electrician
3 - Others
4 - Auto Electrician
5 - Auto Mechanics
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6 - Auto A/C Technician
7 - Computer Assistant
8 - Auto Service Supervisor
9 - Mason
10 - Carpenter
The Labor Market Information Bulletin of the Tertiary and
Vocational Education Commission (TVET- Volume 01/’09 -June
2009) ranks the demand for local jobs and lists the top 10 demand
jobs under the following categories.
• Senior Officials and Managers ;
• Professionals;
• Technicians & Associate Professionals;
• Clerical & Related Workers;
• Service Workers & Shop and Market Sales Workers;
• Craft & Related Workers;
• Manufacture of Food Products & Beverages;
• Manufacture of Clothing Apparel;
• Construction;
• Computer & Related Activities;
• Sale, Repair & Maintenances of Motor Vehicles & Motor
Cycles; and
• Manufacture of Furniture.
SRI LANKA 555
Section 10. International Corporation: Bilateral,
Multilateral and International Organization
Sri Lanka is the member of the Commonwealth of Nations; the
United Nations; the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC), the World Bank; and the Asian Development Bank.
International development agencies have assisted the country to
achieve the Millennium Development Goals through financing
schemes that develop key economic sectors and support much-needed
reforms in public finance management and government. Bilateral and
multilateral development agencies have provided assistance in
infrastructure; education and vocational training; health; public sector
reforms; and in other areas vital for the Sri Lanka’s overall human
development.
Support for reforms in tertiary and vocational education have been
under way since the 1970s, including quality and curriculum
development capacity development; enhancing physical facilities;
staff development for teachers and management; and increasing
responsiveness to labor market demands.
The World Bank (1981) funded the Construction Industry Training
Project and the Institute for Construction Training and Development
(CITP – ICTAD). This was a sector wide project to develop: skill
standards for construction craftsman (module on practices developed
in the United Kingdom); and standard curricula for construction
training teaching, including learning materials and associated trainer
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training. The outputs were adopted by several major training agencies.
The partner delivery agencies were the Department of Technical
Education and Training (DTET); technical colleges; the Department
of Labor District and Mobile Training Centers (the Department of
Labor District and Mobile Training Centers were adsorbed into the
Vocational Training Authority in 1988); several non- governmental
organizations; and other government agencies providing construction
related training. The World Bank initiative went as far as the design
of training workshops for the delivery of efficient teaching- learning,
including the development and monitoring of on-site training.
Several major bilateral donor agencies are actively involved in
supporting the tertiary and vocational education and training (TVET)
sector, but their inputs are primarily aimed at disadvantaged and
vulnerable groups, with the understanding that established national
structures, processes, and standards will be adopted by the respective
vocational training deliverers in their training related operations.
A significant wave of donor input was funded by the Asian
Development Bank (ADB). There were two projects, both with
national remit and highly influential in terms of paving the way for
the establishment of the national vocational qualification (NVQ)
framework. The first was the Skills Development Project (ADB Loan
No 1707 SRI), which ran between March 2001 and January 2007
(with an extension). It forecasted the reform of TVET and involved
all training providers. The main objectives of this project were to:
1) Strengthen the national sectoral apex body, the Tertiary and
Vocational Education Commission, so as to coordinate
SRI LANKA 557
interventions to improve the quality and market relevance of
skills training programs;
2) Rationalize the resource allocation and budgeting for vocational
training agencies;
3) Standardize competency-based training standards; curriculum;
teacher training; and the quality of instructional materials
across the 300 public sector vocational training centers;
4) Develop 20 new skills training courses and convert 25 existing
courses into competency-based format;
5) Develop skills standards with corresponding training standards
and trade tests for the 45 competency-based training courses;
6) Develop test, produce, and distribute competency-based
training materials for all 45 courses; and
7) Establish a national vocational qualification framework,
including the development of an accreditation system; assessor
training and certification; expansion of the national trade
testing programs; and establishment of a quality management
system, preparing the ground for full implementation (in terms
of human capacity building, system building, and institutional
building.)
The second was the Technical Education Development Project
(ADB Loan No. 2197), which runs from April 2006 to October 2010
(parallel with the end of ADB Loan 1707-SRI). It focused on
linkages between TVET and higher education. The main objectives
of this project were to:
1) Strengthen the Ministry of Skills Development, Vocational and
558 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Technical Education (the predecessor of the current Ministry
of Vocational and Technical training and other relevant
institutions in support of market- responsiveness);
2) Strengthen policy analysis in the sector;
3) Embed the standards developed in the first project and develop
standards for technologists and technicians;
4) Strengthen quality assurance systems in TVET;
5) Enhancing the public image of the sector;
6) Establish the University of Vocational Technology, focusing on
technical and technological education and developing University
administration and technical capacity, student selection
procedure, new curricular and upgrading facilities and equipment.
Both projects were concerned with strengthening national
coordination and management through TVEC to ensure quality,
relevance, effectiveness, and efficiency. The projects attempted to
tackle the rationalization of resources, particularly to support
less-resourced vocational training centers in rural areas and in some
economically disadvantaged districts.
In addition to the ADB funded project, the Japan International
Corporation Agency (JICA); Korean International Corporation
Agency (KOICA); and the Rehabilitation, Reconstruction, and
Modernization of Technical and Vocational Training Institutes
(REVO) — Project-GTZ — also provided financial and technical
assistance for the development of the TVET sector in Sri Lanka. The
JICA, KOICA, and GTZ projects assisted three technical colleges
SRI LANKA 559
with modern equipment and local and International training for
academic staff members. Several other international NGOs are also
conducting training programs in mostly rural areas of the country,
in line with the policies introduced by the government.
Section 11. New Needs for New Skills
Technological, economic, and social trends have clearly posed
profound implications on TVET systems in the region. The changing
nature of the world of work, pressed by globalization and technological,
economic, and social changes, requires the identification of major
development pockets and deeper understanding of how they impact
upon the quality of TVET systems.
Rapid technological changes require workers to adapt to the fast
changing technological environment. Teaching generic soft skills has
become a pre-requisite in effectively preparing the workforce for the
world of works. Skills including cognitive reasoning, interpersonal
communication, work values, and adaptability must complement core
technical skills. The globalization of economies has spurred the
movement of knowledge workers and seekers across the world. It
has opened up new doors for technology, services, products, and
labor to come freely, while emerging skills and competencies are
demanded to meet industry needs.
Possession of the optimum combination of generic and technical
competencies raises the opportunities for any person to be employed,
560 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
due to his/her anticipated ability to move horizontally or vertically,
as may be required by the workplace. Therefore, greater emphasis
should be given to employability, rather than employment. The
knowledge workers of today require the ability to jump between
fields of technical specialization and capture the key issues quickly.
High capacity to learn skills of scientific concepts and processes
reduce the time taken to master new areas, when emerging tasks and
work processes occur. Therefore, trainable recruits are more important
than trainee recruits. With the emergence of key climate issues and
their impact on all aspects of living, there is a greater need for
environmentally-oriented adjectives.
After 30 years of prevailing conflict, Sri Lanka in 2009 began
experiencing rapid economic growth. This economic growth has
caused the significant rise in demand for TVET skills to meet job
requirements in the industries, particularly in the country’s northern
and eastern regions. The apparent distance of the TVET system from
the industry, which is also marked by the current mismatch between
the skills taught and those actually in demand, is attributable to the
general disconnect between TVET, industry, and the supply-driven
nature of government policies regarding TVET. Developing
public-private partnerships and maintaining close interactions with
industry are necessary to overcome the skills mismatch and make
TVET more market oriented.
The concept of small and medium scale enterprises (SME) bears
particular significance, as it involves providing formal skill training
to the poor and backward sections of society for whom the length
SRI LANKA 561
and cost of usual formal training options are impractical due to social
and economic constraints. The SME embodies the idea of imparting
various types of minimum skills that enable a person to obtain
gainful employment. Moreover, the importance of developing
entrepreneurial skills is also increasing, as current trends indicate that
the majority of the workforce is likely to be absorbed in the
un-organized and informal sector in the near future. Therefore,
encouraging workers to develop micro and small enterprises, or to
become self-employed, is likely to provide a better option for earning
a livelihood than wage labor. The flexibility of such modular
credit-based courses in TVET is likely to lead to skill upgrading,
multi skilling, multi-point entry and exit, vertical mobility, and
recognition of prior learning through certification of skills acquired
informally.
Preparing teachers to face the challenges of an ICT enriched
teaching and learning environment is crucial. Teachers need to be
equipped with the fundamentals of ICT tools and sufficient
understanding of the integration of these tools in teaching and
learning. Efforts must be oriented towards changing mind set and
developing positive attitudes towards ICT application in teaching and
learning, to improve TVET delivery and promote quality in
instruction.
New approaches to institutional management and learning are
rapidly catching up and taking over traditional management
approaches. The Quality Management System (QMS) movement is
cross-cutting every field and is given particular emphasis in the
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TVET sector. Improvement of internal efficiency and effectiveness
of programs and institutions allow TVET systems to respond to
industry needs and support appropriate monitoring, evaluation, and
quality assurance.
Section 12. Future Challenges and Opportunities
ADB, KOICA, JICA, and GTZ Projects have injected dynamism
into the previously stagnate TVET sector. The challenge is to
continue this momentum and optimize the benefits of the changes
that have been introduced. Programs need to be directed toward
achieving following crucial goals:
∙ Meet the labor market demand for relevant skills and the
demand for training and employment by over 200,000
secondary school leavers each year;
∙ Improve the quality of training to make it an acceptable
alternative path to further education;
∙ Reduce geographical disparities in the provision of TVET
facilities;
∙ Maximize the resources of the existing network of institutions
and expedite the development of the training institutions and
University of Vocational Technology;
∙ Reduce gender imbalances in technical related training;
∙ Improve the poor image of TVET institutions among
SRI LANKA 563
employers, parents, and students in the private sector;
∙ Improve the quality of TVET and its output in terms of
standardized qualifications and employment;
∙ Reduce dropout and failure rates and recruit, train, and retain
qualified staff;
∙ Provide equitable distribution of career guidance units;
∙ Establish a revolving fund for loans for employment, with
flexibility on the part of banks to ensure easy access to loans
and support for the currently marginalized sections of the
informal sector;
∙ Establish production units in the training institutions that can
generate income for the training centers and facilitate the
application of the knowledge and skills acquired in the TVET
institution;
∙ Provide necessary facilities to rural training institutions where
standards are uneven — some rural centers are, as yet, outside
the ambit of recent developments, such as competency- ased
training; NVQs; and provision of qualified staff and modern
equipment;
∙ Ensure effective management and continuous monitoring, and
move tracer studies to prevent dilution of current programs
and their outcomes;
∙ Review the distribution of training centers/institutions to
further improve access, and in so doing monitor effectiveness,
efficiency, and sustainability of training programs;
∙ Foster commitment to the TVET development strategy and
564 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
NVQ, mapping NVQ with international qualification frames;
developing a TVET development plan that is in harmony with
a human resource development policy; and building effective
linkages with secondary education and tertiary education;
∙ Introduce higher order thinking skills to advocate critical
thinking, analysis, and problem solving to augment and
enhance learning outcomes in TVET;
∙ Enable possession of generic soft skills, a pre-requisite in the
new work place. Skills including cognitive reasoning,
interpersonal communication, attitudes, values, work habits
and enterprise, innovation and creativity must be embedded
in capacity building in TVET. Learning to learn becomes a
key attribute;
∙ Secondary education will have strong vocational component
in the curriculum to ensure that students can be sufficiently
equipped both in knowledge and skills to directly join the
labor market and have the option to pursue higher studies;
∙ Many jobs in the current labor market do not require long
term rigorous training. Therefore, specific skills will be
imparted through short modular courses for informal sector
workers to develop micro and small enterprises or to become
self employed;
∙ Identify the skills requirements of the informal sector and
facilitate skill development to enhance productivity and
develop an enabling environment for the vulnerable sections
of the society. It is necessary to overcome the skills shortage
SRI LANKA 565
in the sector;
∙ Strengthen research and development to accommodate
innovations of emerging technologies, along with development,
in particular, of technology in local and international areas;
and
∙ Conduct a comprehensive impact evaluation of the new
developments and provide a recommendation to the relevant
authorities.
References
1. ADB Sector Paper - Sri Lanka Country Assistance Program
Evaluation. August 2007.
2. Performance Report, 2009. The Ministry of Vocational and
Technical Training.
VIETNAM
VIETNAM 569
Chapter 1
TVET POLICY, EXPERIENCE, AND TRENDS
IN VIETNAM
Section 1. Context and Background
Vietnam’s territorial waters make around 1,000,000 km2, with
over 3,000 km long coastline lines. Vietnam lies along the
Indochinese Peninsula and circles the old southeastern part of the
Asian continent with its back turned to the Eastern Sea (Pacific
Ocean). These mountain and sea areas boast a diversity and richness
in natural resources, as well as minerals.
1. Population
Vietnam’s population size increased from 77.63 million in 2000,
to 86.03 million in 2008, and it ranks 13th in the group of nations
with densely populated rate.
The majority of the population gathers in rural areas. In 2008
570 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
the proportion of the Vietnamese population living in rural areas still
occupied 72.15% (62.07 million). The population structure by sex
has not experiences much decline, remarkably with the proportion
of female (50.84% in 2000 and 50.73% in 2008) slightly higher than
that of the male.
The Vietnamese population is young, and step close to the
“golden” change. In this period, over half of the Vietnamese
population belongs to the age group of less than 25 years. The
proportion of the age from 15 and up is rather high (67.99% in 2000
and 74.94% in 2008). The rate dependent on population reduced
from 71% in 1999, to 58.63%.
<Table 1-1> Population in 2000-2008
2000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2015Population
(‘000s) 77635.80 82031.70 83106.30 84136.80 85171.70 86210.80 93647.00Male 38166.40 40310.50 40846.20 41354.90 41868.00 42384.50 46410
Female 39469.40 41721.20 42260.10 42781.90 43303.70 43826.30 47237Source: Statistical Yearbook 2000-2008, General Statistical Office, Vietnam, 2009.
2. The Vietnamese Economy
Vietnam is a developing market economy. Since the mid 1980s,
through the “Đổi mới” (reform) period, Vietnam has made a shift
from a centrally planned economy, to a socialist-oriented market
economy. Over that period, the economy has experienced rapid
growth. Today, Vietnam is in the period of integrating into the
world's economy, as a part of globalization. Vietnam has been rising
as a leading agricultural exporter and an attractive foreign investment
VIETNAM 571
Total
Of whichAgriculture,
forestry and fishing Industry and construction Service
Bill. Dongs1990 41955 16252 9513 161901991 76707 31058 18252 273971992 110532 37513 30135 428841993 140258 41895 40535 578281994 178534 48968 51540 780261995 228892 62219 65820 1008531996 272036 75514 80876 1156461997 313623 80826 100595 1322021998 361017 93073 117299 1506451999 399942 101723 137959 1602602000 441646 108356 162220 1710702001 481295 111858 183515 1859222002 535762 123383 206197 2061822003 613443 138285 242126 2330322004 715307 155992 287616 2716992005 839211 175984 344224 3190032006 974266 198798 404697 3707712007 1143715 232586 474423 4367062008 1485038 329886 591608 5635442009 1658389 346786 667323 644280
Structure (%)1990 100.00 38.74 22.67 38.591991 100.00 40.49 23.79 35.721992 100.00 33.94 27.26 38.801993 100.00 29.87 28.90 41.231994 100.00 27.43 28.87 43.701995 100.00 27.18 28.76 44.061996 100.00 27.76 29.73 42.511997 100.00 25.77 32.08 42.151998 100.00 25.78 32.49 41.73
destination in Southeast Asia.
In 2009, the nominal GDP reached $92.439 billion, with a nominal
GDP per capita of $1,060.
<Table 1-2> Gross Domestic Product at Current Prices by Economic Sector
572 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Total
Of whichAgriculture,
forestry and fishing Industry and construction Service
1999 100.00 25.43 34.50 40.072000 100.00 24.53 36.73 38.742001 100.00 23.24 38.13 38.632002 100.00 23.03 38.49 38.482003 100.00 22.54 39.47 37.992004 100.00 21.81 40.21 37.982005 100.00 20.97 41.02 38.012006 100.00 20.40 41.54 38.062007 100.00 20.34 41.48 38.182008 100.00 22.21 39.84 37.952009 100.00 20.91 40.24 38.85
Source: General Statistical Office (GSO) of Vietnam, 2009
Although industry contributed 40.1 percent of GDP in 2004, it
employed only 12.9% of the workforce. In 2000, 22.4% of industrial
production was attributable to non-state activities. During 1994-2004,
industrial GDP grew at an average annual rate of 10.3 percent.
Manufacturing contributed 20.3 percent of GDP in 2004, while
employing 10.2 percent of the workforce. During 1994-2004,
manufacturing GDP grew at an average annual rate of 11.2 percent.
The top manufacturing sectors ― food processing, cigarettes and
tobacco, textiles, chemicals, and electrical goods ― experienced
rapid growth.
In 2004, services accounted for 38.2 percent of the gross domestic
product (GDP). During 1994-2004, GDP attributable to the services
sector grew at an average annual rate of 6.0 percent.
Table 3 provides detailed data for each sector of the Vietnamese
economy:
19
9519
9619
9719
9819
9920
0020
0120
0220
0320
0420
0520
0620
0720
08Pr
el.
2009
TOTA
L22
8892
2720
3631
3623
3610
1739
9942
4416
4648
1295
5357
6261
3443
7153
0783
9211
9742
6611
4371
514
8503
816
5838
9
By O
wner
ship
Stat
e91
977
1086
3412
6970
1444
0715
4927
1701
4118
4836
2056
5223
9736
2797
0432
2241
3642
5041
0883
5277
3258
2674
Non
-Sta
te12
2487
1432
9615
8203
1803
9619
6057
2128
7923
0247
2564
1328
4963
3273
4738
2804
4445
6052
7432
6836
5477
1688
Colle
ctiv
e23
020
2727
127
946
3213
135
347
3790
738
781
4280
045
966
5071
857
193
6362
271
059
8402
590
410
Priv
ate
1702
020
129
2262
526
153
2900
432
267
3824
344
491
5050
060
703
7461
291
710
1165
0515
5905
1826
84
Hou
seho
ld82
447
9589
610
7632
1221
1213
1706
1427
0515
3223
1691
2218
8497
2159
2625
0999
2892
2733
9868
4437
2449
8594
Fore
ign
inve
stmen
t se
ctor
1442
820
106
2845
036
214
4895
858
626
6621
273
697
8874
410
8256
1341
6616
5456
2054
0027
3652
3040
27
By K
ind
of E
cono
mic
Act
ivity
Agr
icul
ture
and
for
estry
5555
565
743
7069
681
474
8907
293
450
9395
410
3043
1141
6012
8519
1430
3716
0462
1864
6227
1477
2850
30
Fish
ing
6664
9771
1013
011
598
1265
114
906
1790
420
340
2412
527
474
3294
738
335
4612
458
409
6175
6
Min
ing
and
quar
ryin
g11
009
1528
219
768
2419
633
703
4260
644
345
4615
357
326
7249
288
897
9970
211
1700
1466
0716
5310
Man
ufac
turin
g34
318
4129
051
700
6190
670
767
8197
995
211
1102
8512
5476
1454
7517
3122
2070
2724
3142
3021
3633
3166
Elec
trici
ty,
gas
and
wat
er
supp
ly47
0165
3886
0410
339
1172
513
993
1602
818
201
2222
425
090
2892
933
464
3986
947
169
5859
2
Cons
truct
ion
1579
217
766
2052
220
858
2176
423
642
2793
131
558
3710
044
558
5327
664
503
7971
295
696
1102
55
Who
lesa
le a
nd r
etai
l tra
de;
repa
ir of
mot
or v
ehic
les,
mot
or c
ycle
s an
d pe
rson
al
and
hous
ehol
d go
ods
3749
143
125
4891
455
783
5938
462
836
6778
875
617
8329
796
995
1137
6813
2794
1564
4221
2139
2449
33
<Tab
le 1-3> G
ross
Dom
estic
Produc
t at C
urrent P
rice
s by Owne
rship a
nd b
y Kind o
f Eco
nomic A
ctivity
19
9519
9619
9719
9819
9920
0020
0120
0220
0320
0420
0520
0620
0720
08Pr
el.
2009
Hot
els
and
resta
uran
ts86
2597
7611
307
1240
413
412
1434
315
412
1715
418
472
2252
929
329
3586
144
992
5706
767
394
Tran
spor
t, sto
rage
and
co
mm
unic
atio
ns91
1710
390
1241
814
076
1554
617
341
1943
121
095
2472
530
402
3662
943
825
5111
866
359
7241
2
Fina
ncia
l in
term
edia
tion
4604
5148
5444
6274
7488
8148
8762
9763
1085
812
737
1507
217
607
2075
627
215
3161
7
Scie
ntifi
c ac
tiviti
es a
nd
tech
nolo
gy14
0516
2917
7420
2619
0223
4526
4630
0936
9443
1552
4760
5970
6592
9610
581
Real
esta
te,
rent
ing
and
busin
ess
activ
ities
1239
213
507
1535
517
683
1826
019
173
2158
924
452
2728
731
304
3363
536
814
4350
953
743
6023
4
Publ
ic a
dmin
istra
tion
and
defe
nse;
com
pulso
ry s
ocia
l se
curit
y82
7894
1710
460
1184
911
683
1206
612
784
1381
616
676
1906
123
038
2673
731
310
4127
947
042
Educ
atio
n an
d tra
inin
g82
9398
8711
274
1320
214
004
1484
116
245
1807
121
403
2333
526
948
3071
834
843
3826
142
780
Hea
lth a
nd s
ocia
l w
ork
3642
4007
4381
4979
5401
5999
6417
7057
8865
1085
112
412
1409
316
160
1917
821
537
Recr
eatio
nal,
cultu
ral
and
spor
ting
activ
ities
1259
1511
1844
2068
2378
2558
2800
2987
3376
3693
4158
4617
5200
5842
6964
Act
iviti
es o
f pa
rty a
nd o
f m
embe
rshi
p or
gani
zatio
ns22
328
144
357
758
461
465
171
277
488
510
5412
1714
2519
0920
46
Com
mun
ity,
soci
al a
nd
pers
onal
ser
vice
act
iviti
es49
7963
1978
5588
7493
2398
5310
412
1141
212
497
1435
416
293
1878
921
959
2870
433
843
Priv
ate
hous
ehol
ds w
ith
empl
oyed
per
sons
545
649
734
850
895
953
985
1037
1108
1237
1421
1642
1927
2551
2898
Sour
ce:
Gen
eral
Sta
tistic
al O
ffice
(G
SO)
of V
ietn
am,
2009
VIETNAM 575
3. Education System of Vietnam
Education in Vietnam is divided into five levels: pre-primary,
primary, intermediate (lower secondary), secondary (upper
secondary), and higher education. Formal education consists of
twelve years of basic education. Basic education consists of five
years of primary education; four years of intermediate education; and
three years of secondary education. The majority of basic education
students are enrolled on a half-day basis.
Vietnam is currently trying to overhaul its education system, with
a view to 1) preparing students for the increasing role of English
as the language of business; and 2) emphasizing the importance of
internationalizing the education system, to maintain a workforce
equipped to maintain the rapid economic growth of the last two
decades.
[Figure 1-1] The Education and Training System of Vietnam
<Tab
le 1-4> N
umber o
f Sch
ools a
nd C
lasses
of Gen
eral E
duc
ation
as o
f 30
Sep
tember
19
95 -
19
9619
96-
1997
1997
-19
9819
98-
1999
1999
-
2000
2000
-
2001
2001
-
2002
2002
-
2003
2003
-
2004
2004
-
2005
2005
-20
0620
06-
2007
2007
-20
0820
08-
2009
2009
-20
10N
umbe
r of
sch
ools
(Sch
ool)
2104
921
754
2266
423
414
2401
224
692
2522
525
825
2635
226
817
2722
727
593
2789
828
114
2840
8
Prim
ary
scho
ol11
701
1214
512
764
1325
913
517
1385
913
903
1416
314
346
1451
814
688
1483
414
933
1505
115
172
L
ower
sec
onda
ry s
choo
l59
0263
4062
5871
6474
1777
4180
9683
9687
4590
4193
8396
3597
8199
0210
064
U
pper
sec
onda
ry s
choo
l64
470
389
496
211
0112
5813
9615
3216
6418
2819
5220
4421
4921
9222
67
Prim
ary
& lo
wer
sec
onda
ry s
choo
l21
0118
3420
4713
4913
1611
8912
6511
9711
4310
3488
977
372
767
461
1
Low
er &
upp
er s
econ
dary
sch
ool
701
732
701
683
661
645
565
537
454
396
315
307
308
295
294
Num
ber
of c
lass
es (
Thou
s. O
f cl
asse
s)43
6.4
459.
747
6.9
494.
650
1.2
509.
651
8.4
522.
252
0.9
519.
750
8.7
501.
249
5.2
486.
248
4.5
P
rimar
y 31
0.3
317.
932
3.4
327.
332
2.4
320.
131
4.5
308.
829
9.4
288.
927
6.6
270.
226
6.4
265.
126
8.1
L
ower
sec
onda
ry10
4.3
117.
212
4.9
133.
413
9.5
144.
415
3.7
161.
316
5.7
170.
916
7.5
163.
816
0.2
154.
315
0.0
U
pper
sec
onda
ry
21.8
24.6
28.6
33.9
39.3
45.1
50.2
52.1
55.8
59.9
64.6
67.2
68.6
66.8
66.4
Inde
x(pr
evio
us y
ear
= 10
0) -
%Sc
hool
104.
710
3.3
104.
210
3.3
102.
610
2.8
102.
210
2.4
102.
010
1.8
101.
510
1.3
101.
110
0.8
101.
0
Prim
ary
scho
ol10
6.5
103.
810
5.1
103.
910
1.9
102.
510
0.3
101.
910
1.3
101.
210
1.2
101.
010
0.7
100.
810
0.8
L
ower
sec
onda
ry s
choo
l11
1.9
107.
498
.711
4.4
103.
610
4.4
104.
610
3.7
104.
210
3.4
103.
810
2.7
101.
510
1.2
101.
6
Upp
er s
econ
dary
sch
ool
104.
710
9.2
127.
710
7.6
114.
411
4.3
111.
010
9.7
108.
610
9.9
106.
810
4.7
105.
110
2.0
103.
4
Prim
ary
& lo
wer
sec
onda
ry s
choo
l82
.387
.311
1.6
65.9
97.6
90.3
106.
494
.695
.590
.586
.087
.094
.092
.790
.7
Low
er &
upp
er s
econ
dary
sch
ool
104.
510
4.4
95.8
97.4
96.8
97.6
87.6
95.0
84.5
87.2
79.5
97.5
100.
395
.899
.7Cl
ass
106.
610
5.3
103.
710
3.7
101.
310
1.7
101.
710
0.7
99.8
99.8
97.9
98.5
98.8
98.2
99.7
P
rimar
y10
3.7
102.
410
1.7
101.
298
.599
.398
.398
.297
.096
.595
.797
.798
.699
.510
1.1
L
ower
sec
onda
ry11
4.6
112.
410
6.6
106.
810
4.6
103.
510
6.4
104.
910
2.7
103.
198
.097
.897
.896
.397
.2
Upp
er s
econ
dary
114.
111
2.8
116.
311
8.5
115.
911
4.8
111.
310
3.8
107.
110
7.3
107.
810
4.0
102.
197
.499
.4
Sour
ce:
Gen
eral
Sta
tistic
al O
ffice
(G
SO)
of V
ietn
am,
2009
<Tab
le 1-5> N
umber o
f Te
ache
rs &
Pup
ils o
f Gen
eral E
duc
ation
(Dec
)
19
95
-199
619
96 -
19
9719
97 -
19
9819
98 -
19
9919
99 -
20
0020
00 -
20
0120
01 -
20
0220
02 -
20
0320
03 -
20
0420
04 -
20
0520
05-
2006
2006
-20
0720
07-
2008
2008
-20
0920
09-
2010
Num
ber
of
dire
ct
teac
hing
te
ache
rs (
Thou
s. of
per
s)49
2.752
1.056
5.660
4.563
1.766
1.769
4.172
3.575
5.477
1.078
0.578
9.680
0.680
6.981
8.7
P
rimar
y29
8.931
1.533
3.134
6.035
1.335
5.935
9.936
3.136
6.236
2.435
4.834
9.534
8.734
9.735
5.2
L
ower
sec
onda
ry15
4.416
7.018
4.220
2.721
6.223
3.825
4.127
1.829
0.430
2.531
0.231
4.931
7.531
7.031
7.2
U
pper
sec
onda
ry39
.442
.548
.355
.864
.272
.080
.188
.698
.810
6.111
5.512
5.213
4.414
0.214
6.3
Num
ber
of p
upils
(Th
ous
of
.pup
ils)
1556
1.016
348.0
1697
0.217
391.1
1768
5.317
776.1
1787
5.617
699.6
1750
5.417
122.6
1665
0.616
256.6
1568
5.215
127.9
1491
2.1
P
rimar
y10
228.8
1035
2.710
383.6
1022
3.910
033.5
9741
.193
15.3
8815
.783
46.0
7744
.873
04.0
7029
.468
60.3
6731
.669
08.0
L
ower
sec
onda
ry43
12.7
4839
.752
04.6
5514
.356
94.8
5863
.662
59.1
6429
.765
69.8
6616
.763
71.3
6152
.058
03.3
5468
.751
63.2
U
pper
sec
onda
ry10
19.5
1155
.613
82.0
1652
.919
57.0
2171
.423
01.2
2454
.225
89.6
2761
.129
75.3
3075
.230
21.6
2927
.628
40.9
Inde
x (P
revi
ous
year
= 1
00)
- %
Dire
ct t
each
ing
teac
her
105.4
105.7
108.6
106.9
104.5
104.7
104.9
104.2
104.4
102.1
101.2
101.2
101.4
100.8
101.5
P
rimar
y10
3.710
4.210
6.910
3.910
1.510
1.310
1.110
0.910
0.999
.097
.998
.599
.810
0.310
1.6
L
ower
sec
onda
ry10
8.610
8.211
0.311
0.010
6.710
8.110
8.710
7.010
6.810
4.210
2.610
1.510
0.899
.810
0.1
U
pper
sec
onda
ry10
6.210
7.911
3.611
5.511
5.111
2.111
1.311
0.611
1.510
7.410
8.910
8.410
7.310
4.310
4.4
Pupi
l10
7.110
5.110
3.810
2.510
1.710
0.510
0.699
.098
.997
.897
.297
.696
.596
.498
.6
P
rimar
y10
2.010
1.210
0.398
.598
.197
.195
.694
.694
.792
.894
.396
.297
.698
.110
2.6
L
ower
sec
onda
ry11
7.911
2.210
7.510
6.010
3.310
3.010
6.710
2.710
2.210
0.796
.396
.694
.394
.294
.4
U
pper
sec
onda
ry12
0.911
3.311
9.611
9.611
8.411
1.010
6.010
6.610
5.510
6.610
7.810
3.498
.396
.997
.0
Sour
ce:
Gen
eral
Sta
tistic
al O
ffice
(G
SO)
of V
ietn
am,
2009
578 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
University entrance is based on the scores achieved in the entrance
examination. High school graduates need high scores to be admitted
to universities. Securing a place in a public university is considered
a major step towards a successful career, especially for those from
rural areas or disadvantaged families. The pressure on the candidates,
therefore, remains very high, despite the measures taken to reduce
the importance of these exams. In 2004, it was estimated that nearly
one million students took the exam, but on average only 20% passed.
19
9519
9619
9719
9819
9920
0020
0120
0220
0320
0420
0520
0620
0720
08Pr
el.
2009
Num
ber
of s
choo
ls(*) (
Scho
ol)
178
191
202
214
230
277
322
369
393
403
P
ublic
109
9611
012
313
114
816
817
918
720
124
327
530
532
232
6
N
on-p
ublic
3023
2327
2934
4764
7177
Num
ber
of t
each
ers(
**)
(Tho
us.
pers
.)32
.335
.938
.740
.047
.648
.653
.456
.160
.765
.1
P
ublic
22.8
23.5
24.1
26.1
27.1
27.9
31.4
33.4
34.9
40.0
42.0
45.7
51.3
54.8
57.5
N
on-p
ublic
4.54.5
5.35.1
7.66.6
7.74.8
5.97.6
Num
ber
of s
tude
nts(
***)
(Th
ous.
Stud
ents)
899.5
974.1
1020
.711
31.0
1319
.813
87.1
1666
.216
03.5
1719
.517
96.2
P
ublic
297.9
509.3
662.8
682.3
734.9
795.6
873.0
908.8
993.9
1182
.012
26.7
1456
.714
14.7
1501
.315
47.4
N
on-p
ublic
103.9
101.1
111.9
137.1
137.8
160.4
209.5
188.8
218.2
248.8
Of
whi
ch:
Full-
time
train
ing
173.1
236.3
357.6
401.7
421.4
552.5
579.2
604.4
653.7
729.4
836.7
917.2
1033
.212
03.5
1295
.0
Publ
ic45
2.448
0.849
3.852
9.660
1.869
8.475
4.986
4.998
2.110
32.7
Non
-pub
lic10
0.198
.411
0.612
4.112
7.613
8.316
2.316
8.322
1.426
2.3
Num
ber
of g
radu
ates
(Th
ous.
stude
nts)
162.5
168.9
166.8
165.7
195.6
210.9
232.5
234.0
222.7
246.6
P
ublic
58.5
78.5
74.1
103.4
113.6
149.9
157.5
152.6
152.6
180.8
195.0
216.5
215.2
208.7
223.9
N
on-p
ublic
12.6
11.4
14.2
13.1
14.8
15.9
16.0
18.8
14.0
22.7
Inde
x (P
revi
ous
year
= 1
00)
- %
<Tab
le 1-6> U
nive
rsity
& C
ollege
Educ
ation
19
9519
9619
9719
9819
9920
0020
0120
0220
0320
0420
0520
0620
0720
08Pr
el.
2009
Scho
ol10
7.310
5.810
5.910
7.512
0.411
6.211
4.610
6.510
2.5
P
ublic
100.0
88.1
114.6
111.8
106.5
113.0
113.5
106.5
104.5
107.5
120.9
113.2
110.9
105.6
101.2
N
on-p
ublic
76.7
100.0
117.4
107.4
117.2
138.2
136.2
110.9
108.5
Teac
her
106.7
111.1
107.6
103.4
119.1
101.9
109.9
105.1
108.2
107.4
P
ublic
105.1
103.1
102.6
108.3
103.8
102.9
112.6
106.3
104.6
114.5
105.0
108.7
112.2
106.8
105.1
N
on-p
ublic
138.4
101.3
116.7
96.1
150.9
85.8
117.8
62.8
122.1
128.3
Stud
ent
109.3
108.3
104.8
110.8
116.7
105.1
120.1
96.2
107.2
104.5
P
ublic
146.5
171.0
130.1
102.9
107.7
108.3
109.7
104.1
109.4
118.9
103.8
118.8
97.1
106.1
103.1
N
on-p
ublic
117.8
97.3
110.6
122.6
100.5
116.4
130.6
90.1
115.5
114.0
Of
whic
h: F
ull-t
ime
train
ing
126.4
136.5
151.3
112.3
104.9
108.5
104.8
104.4
108.2
111.6
114.7
109.6
112.6
116.5
107.6
Publ
ic10
7.410
6.310
2.710
7.211
3.611
6.110
8.111
4.611
3.510
5.2
Non
-pub
lic11
4.011
2.311
2.670
.710
2.810
8.411
7.410
3.713
1.611
8.5
Gra
duat
e13
3.610
4.098
.799
.311
8.110
7.811
0.210
0.695
.211
0.7
P
ublic
158.5
134.2
94.4
139.5
109.9
131.9
105.1
96.9
100.0
118.5
107.8
111.0
99.4
97.0
100.5
N
on-p
ublic
157.0
90.4
124.7
91.8
113.5
107.9
100.2
117.5
74.5
162.5
(*)
From
200
8, i
nclu
de m
embe
r co
llege
s.(*
*) F
rom
200
9, e
xclu
ding
inv
ited
teac
hers
.(*
**)
From
200
9, e
xclu
ding
num
ber
of s
tude
nts
study
ing
seco
nd d
iplo
ma,
dist
ance
trai
ning
, com
plet
e kn
owle
dge
and
inte
r-le
vel d
iplo
ma.
Sour
ce:
Gen
eral
Sta
tistic
al O
ffice
(G
SO)
of V
ietn
am,
2009
VIETNAM 581
Section 2. Employment and Labor Market
1. Employment
In Vietnam, the labor force is understood as people from 15 years
old who may have a job or be unemployed. According to this
definition, in 2008, the labor force was 47.72 million and 49.1
million in 2009
In 2008, the female labor force was 23,066,670 people, accounting
for 48.33 percent of the total labor force. This rate slightly decreased
in comparison to that of 2000 (49.66 percent). The reason is that
the growth rate of the female labor force during the period of
2000-2008 is lower than that of the whole labor force (2.28 percent
yearly, compared to 2.71 percent yearly).
[Figure 1-2] Labor Force 2000-2008 (In Millions of Persons)
39.3 40.1 43.2 44.4 45.6 46.7 47.7
19.5 19.9 21.2 21.6 22.1 22.6 23.1
0102030405060
2000 2001 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Labour Force Female Labour Force
Source: Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Viet Nam 1996-2006- Labor - Social Publishing House, 2006 and MOLISA 2007. Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Vietnam 0n 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009.
582 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
Labor is concentrated in agricultural and rural areas. The scale
of rural labor in 2008 was about 35.58 million (increased by 5.6
million compared to 2000). The average annual number of rural
workers increased about 707 thousand, so the number of rural
workers accounted for 58.02% of the workforce of the increasing
labor force nationwide. However, the proportion of rural workers has
decreased from 77.42% in 2000, to 73.51% in 2008.
[Figure 1-3] Structure of Workforce by Region and Sex
Source: Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Viet Nam 1996-2006- Labor - Social Publishing House, 2006 and MOLISA 2007. Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Vietnam 0n 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009.
VIETNAM 583
<Table 1-7> Labor Force in 2000-2008 2000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2015
Working age population 15+ (‘000s) 54284.48 60556.74 62441.45 64867.24 66967.58 68106.53 69587 Male 25961.70 29221.81 30143.43 31367.51 32401.79 33290.47 Female 28322.78 31334.93 32298.01 33499.73 34565.79 34816.06Labor force (‘000s) 39253.33 43242.04 44382.09 45579.43 46707.92 47719.13 53127 Male 19760.05 22059.17 22757.86 23430.19 24096.61 24652.46 27629 Female 19493.28 21182.87 21624.23 22149.24 22611.31 23066.67 25498Not in labor force (‘000) 15031.15 17314.70 18059.36 19287.82 20259.65 20387.40 16460 Male 6201.65 7162.64 7385.57 10069.54 8305.18 8638.01 Female 8829.50 10152.06 10673.79 11350.49 11954.48 11749.39Labor force participation rate (%) 72.31 71.41 71.08 70.27 69.75 70.0 76.35 Male 76.11 75.49 75.50 69.94 74.37 74.05 Female 68.83 67.60 66.95 66.12 65.42 66.25
Source: Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Viet Nam 1996-2006- Labor - Social Publishing House, 2006 and MOLISA 2007. Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Vietnam 0n 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009.
2. Unemployment
Unemployment in Vietnam is understood as people from 15 years
old who, in the week before the survey, were unemployed, but were
able to work and actively looked for jobs. In other words, the
unemployed is considered as a part of the labor force.
In line with economic growth, the unemployment rate in Vietnam
in the last several years decreased. The unemployment rate of the
labor force representing working ages in urban areas was 4.8 percent
in 2006; it decreased to 2.42 percent in 2007, and in 2008 it was
2.20 percent.
584 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
[Figure 1-4] Unemployment Rate 2002 - 2009 (%)
Source: Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Viet Nam 1996-2006- Labor - Social Publishing House, 2006 and MOLISA 2007. Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Vietnam 0n 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009
The majority of the unemployed people have low-skilled technical
qualifications. Of the total unemployed, the proportion of
under-medium qualified ones takes the majority (63.89% in 2004,
and 53.62% in 2007). If classified under the qualified and technical
category, the majority of unemployed people (88.20% in 2003, and
76.17% in 2008) have qualifications under secondary technical
school.
The job shortage has gradually improved, and the majority of
unemployed persons have not had any skills and technical
qualifications. The unemployment rate in rural areas is higher than
that in urban areas, and unemployed persons are mainly those with
no technical qualifications (85.4%).
3. The number of workers related to jobs
In 2008, there were 46,256,580 workers situated in jobs relevant
VIETNAM 585
to their training; females made up 48.25 percent of this figure. The
number of employed persons has been rising dramatically during the
past 4 years, from 39.6 million in 2003, to 46.25 million in 2008.
In 2008, two thirds (66.92%) of the population aged 15 and above
(age 15+) had jobs relevant to their training. This ratio has been
decreasing during the past 10 years, from 70.68 percent in 2000, to
67.92 per cent in 2008.
<Table 1-8> Number of Employment 2000-20082000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Employment (‘000s) 38367.59 41175.72 42315.62 43452.40 44548.93 45578.75 46256.58 Male 19292.05 20959.21 21649.33 22312.83 22893.51 23525.30 23949.33 Female 19075.54 20216.51 20666.29 21139.57 21655.41 22053.45 22307.25Employment - to-population 15+ ratio (%) 70.68 70.39 69.88 69.59 68.68 68.06 67.92 Male 74.31 74.40 74.09 74.02 68.34 72.60 71.94 Female 67.35 66.66 65.95 65.45 64.64 63.80 64.07
Source: Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Viet Nam 1996-2006- Labor - Social Publishing House, 2006 and MOLISA 2007. Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Vietnam 0n 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009.
4. Employment by industry
The data shows that, the proportion of employed workers in the
agriculture-forestry-aquaculture sector continued to decrease, from
56.7 percent in 2005, to 52.5 percent in 2008. In contrast, the
proportion of employed workers in the industry-construction sector
and services sector increased continuously, from 17.9% and 25.4%
in 2005, to 20.8% and 26.7%, respectively.
586 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
There is a big difference among these sectors in term of
employment structure. The employment proportion of the agriculture-
forestry-aquaculture sector was always the highest, followed by that
of the services sector and industry-construction sector.
With respect to transformation in employment structure, the trend
is that the proportion of employment in the agriculture-forestry-
aquaculture sector is decreasing, while that of services sector and
industry-construction sector is increasing. This trend also reflects that
of industrialization and modernization, as well as integration in the
national course of economic restructuring.
<Table 1-9> Employment by Industry on 1/7/2008
Total
By IndustryAgriculture- Forestry-Aquaculture
Industrie-Construction Services
2005 people 43452.4 24637.51 7777.98 11036.91% 100 56.7 17.9 25.4
2006 people 44548.93 24368.26 8152.45 12028.21% 100 54.7 18.3 27
people 45578.75 24316.26 8819.49 124432007 % 100 53.35 19.35 27.3
people 46256.46 24284.64 9621.34 12350.472008 % 100 52.5 20.8 26.7
Source: Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Viet Nam 1996-2006- Labor - Social Publishing House, 2006 and MOLISA 2007. Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Vietnam 0n 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009.
VIETNAM 587
<Table 1-10> Employment by Kind of Job in 2000-2008Unit: Percent
2000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008Total 100 100 100 100 100 100∙ Agriculture and forestry 62.46 55.37 53.61 51.78 50.2 48.87∙ Fishery 2.63 3.38 3.49 3.59 3.7 3.75∙ Mining and quarrying 0.68 0.78 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.96∙ Manufacturing 9.44 11.62 12.34 13.05 13.5 14.04∙ Electricity, gas and water supply 0.22 0.33 0.36 0.4 0.45 0.5∙ Construction 2.77 4.62 4.7 4.93 5.13 5.33∙ Whole sale and retail trade; repair of
motor vehicles, motor cycles and personal and household goods 10.36 11.46 11.6 11.8 11.98 11.96
∙ Hotel and restaurants 1.82 1.82 1.8 1.81 1.84 1.85∙ Transport, storage and communications 3.12 2.89 2.84 2.8 2.76 2.72∙ Financial intermediations 0.2 0.3 0.37 0.42 0.48 0.49∙ Other 6.3 7.43 8.09 8.57 9.06 9.53
5. Employment by position-based
The number of employed people in Vietnam’s work force accounts
for a large proportion. However, employed laborers are mainly in
the form of self-employment or household economy, especially in
the agricultural and rural sectors. In 2005, the number of laborers
of this kind accounted for 73.95% in the employed work force. In
2008, this proportion was 67.34%.
588 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-11> Employment by Position-Based in 2000-2008Unit: Percent
2000 2005 2006 2007 2008Percentage shares (%) 100 100 100 100 100Paid worker 18.43 25.65 21.49 30.3 29.5Enterprise owner 0.21 0.4 0.91 3.2 3.08Self employed 43.02 40.96 39.16 53.5 48.25Unpaid Household Worker 37.04 32.99 38.43 12.9 19.09Others 1.3 0 0 0.1 0.07Source: Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Viet Nam 1996-2006-
Labor - Social Publishing House, 2006 and MOLISA 2007. Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Vietnam 0n 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009.
The table shows that the proportion of paid workers tends to
increase, while the proportion of self-employed and unpaid
household workers tends to decrease, with marginal differences.
6. Employment by ownership sector
By ownership, the rate of workers, who were employed in state
enterprises, was decreasing (from 9.9 percent in 2004, to 9.3 percent
in 2008), and the rate of workers employed in the foreign investment
sector was increasing, from 1.5 percent, to 3.1 percent.
VIETNAM 589
<Table 1-12> Structure of Workers by Ownership in 2004-2008Unit: Percent
By ownership Total State-Owned sector
Non-State Owned Sector
Foreign Investment Sector
A 1 2 3 42004 100.0 9.9 88.6 1.52006 100.0 9.2 89.2 1.62007 100.0 9.3 88.7 2.02008 100.0 9.0 87.9 3.1
Source: Statistical Data of Employment and Unemployment in Vietnam 1996-2006, Labor-Social Publishing House, 2006, and MOLISA 2007. Statistical Data of Employment and Unemployment in Vietnam on 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009.
7. Employment by job performed
Related to jobs performed, among the employed people, manual
employees account for a large proportion (61.68% in 2005, and
61.50% in 2008). Those who belong to the highly skilled and middle
skilled levels in technical areas account for 7.90% (about 3.5 million
in 2008). This shows that the quality of work force in Vietnam is
still restrictive, which reflects the current technology level in
Vietnam’s industries. Skilled craftsmen in 2008 made up 11.50% of
the total employed workers.
590 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
<Table 1-13> Employment by Occupation Performed in 2008Unit: Percent
Job Groups 2004 2006 2007 2008Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
1- Administrator 0.74 3.22 3.82 3.502- High level of technical profession 3.49 3.90 4.02 4.103- Middle level of technical profession 3.18 2.71 2.80 3.804- Professional worker 0.99 0.89 0.90 1.005- Staff for personal service and social
security 8.53 6.41 6.90 6.60
6- Skilled employees in agriculture, forestry 6.29 4.60 4.62 4.30
7- Skilled craftman 12.38 12.14 11.05 11.508- Manichary installer and operator 3.39 3.63 4.87 3.709- Manual employees 61.01 62.51 61.02 61.50Source: Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Viet Nam 1996-2006-
Labor - Social Publishing House, 2006 and MOLISA 2007. Statistical data of employment and unemployment in Vietnam 0n 1/7/2007 and 1/7/2008, MOLISA, Vietnam, 2009
Section 3. The TVET System in Vietnam
1. In General
1.1 Establishing practical technical training for socio-economic
development
According to the Law on Education in 2005 and Vocational
Training Law in 2006, the vocational training system has been
developed with three training levels to provide direct technical labor
for production, business, and services. Accordingly, legal documents
guiding vocational training operations have been promulgated timely
VIETNAM 591
and adequately, such as the list of training occupations; regulations
on developing frame curriculum; documents on procedures for
establishing vocational secondary schools and vocational colleges;
documents on monitoring vocational training quality; and other
relevant policies and mechanisms. The above-mentioned legal
documents and policies have created a comprehensive and consistent
legal corridor for implementing vocational training effectively,
proving the soundness of targets set-forth in Education Strategy
2001-2010.
The master plan for developing vocational colleges, vocational
secondary schools, and vocational training centers by 2010 and
directions towards 2020 has been implemented. The network of
vocational colleges, vocational secondary schools, and vocational
training centers has been diversified in terms of ownerships and
training modes. As compared to that in 2001, the number of
vocational training establishments has increased by 3.3 times1).
These establishments are allocated according to development
conditions of individual economic regions. The master plan is
currently being studied and supplemented to facilitate vocational
training establishments in their delivery of national standards
occupations which are comparable with training levels of developed
countries.
1) As of July 2009, there are 102 vocational colleges, 265 vocational secondary schools, more than 700 vocational training centers and hundreds of universities, colleges, professional secondary schools and enterprises participating in vocational training
592 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
1.2 Expanding the scale of vocational training by level and
adjusting training structure
Vocational training has been transferred from supply-driven to
demand-driven by various policies and measures, such as developing
and issuing a list of training occupations, with 385 occupations listed
at the secondary level, and 301 occupations, at the college level -
all suitable to the labor demand of enterprises and labor market. Pilot
application of training orders on the basis of enterprises' demand and
local socio-economic orientations will be conducted. Through this,
vocational training establishments need to link training plans with
the demand of enterprises. This is a preparatory step to transform
training methods, from state-granted, to state-ordered.
To contribute to economic and labor restructuring, in parallel with
overall mechanism and policies, vocational training for farmers and
labor in intensive farming areas (including tobacco, tea, and rubber
farming areas) has been implemented on a pilot basis.
Given timely mechanisms and policies, vocational training has
been gradually restructured in relation to the structure of labor
demand by technical level; industries and trades; and regions.
1.3 Improving the quality and efficiency of vocational training
During the implementation of Education Strategy, beside scale
expansion, attention has been paid to the improvement of vocational
training quality and efficiency. Some progress has been made.
Investment in a vocational training network has transitioned from
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a dispersed and average approach, to a concentrated method, through
to involvement by key vocational training establishments. At the
same time, investment should be focused on vocational training
establishments in areas with difficulties so that conditions ensuring
vocational training quality will improve.
The contingent of vocational trainers has increased in terms of
quantity and gradually improved in quality2). It is being standardized
by such indicators as: training level and pedagogical and
occupational skills (currently, occupational skill is a weakness of
vocational teachers). A training program for vocational trainers of
the UK is currently applied on a pilot basis; this is a training
program in which occupational skills of trainers are appreciated. A
model is being implemented for establishing vocational pedagogical
faculties in vocational colleges to train vocational pedagogical
professionals and trainers in occupational skills. At present, there are
only five pedagogical technical schools which cannot meet the
demand for vocational trainers.
The number of vocational managerial staff in vocational training
establishments, ministries, industries, and localities has increased, but
their management skills are still weak. Short-term supplementary
training programs for this target group have been developed, but the
content is limited. A pilot supplementary training program for
vocational managerial staff of the UK has been implemented.
Sets of frame curriculum at vocational secondary and vocational
2) In 2008, there were 10,195 trainers in vocational schools and vocational training centers — a figure 2.88 times higher than that in 1998.
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college levels have been promulgated. Vocational training programs
have been developed using advanced methods, with participation by
enterprises3).
Over the past ten years, infrastructure and equipment of many
vocational training establishments have been strengthened by
national targeted programs and ODA-funded projects4). Some key
occupations are equipped with modern technology relevant to
practical production machinery.
Owing to investment in training conditions, the quality and
occupational skills of graduates from vocational training centers have
been enhanced5). In occupations like welding; seamanship; hotel and
restaurant services; cooking; postal services and telecommunications;
oil and gas; and aviation, the occupational skills of Vietnamese labor
have reached international standards. Vietnam has attended five
ASEAN professional competitions, winning two first prizes and one
second prize. Vietnam also attended two world professional
competitions, awarded with one excellent occupational certificate in
2007, and five corresponding certificates in 2009, ranking the 30th
among 46 countries participating in the competition. The trained
3) To date, 108 sets of frame curriculum have been issued at vocational secondary and vocational college levels.
4) National targeted programs and ODA projects have invested in 100 vocational schools and 290 vocational training centers
5) According to the evaluation of enterprises, 80-85 percent of trained labor is used at proper training level; 30 percent of them gained a good or higher skill level (Survey of General Department of Vocational Train in 2006).
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labor force has undertaken many job positions which require high
occupational skills that used to be performed by foreign workers.
In implementing government guidelines on demand-driven
vocational training, many localities, ministries, and industries have
provided successful leadership of certain goals. Vocational training
establishments have adjusted training activities towards demand-
driven training, matching the needs of enterprises; creating domestic
jobs; and preparing for labor export. About 70 percent of trainees
find jobs, or are self-employed right after graduation. In some
occupations, this proportion reaches more that 90 percent. Though
at the beginning stage, vocational training for farmers, especially for
workers in intensive farming areas, has gained manifest
achievements. Thanks to vocational training, farmers gain new
knowledge and improve occupational skills, leading to increases in
labor productivity and contributing to poverty reduction in rural area
s6). Vocational training has not only contributed to domestic job
creation, but also improved human resource quality for labor export7);
this helps improve income and stabilize lives of workers and their
families.
In general, vocational training is taking steps to meet the demand
of technical workers of enterprises and the labor market. Vietnamese
workers are now almost able to take on key positions in the
6) In some intensive farming areas, people's labor productivity after completing vocational training increases by 1.5 - 2 times.
7) According to the Management Boards of Overseas Labor, the proportion of labor with occupational skills is about 25 percent of total workers dispatched to work abroad.
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production line, even in high-tech industries, making contributions
to the improvement of productivity, as well as products’
competitiveness.
1.4 Weakness and causes
Weakness:
∙ The system of practical technical training with three levels has
been newly established. The vocational training scale of
establishments’ remains small, especially the training capacity
at high level, which has not met the demand for highly skilled
labor for spearhead and key industries and for labor export;
∙ The share of the trained labor force of Vietnam remains
relatively low, as compared to some countries in the region8).
In the context of international economic integration, this is the
weakness in competition, and it imposes the risk of importing
foreign labor,9) while domestic workers are still under-
employed;
∙ Training structure by level and occupations has been irrelevant,
not matched as required by the labor structure of industries and
labor market; and
∙ In general, Vietnamese labor is still weak in labor discipline,
8) Evaluation of the ADB sho that the rate of trained labor force of Thailand and Singapore reaches about 60 percent.
9) According to preliminary statistics, there are about 80,000 foreign laborers currently working in Vietnam.
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working style, health, creative capacity, and communication
skills.
Causes:
∙ Different government levels and sectors have not paid proper
attention to investment in vocational training development;
∙ Many vocational training establishments have not developed the
interrelation with enterprises in vocational training and not been
active in conducting demand-driven training;
∙ No synchronous investment has been made to establish key and
advanced occupations to train workers at high level, meeting the
labor demand of spearhead industrial zones, key economic regions,
to develop special occupations in regions and sub-region, and
to provide high-level skilled workers for labor export;
∙ The contingent of vocational trainers is insufficient in terms of
quantity and occupational skills (as regards to theoretical
teachers). Infrastructure and equipment of many vocational
training establishments are poor and outdated;
∙ The activities of vocational information, promotion, and career
guidance are not strong, and have not provided necessary
information for pupils and youth to select suitable learning path;
∙ Social resources have not been mobilized thoroughly. The
spending on vocational training out of total state budget for
education and training is still low;10) and
10) In 2001, spending on vocational training out of the state budget for education and training was 4.9 percent and it increased to 7.5 percent in 2008.
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∙ The government administration apparatus over vocational
training at provincial and district levels is not corresponding to
the functions and tasked assigned. The capacity of vocational
managerial staff is limited, not professional, and unable to
satisfy job requirements.
2. Implementation of vocational capability development
2.1 Type of courses, number of courses for each type, number
of trainees, number of facilities, etc.
Many policies on expanding vocational training scale have been
issued, such as policies on formal vocational training; regular
vocational training; vocational training in enterprises and trade
villages; and the training for farmers, demobilized soldiers, ethnic
minority, the disabled, and the poor. As a result, the scale of
vocational training enrollment has been expanded rapidly, 2 times
higher than that in 200111), raising the proportion of the trained labor
force to 26 percent in 2008. This proportion is expected to go up
to 28 percent in 2009, and 30 percent in 2010. Thus, it will be two
years ahead of the target set-forth in Education Strategy, which is
26 percent.
11) On average, vocational training enrollment in 2001 - 2008 increased by 6.5 percent per year; 8.1 million people were trained, of which 1.45 million people received long-term vocational training (an increase of 15 percent per year) and 6.65 million people attended short-term vocational training (an increase of 6 percent per year).
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<Table 1-14> Vocational Training Enrollment Targets and Scale in 2001-2008
Target 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008Total2001-2008
INew vocational training enrollments 887,300 1,005,000 1,074,100 1,153,000 1,207,000 1,340,000 1,436,500 1,538,000 9,640,900
Of which, non-public schools 170,858 174,630 227,953 291,171 362,271 445,000 514,443 - 2,186,326
1One-year or more vocational training 126,100 146,500 176,400 202,700 230,000 260,000
* 305.500 258,000 1,705,200
Of which, non-public schools 2,522 2,930 3,528 6,081 7,620 13,000 16,803 - 52,484
2Less than one-year vocational training 761,200 858,500 897,700 950,300 977,000 1,080,000 1,131,000 1,280,000 7,935,700
Of which, non-public schools 168,330 171,700 224,425 285,090 354,651 432,000 497,640 - 2,133,836
IIVocational Training Scale 995,800 1,131,100 1,220,600 1,329,400 1,409,700 1,570,000 1,696,500 - 9,353,100
Of which, non-public schools 174,500 175,789 230,883 294,568 368,930 456,500 528,743 - 2,229,913
1One-year or more vocational training 234,600 272,600 322,900 379,100 432,700 490,000 565,500 - 2,697,400
Of which, non-public schools 3,560 4,089 6,458 9,478 14,279 24,500 31,103 - 93,467
2Less than one-year vocational training 761,200 858,500 897,700 950,300 977,000 1,080,000 1,131,000 - 6,655,700
Of which, non-public schools 168,330 171,700 224,425 285,090 354,651 432,000 497,640 - 2,133,836
Source: General Department of Vocational Training, 2009
2.2 Vocational training agencies network
The vocational training agency network has been developed in
accordance with the renovation of the master plan, and it has covered
the whole country with diversification of ownership form and
training method. For the last 8 years, the number of vocational
training schools has increased 2 times; the number of vocational
training centers has increased more than 5 times.
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<Table 1-15> Number of Vocational Training Schools, Vocational Training
Centers, and Others, as of 30 June 2009.
Regions
TotalVocational Training College
Vocational Secondary
Schools
Vocational Training Schools
Vocational Training Centre
Other types of Vocational Training
Units
Total
Of which public
schools
Total
Of which public
schools
Total
Of which public
schools
Total
Of which public
schools
Total
Of which public
schools
Total
Of which public
schools
Total 2.155 1.301 75 64 204 153 40 19 684 433 1.152 6291 North East 232 175 8 8 20 8 2 1 98 64 104 852 North West 38 32 1 1 5 4 2 2 14 12 16 13
3Red River Delta 610 383 34 29 81 53 25 8 157 101 313 198
4North Central Coast 238 169 7 6 23 23 6 5 82 58 120 77
5South Central Coast 213 146 6 5 20 17 3 2 63 49 121 73
6Central Highlands 60 37 2 2 4 4 2 1 25 14 27 16
7 South East 420 165 12 9 33 27 0 0 133 45 242 85
8Mekong River Delta 344 194 5 4 18 18 0 0 112 90 209 82
Source: General Department of Vocational Training, 2009
2.3 Vocational trainers:
From 200 to 2008, there have been 12,000 cycles of teacher
training, improving the status of professional qualifications, skills,
technology, and methodology. Updated technology and advanced
teaching methodologies, in particular, contributed to the health of
TVET.
The contingent of vocational trainers have increased in terms of
both quality and quantity; for the school year 2007-2008, there have
been 20,195 teachers working in all vocational schools and centers,
representing an increase of 2.4 times over the to 1997-1998 school
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year. In addition, there are thousands of teachers working in other
units that have been involved in vocational training.
About 95% of vocational trainers have met the professional
standards to qualify as trainer-- the proportion of trainers with
college or university level and above is 60% currently.
<Table 1-16> Number and Structure of Vocational Training Trainers by
Qualification in 2008
VT schoolsTotal of
VT trainers
QualificationDoctor Master University College Technician Others
Number % Num
ber % Number % Num
ber % Number % Num
ber %
A B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
I VT schools and VT centre 20,195 83 0.41 927 4.59 9,707 48.07 3,663 18.14 3,339 16.53 2,476 12.26
1 Vocational Training College 4,678 23 0.49 363 7.76 2,856 61.05 633 13.53 506 10.82 297 6.35
2 Vocational Secondary Schools 9,583 55 0.57 388 4.05 4,748 49.55 1,820 18.99 1,319 13.76 1,253 13.08
3 Vocational Training Centre 5,934 5 0.08 176 2.97 2,103 35.44 1,210 20.39 1,514 25.51 926 15.60
IIOther types of
Vocational Training Units
15,767 105 0.67 2,667 16.92 6,767 42.92 2,264 14.36 2,005 12.72 1,959 12.42
Total 35,962 188 0.52 3,594 9.99 16,474 45.81 5,927 16.48 5,344 14.86 4,435 12.33
Source: General Department of Vocational Training, 2009Constraints: The contingent of vocational trainers is still limited in terms of quality
and quantity to fully respond to practical demands, especially for the vocational training centers in local areas and private agencies.
2.4 Vocational Training Managerial Cadre
The number of vocational managerial staff in vocational training
establishments, ministries, industries, and localities has increased, but
their management skills are still weak. There are short-term
supplementary training programs for this target group, but the
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content is limited. A pilot supplementary training program for
vocational managerial staff of the UK has been implemented.
<Table 1-17> Number and Qualification of Vocational Training Managerial
Cadre in 2000-2008
Vocational Training Managerial Cadre 2000 2005 2008
Total 148 173 233Qualification- Doctor 0 0 0- Master 1 5 9- University 106 136 199- College 27 20 15- others 13 13 10
Source: General Department of Vocational Training, 2009
2.5 Training Program, Curricular :
A number of training programs have been reformed in accordance
with the requirements of practical production. By 2009, 108 new
vocational training curriculum frameworks were developed for the
vocational training college level and high level.
Constraint: Although training programs and curriculum have been
revised and updated, they have not responded to the requirements
of the market.
2.6 Vocational Training Infrastructure and Equipment
Over the past ten years, infrastructure and equipment of many
vocational training establishments have been strengthened by
national targeted programs and ODA-funded projects. National
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targeted programs and ODA projects have invested in 100 vocational
schools and 290 vocational training centers.
Constraint: There is poor training and learning equipment of
newly established vocational training schools and centers in some
provinces. Only 20%-25% of total vocational training agencies have
invested in relevant level of equipment. The rest are installed with
equipment for fundamental practices.
3. Public Vocational Training Development Institution
3.1 Training Capacity
By the end of 2008, nationwide there are a total of 1,268 public
vocational training institutions, of which: 70 are vocational training
colleges; 171 are public vocational training high schools; 434 are
vocational training centers; and about 590 are other institutions that
provide vocational training.
Most of the public vocational training schools have small training
capacities:
∙ Only 6% of total public vocational training schools have
designated intake capacities of over 1500 students /school year;
∙ About 15% of total public vocational training schools have
intake capacities under 300 students /school year; and
∙ Up to 50% of total public vocational training schools have
intake capacities between 300 and 500 students /school year.
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The actual intake capacities of the public vocational training
schools are 17% higher than its designated capacities.
3.2 Equipment and Facilities
In recent years, a number of public vocational training schools
have been equipped by some international and national projects, but
in general, equipment and facilities for skill practice and practical
section are short in quantity and backward in quality. Only 35% of
total facilities and equipment at current vocational schools are
considered relatively adequate for today’s production processes and
technologies. Meanwhile, over 9% are too old and under-developed.
4. Support for Vocational Training by Private Firms
The guideline on diversification of resources for vocational
training has been translated into initial achievement. Many
organizations, enterprises, and individuals have invested in setting
up vocational training agencies; as a result, the share of financial
investment from the non-state sector was increased to 40% in 2008.
The number of private agencies accounts for 34.1% in 2008, of
which the vocational training schools and centers amount to 24.5%.
There has been strong participation of socio-political organizations,
with respect to the encouragement and facilitation of their
membership to attend vocational training courses.
During the several recent years, the state has provided support to
private vocational training units, in term of provision of training
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curriculum; critical equipment; and training of vocational teachers.
Consequently, the vocational training capacity of such units has been
much improved.
Enterprises or big companies have provided support for vocational
training, such as receiving apprentices; funding vocational training
equipment; and providing scholarships for students. Enterprises have
also collaborated with vocational training schools to develop the list
of trades and vocations; designing training curriculum; and sending
experienced experts to provide practical guidance for students.
However, in general, there is still weak cooperation between
enterprises, including private enterprises and vocational training
agencies. Enterprises have not adequately grasped their responsibility
in vocational training, and there are no regulatory provisions
governing their duties.
Section 4. Governance of the TVET system
1. Institutional Framework
1.1 National context and the preparation for vocational training
development in the next period
In the context of globalization and international economic
integration, cooperation is always accompanied by increasingly fierce
competition. In this setting, quality of human resources will be the
“key” to creating competitive advantage.
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Globalization and international economic integration create capital
flows from developed countries to developing ones, as well as labor
movement among countries. As a result, resources will be
internationalized, resulting in new international labor divisions.
Workers in developing countries, including Vietnam, on one hand,
will have chance to take part in the international labor market; on
the other hand, they will cope with increasing competition, even in
the domestic labor market. Therefore, human resource quality has
increasingly become a core issue and determinant of an individual
country’s competitiveness.
International economic integration facilitates the flows of training
services from developed countries into the developing ones, which
become increasingly more popular. This is not only a challenge, but
also an opportunity for developing countries to access an advanced
education and training to early integrate into the world’s knowledge
economy.
The emerging knowledge economy and vigorously developing
science and technology of the world, especially with the development
of information technology, have removed distance and created
linkage among economies. Thanks to IT, less developed countries
stand greater chances of quickly acquiring scientific and technology
achievements, reducing the development gap with first world
countries.
Successfully applied in developed countries, demand-driven
training has become an effective training approach. ILO’s Global
Work Program has recommended that countries arrange flexible
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vocational training in response to the labor market demand of
creating decent work.
With rapid global growth in science and technology, enhanced by
the usage of advanced technical technology, many new careers and
occupations will be developed. Along this line, vocational training
needs to be regularly updated and improved with more sophisticated,
or even new, training curriculum to prepare a contingent of savvy,
qualified technical staff, versed in new and modern technology.
National context and the preparation for vocational training
development have set the context for the next period. According to
strategic orientation, by 2020, Vietnam will basically become an
industrialized and modern country with robust changes in economic
and labor structure12). A modern industry requires a highly skilled
labor force, and labor in agriculture also needs to be modernized.
As a result, vocational training should be expanded and improved
in terms of the structure of technical levels; the structure of training
occupations; and vocational training, structured by region and area.
Vietnam has become an official member of WTO. In addition to
increasing cooperation, competition has also become increasingly
fierce. It is necessary to train a labor force with high vocational
skills, including “hard skills” (i.e. professional skills) and “soft
skills” (i.e. creativeness, adaptability to changes, communication
capacity, and culture) to continue contributing to the economy’s
competitiveness.
12) According to the World Bank, in order to become an industrial country, the share of agriculture in GDP needs to be less than 10 percent.
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This is a big challenge because, at present, Vietnam’s human
resource quality and competitiveness are still low. In general,
Vietnam is still a less developed, agricultural, and poor country13),
and its human resource quality is still limited. According to the
World Bank’s evaluation, the quality of Vietnam’s human resources
received 3.79 points in 10-point scale, ranking 11th out of 12 Asian
countries. This is one of the main reasons for Vietnam’s low
competitiveness. In 2006, Vietnam was ranked 77th out of 125
countries and economies.14) Therefore, it is necessary to boost the
improvement of education, training, and vocational training,
especially high-level vocational training.
In 2008, Vietnam’s population was about 85.7 million people,
ranking 3rd in ASEAN and 13th in the world. The young population
and labor force are not only advantages, but also challenges to
Vietnam in the fields of vocational training, job creation, and poverty
reduction.
The plan for developing industries until 2020, which addresses the
need for human resources at various technical levels, requires that
the Vocational Training Strategy should be developed appropriately.
13) According to the UN’s Human Development Report (2008) and the World Bank’s report (2009) it may take Vietnam 51 years to catch up with Indonesia; 95 years to keep pace with Thailand; and even 158 years to catch up with Singapore in terms of income per capita.
14) According to the World Economic Forum (WEF) (2006), in 2005 Vietnam was ranked 79th among 120countries.
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1.2 Opportunities and Challenges
The international and national contexts both create great
opportunities and significant challenges to vocational training in
Vietnam.
Opportunities for vocational training:
∙ The government, from central to local levels, industries,
enterprises, and society, have been paying attention to and
investing in vocational training;
∙ Vietnam has maintained high economic growth over years,
creating many jobs which have attracted skilled labor; and
∙ Greater international economic integration is a good opportunity
for Vietnam’s vocational training to quickly access the
experience and achievements in vocational training of countries
in the region and in the world.
Challenges to vocational training:
∙ Opening the labor market in the process of international
integration creates severe competition between Vietnam’s direct
technical workers and other countries’ technical workers, not
only in the international labor market, but also in the domestic
one. There has been a phenomenon that some enterprises have
to import direct technical workers at high level from other
countries. Therefore, the risk is emerging that Vietnam’s direct
technical workers cannot compete with their foreign
counterparts working in Vietnam;
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∙ In order to expand the scale of vocational training and improve
its quality, especially the high-level skilled labor force, huge
resources are needed to upgrade infrastructure and equipment,
as well as enhance the quality of vocational teachers and
managers. Meanwhile, investment in vocational training is still
limited.
∙ Vietnam’s economy is transitioning to a socialism-oriented
market economy, thus requiring structural and vocational
training reforms relevant to the new situation.
The international and national context requires Vietnam to uphold
its advantages; grip opportunities to renew and develop vocational
training towards modernization; and provide high quality human
resources for industrialization and modernization. These factors will
facilitate labor export and, international economic integration;
contribute to job creation; and improve workers’ living standards.
Reforming and developing vocational training is an objective,
pressing, and long-term requirement.
2. Organizations Involved and Total System (including
Functions and Responsibilities of Both Central and
Local Governments)
2.1 Development of vocational training establishment network
∙ The network of vocational training establishments will be
planned by training occupations and training levels on the basis
of socio-economic development strategy and the master plan of
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the whole country, industries, regions, sub-regions, and localities.
∙ The network of vocational training establishments will be built,
as follows:
◦ Develop vocational colleges and vocational secondary
schools, which are capable of training some national
standard occupations; develop vocational colleges and
professional secondary schools capable of training regional
and international standard occupations to meet the demand
for high-quality labor in spearhead industries, economic
zones, and labor export; realize the tasks of training and
supplementary training in occupational skills to grant
occupational skill certificates for vocational trainers. It is
expected that each province will be able to train at least two
national standard occupations for the demand of local labor
market;
◦ Prioritize the development of vocational colleges and
vocational secondary schools in the South West, Central
Highland, the North West regions, provinces challenged by
the task of poverty reduction, and reduce the gap in
socio-economic development among regions and localities;
◦ Develop vocational training centers to facilitate vocational
universalization; occupational shift; job creation; and income
improvement, raising living standards for workers,
especially rural and ethnic minority areas. This issue has
been addressed in the master plan on Vocational Training
for Rural Labor by 2020.
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∙ Concentrate state budget on public vocational colleges and
public vocational secondary schools so they can train some key
occupations at national, regional, and international levels. The
indicators and process of selecting targeted occupations,
colleges, and schools need to ensure openness, transparency, and
democracy. Domestic and foreign organizations and individuals
are encouraged to establish non-public vocational training
schools.
2.2 Developing the contingent of vocational trainers
Developing the contingent of trainers in vocational colleges and
vocational secondary schools who are able to teach national standard
occupations requires:
∙ Issuing national standards on qualified vocational teachers,
including standards on professional level, pedagogical profession,
and occupational skill level;
∙ Standardizing vocational trainers; the vocational pedagogical
profession in all vocational pedagogical faculties of vocational
colleges and technical pedagogical schools; and occupational
skills in public and non-public vocational colleges which train
people for occupations at national, regional and international
levels;
∙ Quickly increasing the number of qualified vocational trainers
following their orientations to training programs:
∙ Standardizing the technical pedagogical profession and occupational
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skills for university graduates with occupational skills so they
become vocational teachers at vocational secondary and college
levels;
∙ Annually upgrading and updating methods, technology, techniques,
and practices for and by vocational trainers in production,
business, and service establishments - domestic and overseas.
Developing the contingent of trainers in vocational colleges and
vocational secondary schools who are able to teach regional and
international standard occupations requires:
∙ Applying standards to vocational trainers of developed
countries;
∙ Recruiting national qualified teachers; distinguished graduates;
post-graduate holders; and experienced experts in production,
business, and services (targeted individuals will be trained,
upgraded, and certified in their technical pedagogical profession
and occupational skills, in accordance with accredited training
programs of developed countries);
∙ Standardizing English for vocational trainers; and
∙ A, vocational trainers will be upgraded and updated with
training methods, new technology, and techniques and practices
at production, business, and services establishments in
developed countries in the region and in the world.
Developing the cadre of trainers at vocational elementary and
under three-month vocational training levels has been addressed in
the master plan, Vocational Training for Rural Labor by 2020.
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2.3 Developing the contingent of vocational managerial personnel
Developing the contingent of vocational managerial personnel
requires:
∙ Renovating training programs on vocational management for
vocational managerial personnel at all levels and managers of
vocational training establishments; applying vocational
management training programs of developed countries;
∙ Establishing three vocational management training centers under
three technical pedagogical universities in three regions; and
∙ Conducting periodical training and supplementary training for
vocational managerial officers, domestically and overseas.
2.4 Developing vocational training programs, curricular and
syllabuses and training methods
Developing vocational training programs, curriculum, syllabuses,
and training methods require:
∙ Speeding development of the curriculum frame for vocational
colleges and professional vocational schools to design their own
curriculum and syllabi in 2010;
∙ Increasing the proportion of selectable content in the curriculum
frame to 40%, to enhance the autonomy of schools in developing
curriculum. (Teachers are entitled to develop training content
based on training curriculum produced by the schools. The
government will only administer the vocational training
framework from 2015);
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∙ Renovating the structure of training; instead of separating theory
and practice, modules will combine theory, practical skills, and
working attitudes;
∙ Vocational training programs will be developed on the basis of
occupational skill standards or performance capacity, in
accordance with DACUM development methods in which
enterprises participate and apprenticeship periods are
lengthened;
∙ Renovating training and learning methods to uphold pro-
activeness, independence, group work, and longer periods of
self-learning and practice during the process of learning,
practicing, and apprenticeship;
∙ Intensifying the application of IT in vocational training and
online training;
∙ Conducting training of the trainers in developing vocational
training curriculum and syllabi;
∙ Developing transferable vocational training among levels: from
vocational secondary level, to college and university, and from
university and vocational college, to technical university (Some
vocational training programs can be transferred into
corresponding vocational training programs of foreign countries);
∙ Developing syllabi for popular training occupations which will
be recommended for application in all schools nationwide; and
∙ Establishing pilot vocational training programs for the practiced
engineer, which will be applied in some vocational colleges that
qualify to meet national, regional, and international standards.
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For vocational college training programs at regional and
international levels, individuals may:
◦ Select to apply for training programs of developed countries
which are suitable with Vietnam; and
◦ Synchronously transfer curriculum frame, occupational skill
standards, curricular, syllabuses and teaching methods;
training and supplementary training for teachers to deliver
new training programs.
2.5 Standardizing and modernizing infrastructure and equipment
for vocational training
Standardizing infrastructure and equipment for vocational training
necessitates:
∙ Issuing standards for building vocational colleges and vocational
secondary schools to ensure appropriate conditions for teaching
and practicing; working environment; and labor safety relevant
to module-based vocational training programs;
∙ Issuing an official list of standard vocational training equipment
for individual training occupation and level, including
fundamental equipment; simulation equipment; and other
modern equipment and facilities suitable for practical
production;
∙ Training the cadre of managerial and maintenance staff;
∙ Investing in infrastructure and equipment for vocational training
which are standard and modern, and match technology and
VIETNAM 617
techniques in production and business establishments; and
∙ Developing workshops within the schools for pupils and
students to practice.
3. Financing TVET
3.1 Total budget amount of national dedicated to vocational
training:
Despite many difficulties, the government of Vietnam still spends
a significant budget on education and training. In 2001, spending on
education and training accounted for 15.5 percent of the state budget,
and it increased to 20 percent in 2008.
Of the total budget for education and training, the share for
vocational training is still modest — about 5 percent in 2001,
increasing to 7.5 percent in 2008.
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<Table 1-18> State Budget Spending on Vocational Training in 2001-2008Item 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
I GDP 481 295 535 762 613 443 715 307 839 211 973 791 1 129 598 1 338 000
II Total Sate budget spending
127 675 143 764 181 183 209 024 239 470 297232 356 678 398 980
IIITotal State spending on education and training
19 747 22 541 28 835 34 872 42 943 54798 71 336 79 796
% of total state budget spending
15.5% 15.7% 15.9% 16.7% 17.9% 18.4% 20.0% 20.0%
IV Spending on vocational training
968 1 240 1 644 2 162 2 791 3671 4 993 5 985
% of total state spending on education and training
4.9% 5.5% 5.7% 6.2% 6.5% 6.7% 7.0% 7.5%
1 Regular spending 569 661 796 915 1 335 1 735 2 200 2 944
2 Spending on national targeted programs
104.7 139.6 168 265 425 630 1 050 1 100
3 Spending on Capital Construction
294 439 679 982 1 031 1 306 1 743 1 941
Source: General Department of Vocational Training, 2009.
3.2 Renovating financial mechanisms in vocational training
∙ The Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs, in
conjunction with the Ministry of Finance; Ministry of Planning
and Investment; and local labor, invalids, and social affairs body
(in cooperation with their local finance and planning
counterparts), are responsible for allocating and monitoring the
disbursement of annual estimated state budgets for vocational
training of ministries and sectors and localities, respectively.
∙ The state budget holds the key position in vocational training
investment. The growth rate of the annual budget for vocational
training development, within the annual total spending on
education and training, will reach 12 percent by 2020.
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∙ The mechanism in which the state budget is granted and
managed by vocational training establishments will be gradually
transformed; vocational training establishments will deliver
training services on the basis of vocational training service
contracts; bids for training targets; or assigned training targets.
Priorities will be given to special occupations; trainees who are
policy beneficiaries; national devotes; poor and ethnic
minorities, and accredited vocational training establishments
(both public and private).
∙ Regular spending will be planned and allocated, depending on
the training level costs for individuals or occupational groups
and the price frame for vocational training services.
∙ The central government budget will be used to: concentrate
investment in establishing the system of high-quality vocational
college and vocational secondary schools; facilitate the
investment in public vocational colleges and vocational
secondary schools in provinces with difficulties, in which
priorities will be given to schools in revolutionary bases and
ethnic minority areas; invest in vocational training
establishments to train occupations which are highly demanded
by the labor market, but hard to be socialized; develop frame
curriculum, including syllabi for popular occupations; apply
qualified vocational training programs, curriculum, syllabi, and
materials of foreign countries into regional and international
qualified occupations; provide training and supplementary
training for vocational teachers, vocational managerial staff, and
620 TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries ②아시아 력 상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
the cadre of inspectors; develop standards for the list of
vocational training equipment; implement vocational training
order for high-tech occupations, spearhead occupations,
hazardous and toxic occupations, and other occupations which
find it hard to enroll students; provide school fee compensation
for establishments which enroll beneficiaries of school fee
exemption and reduction; support vocational trainees in
localities which have not arranged their own budget; conduct
vocational training accreditation; support the development of
public vocational training accreditation centers; develop
standards and produce occupational skill exam questions;
support the costs for the occupational skill evaluation of
workers; and support the construction of national occupational
skill evaluation centers.
∙ Localities which can plan their own budget need to ensure
sufficient local funding to implement support policies for
vocational trainees and the master plan for vocational training
development of the provinces.
3.3 Developing a relevant mechanism to foster the mobilization
of resources for socialization-oriented investment in
vocational training
∙ The government promulgates incentive policies (including those
for preferential credit; taxation; and the support of training to
maximize participation by enterprises and trade villages). These
VIETNAM 621
policies will allow persons to participate in training in
enterprises, or invest in vocational training establishments.
Students will be provided with occupational practice in real
production settings, inclusive of advanced training for
vocational trainers. The government also has policies on
mobilizing enterprises to contribute vocational training costs by
recruiting trained workers;
∙ The production, business, services, association and joint venture
of vocational training establishments will be expanded to yield
revenue to support training costs;
∙ The government's decree on foreign investment and cooperation
with foreign partners in education, training, and vocational
training will be amended and supplemented with more
convenient procedures and investment conditions to intensify
foreign investment in vocational training. Priorities will be given
to foreign loan projects that invest in vocational training,
especially technical assistance projects, infrastructure, and
equipment for vocational training. Also of precedence is the
development of training curriculum and syllabi, and
supplementary training of managerial staff and teachers;
∙ Vocational training establishments which deliver high-quality
training programs will be allowed to collect equivalent training
fees to compensate for training costs.
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3.4 Promoting financial monitoring in vocational training
Promoting financial monitoring in vocational training entails:
∙ Studying and developing indicators and procedures for
evaluating the effectiveness of state budget spending on
vocational training;
∙ Announcements by vocational training establishments on
standards of graduation, training, and financial capacity;
institutions will report on finances to their superior body, in
accordance with the government's regulations, and ensure that
their budgets are realized openly, transparently, correctly and
legally; and
∙ Social monitoring of the disbursement of budget/revenue in
vocational training establishments, in accordance with their
internal spending regulations.
4. Internationalization of TVET
4.1 International Context and Educational Trend of the World
In the context of globalization and international economic
integration, cooperation is always accompanied by increasingly fierce
competition. In this setting, quality of human resources will be the
“key” to create competitive advantage.
Globalization and international economic integration create capital
flows from developed countries to developing ones, as well as labor
movement among countries. As a result, resources will be
internationalized, resulting in new international labor divisions.
VIETNAM 623
Workers in developing countries, including Vietnam, on one hand,
will have chance to take part in the international labor market; on
the other hand, they will cope with increasing competition, even in
the domestic labor market. Therefore, human resource quality has
increasingly become a core issue and determinant of an individual
country’s competitiveness.
International economic integration facilitates the flows of training
services from developed countries into the developing ones, which
become increasingly more popular. This is not only a challenge, but
also an opportunity for developing countries to access an advanced
education and training to early integrate into the world’s knowledge
economy.
The emerging knowledge economy and vigorously developing
science and technology of the world, especially with the development
of information technology, have removed distance and created
linkage among economies. Thanks to IT, less developed countries
stand greater chances of quickly acquiring scientific and technology
achievements, reducing the development gap with first world
countries.
Successfully applied in developed countries, demand-driven
training has become an effective training approach. ILO’s Global
Work Program has recommended that countries arrange flexible
vocational training in response to the labor market demand of
creating decent work.
With rapid global growth in science and technology, enhanced by
the usage of advanced technical technology, many new careers and
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occupations will be developed. Along this line, vocational training
needs to be regularly updated and improved with more sophisticated,
or even new, training curriculum to prepare a contingent of savvy,
qualified technical staff, versed in new and modern technology.
In the context of globalization, Vietnam needs more support from
other countries and the international community to increase the
country’s competitiveness and respond to the demands of vocational
training.
4.2 Orientation for International Cooperation Activities:
Orientation for international cooperation activities will include:
∙ Active participation in the vocational training activities held by
international organizations, such as APEC, ILO, ASEAN, the
world skills contest, ASEAN skills contest, to enhance the
learning process and vocational training experience exchange
with other countries;
∙ Enacting the agreement with other countries in the region and
the world on the equivalency of certificates and diplomas;
enhancing training cooperation with other advanced training
institutions in the region and in the world; attracting more
foreign investment to Vietnam in the area of vocational training;
encouraging foreign trainers to work and provide training
services in Vietnam; promoting the experience exchanges
between trainers of vocational training agencies with other
countries;
VIETNAM 625
∙ Encouraging vocational training agencies to select and provide
training services with the curriculum of advanced countries;
carrying out the training in English for the trade of high
demands in the international labor market;
∙ Creating mechanisms and enabling conditions for investors, the
prestige vocational training institutions in the world, to open
schools in Vietnam and promote join ventures with other
international institution in vocational training in Vietnam; and
∙ Promoting research on vocational training, in particular studies
on the application of modern and advanced technology relevant
to Vietnam.
4.3 Specific supported project and activities on vocational
training for Vietnam by foreign countries and international
organizations:
Beside mobilization of domestic resource for TVET, the Vietnam
government is mobilizing ODA loans or grants from international
organizations and other countries. There are many big projects
funded by the Asian Development Bank, Nordic Development Fund,
AFD, JICA, and the governments of Germany, Korea, Australia, and
other countries. These resources are making a great contribution in
the TVET development progress.
4.4 ADB project (1998-2008):
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) approved a loan of $54
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million on December 1998 for the Vocational and Technical
Education Project. The project is co-financed on a parallel basis by
AFD, JICA, and NDF. The project has three components: (i)
improving the market orientation; (ii) developing 15 key schools
(KSs), and (iii) introducing policy reforms.
Phase I of this project finished at the end of 2008. Phase II is
being prepared with the total budget of US$ 1.5 million. The targeted
group of Phase II is poor households in rural areas.
4.5 Civil Works financed by ADB, AFD funds in KSs were
completed with total $ 10.3 millions. (2002-2007)
Training Equipment: Preparation for the procurement of training
equipment started in January 2002. The procurement plan included
12 packages, comprising 7 packages under the ADB financing for
$ 12.4 million, and 5 packages under the NFD for $7.0 million.
Installation of training equipment is in KSs, and was anticipated to
be completed by January 2007.
4.6 Project on improving capacity for vocational training center,
with grant support from the Swiss government
(SWITCONTAC) with 4 phases and total fund is USD 7
million dollars. This project aimed to invest in equipment and
formulation of training curriculums for 30 vocational training
centers in three regions: northern, southern and central
Vietnam. The project terminated in 2008.
VIETNAM 627
4.7 Project on upgrading 11 key schools, with financial support
of the German government (via KWB) (2007-2010) with
total fund of 11 millions euro. These schools shall benefit
from advanced equipment and capacity improvement for their
trainers.
4.8 Project on capacity building for 5 key-vocational training
schools funded by the government of South Korea
(2007-2010), with a total budget of US$ 64 million.
This project aimed to invest in teaching equipment;
formulation of training curriculums; and capacity building for
vocational training teachers.
4.9 Project on technical assistant for vocational training in
Vietnam (2008 - 2010) funded by the government of
Germany, with a total budget of 1.5 million EUR. This project
focused on: (i) consultation of vocational training; (ii)
developing training materials; (iii) developing training
curriculums; and (iv) training needs assessment.
4.10 The EU Project on evaluating workers’ occupational skills
with technical assistant of the ILO, with a total budget of
10 million EUR. This project focus on: (i) training for
evaluators; (ii) developing evaluating documents, such as
guidelines, and criteria; and (iii) pilot assessment of some
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trades in different occupational skill levels.
4.11 The Project on development vocational training funded by
the government of Japan through ADB with a non-refundable
support of 1.5 million USD. This project provided support
for five provinces in Cuu Long River’s Delta (2008 - 2010).
It focused on: (i) capacity building for some vocational
training schools; and (ii) connecting vocational training with
job creation.
5. New Agenda and Plans for the Future
5.1 The Vocational Training Strategy for the period of 2011 to
2020 Overall objectives are set forth, as follows:
∙ To develop a modern, rationale, flexible and effective vocational
training system, which is accessible, equal and sustainable;
∙ To contribute to enhance the competitiveness of the human
resources; to create qualified jobs, especially for the rural labor
force, improving workers’ living standards; and
∙ To serve Vietnam’s socio-economic development to become an
industrialized and modern country by 2020.
5.2 Specific objectives
Specific objective 1: Create and strengthen a relevant vocational
training system in response to development requirements of the labor
VIETNAM 629
market and society, to fulfill the needs of an industrialized and
modern country and approach a knowledge economy.
The needs of employers and vocational trainees become the most
important basis for designing vocational training programs and
courses, with an aim to matching the quality and utilization structure
of the labor force in an industrialized country.
Specific objective 2: Ensure that a modern and qualified vocational
training system operates effectively.
On the basis of logically mobilizing and allocating resources,
vocational training will be developed towards standardization,
modernization, and integration, capable of providing some
occupations at the regional and international levels. This objective
serves to create a breakthrough in quality; upgrade occupational
skills; enhance creativeness, and strengthen the health and working
style of workers. After the training, vocational trainees will be
ensured with necessary occupational skills and jobs in a highly
competitive labor market.
Specific objective 3: Arrange vocational training towards flexibility,
accessibility, equity, and fulfilling the needs for life-long learning
of all people.
To ensure demand-driven vocational training in a quickly growing
technology context, vocational training needs to be designed as a
flexible system involving all social partners. At the same time,
vocational training needs to satisfy the demands of all people and
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all social groups, especially the vulnerable in society, and in the
labor market, while meeting the demand for domestic and foreign
employment.
Specific objective 4: A sustainably developed vocational training
system
A suitable mechanism will be established to mobilize resources
for developing and finalizing a capable vocational training system
that is relevant to the economy’s on-going development needs in an
international competitive market.
5.3 Specific objectives
a) Period from 2009 to 2020:
∙ 24.58 million people will enroll in vocational training, of which
5.815 million people will be trained at vocational secondary,
vocational college, and practiced engineer levels, covering 115
thousand students trained in accordance with occupational skill
standards found in developed countries of ASEAN and in the
world; and
∙ 40,000 people will be trained with vocational pedagogic and
occupational skills to become vocational trainers.
b) Up to 2020:
∙ There will be 230 vocational colleges (including 40 private
vocational colleges) and 310 vocational secondary schools
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(consisting of 70 private schools). Within there will be 15
vocational colleges (including 10 public ones), with three to five
international standard occupations per institution; 25 vocational
colleges (including 20 public ones), with three to five regional
standard occupations; 140 vocational colleges (including 120
public ones), with two to three national standard occupations per
institution. This objective aims at developing a vocational
training system capable of training persons in 86 national
standard occupations, 30 regional standard occupations, and 20
international standard occupations. It is expected that each
district will have at least one vocational training center or
vocational secondary school;
∙ 100 percent of vocational trainers will provide combined
theoretical and practical training; 40 percent of trainers in
vocational colleges will hold post-graduate degrees; the
converted teacher-student/pupil will be 1:15 in vocational
colleges and vocational secondary schools. 100 percent of
vocational managerial staff will be involved in vocational
training management;
∙ Vocational training curriculum shall be developed for all trades
at the vocational college and vocational secondary levels;
training programs of developed countries shall be applied for
30 regional standard occupations and 20 international standard
occupations; 130 training programs and syllabi will be
developed for common trades; and 40 training programs and
syllabi for the practiced engineer level;
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∙ A standard list of vocational training equipment will be
developed for all training occupations at the vocational college
and vocational secondary levels;
∙ 90 percent of vocational colleges and professional secondary
schools; 70 percent of vocational training centers; and 70
percent of training programs in vocational colleges and
professional secondary schools will controlled with vocational
training accreditation; and
∙ There will be 400 sets of national occupational skill standards;
question banks for national occupational skill evaluation will be
applied for 400 trades; and 6 million workers will be evaluated
in terms of occupational skills.
Section 5. Conclusion
From 2001 - 2009, vocational training has developed and been
renovated, reaching the goals and objectives of vocational training,
as set forth in Vietnam’s education development strategy. The
country met pressing demands for a technical labor force, with
significant socio-economic development in this period. However,
vocational training will face national and international challenges in
the future. From 2011-2020, and in response to industrialization and
modernization -- resulting from international economic integration --
it is necessary to concentrate all resources on creating a breakthrough
in quality of the whole vocational training system. Vietnam must
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develop a rationale training structure, not only for highly competitive
modern occupations, but also more traditional types of work. On a
national level, Vietnam should focus vocational training on the
agricultural sector and rural areas, facilitating labor restructuring and
improvement of labor quality to strengthen education, economy, and
the well-being of her citizens.
▣ Profile
․Kim, Young-Saing
- Korea Research Institute for Vocational Educationand Training Research Fellow
․Chung, Ji-Sun
- Korea Research Institute for Vocational Educationand Training Senior Research Fellow
․Lee, Sang-Don
- Korea Research Institute for Vocational Educationand Training Research Fellow
․Lim, Young-Sub
- Korea Research Institute for Vocational Educationand Training Research Fellow
․Ryu, Ki-Rak
- Korea Research Institute for Vocational Educationand Training Associate Research Fellow
TVET Policy Reviews of 8 Asian Countries②아시아 중점협력 대상국가의 직업교육훈련 정책자료 구축
UNESCO Regional Center 사업(2010)
․Date of Publication
․Published by
․Printed by
․Date of Registration
․Registration Number
December 2010
Dae-Bong Kwon
Korea Research Institute for Vocational
Education and Training (KRIVET)
46, Samseong-ro 147gil,
Gangnam-gu, Seoul 135-949 Republic of Korea
Tel. 82-2-3485-5000, 5100
Fax. 82-2-3485-5200
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