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Understanding Global Recessions and
Global Recoveries
M. Ayhan Kose and Marco E. Terrones
Research Department
International Monetary Fund
The views expressed in this presentation are those of the authors and do not
necessarily represent those of the IMF or IMF policy.
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Motivation
• Global recession…a popular concept since 2008
• Policy makers, bankers, and journalists often talk about it
• Everybody has a (different) definition in mind
• But, no clear definition…
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What is a Global Recession?
• Wikipedia: A global recession is a period of global economic slowdown. The IMF takes many factors into account when defining a global recession, but it states that global economic growth of 3 percent or less is "equivalent to a global recession“. By this measure, four periods since 1985 qualify: 1990–1993, 1998, 2001–2002 and 2008–2009.
• Investopedia: An extended period of international economic downturn. Generally, the IMF considers a global recession as a period where gross domestic product (GDP) growth is at 3% or less. In addition to that, the IMF looks at declines in real per-capita world GDP along with several global macroeconomic factors before confirming a global recession.
• Business Dictionary: A period of general economic decline that has reached global proportions. “The financial crisis in the United States in 2008 sparked a global recession that lasted into 2009.”
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No Definition of Global Recession!
• “Many economists are now predicting the worst global recession since
the 1930s. Such grim warnings discourage spending by households and
businesses, depressing output even more. It is unfortunate, therefore,
that there is so much confusion about what pundits mean when they
talk about a “global recession”. …. The trouble is that there is no
agreed definition of a global recession. The Economist, November 6,
2008
• “Leading economic and business leaders are talking about "a global
recession". But it is not easy to define. … Even for national
economies, the word "recession" has more than one meaning…. I have
heard several different thresholds …for judging whether a year counts as
a recession. Global output growth below 3%, 2.5%, and 2% have all
been suggested”. Andrew Walker, BBC News, October 2, 2009.
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Why Difficult? Why Important?
1. Why is it difficult to define global recessions? No easy
mapping between national recessions and global recessions
(lack of data); A national recession is a contraction in GDP but
the world GDP hardly declines.
2. Why is it important study global recessions?
Surveillance; Policy responses at the national level;
Idiosyncratic vs. Global shocks, Need for policy coordination
This study provides a comprehensive analysis of global
recessions and recoveries...
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Three Questions
1. What is a global recession? What is a global recovery?
What are the main features of these episodes?
2. How different are the latest global recession and ongoing
recovery?
3. How are national cycles related to global cycles?
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1. What is a global recession? What is a global recovery?
What are the main features of these episodes?
A global recession corresponds to a contraction in the world
per-capita GDP accompanied by a broad synchronized
decline in various other measures of global economic activity.
Four episodes since 1960: 1975, 1982, 1991, and 2009…
A global recovery corresponds to a rebound in worldwide
activity in one to three years following a global recession.
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2. How different are the latest global recession and
ongoing recovery?
The latest global recession has been the most severe
synchronized episode of the past 50 years.
The latest global recovery has been comparable to the earlier
ones. But this masks two important divergences.
•A divergence of activity. This recovery has been the
weakest for the ACs and the strongest for EMEs.
•A divergence of policies, mainly in the ACs. While policies
were aligned in the past, fiscal and monetary policies have
marched in opposite directions this time.
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3. How are national cycles related to global cycles?
National cycles are tightly linked to the global cycle. They
are more sensitive to the global cycle during global
recessions than during global expansions. The degree of
sensitivity to the global cycle differs across countries.
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Outline •Database and Methodology
•What is a global recession? What is a global recovery?
What are the main features of these episodes?
•How different are the latest global recession and ongoing
recovery?
•How are national cycles related to global cycles?
•Conclusion
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Database
•180 countries; 1960-2011 (up to 2014 with forecasts)
•Macroeconomic variables: GDP, consumption, investment,
industrial production, trade, unemployment, inflation,
interest rates, government expenditures, etc.
•Financial variables: Credit, equity prices, house prices,
and capital flows.
•Data Sources: WEO, WDI, PWT, IFS, OECD, etc.
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Methodology: National Cycles • Two complimentary approaches: Statistical and judgmental methods
• Statistical method: Identification of peaks and troughs in output
(only one indicator). Bry and Boschan (1971); Harding and Pagan (2002);
Claessens, Kose, and Terrones (2012)
• Judgmental method: NBER and CEPR. Broad set of indicators
(GDP, retails sales, industrial production, employment, disposable
income, and initial claims for unemployment insurance) to reach
judgment on whether there is recession. Burns and Mitchell (1946).
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Methodology: Global Cycles • Consider methods that closely follow those used at the national level
• Statistical method: Identification of peaks and troughs in world
output per-capita (in PPP weights and market weights). World output
per-capita takes into account heterogeneity in both population growth
rates and trend growth. A minimum two-year duration of a global cycle
and a minimum one-year duration of each of the cyclical phases
• Judgmental method: Broad set of world activity indicators (output
per-capita, IP, unemployment, oil consumption, trade and capital flows)
to reach a judgment on recession.
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Outline •Database and Methodology
•What is a global recession? What is a global recovery?
What are the main features of these episodes?
•How different are the latest global recession and ongoing
recovery?
•How are national cycles related to global cycles?
•Conclusion
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What is a global recession? • A global recession is defined as a decline in world real GDP per
capita accompanied by a broad synchronized decline in various other measures of global economic activity.
• Four global recessions: 1975, 1982, 1991, and 2009. (Prob. 7½)
• The 2009 recession is the most severe and synchronized episode.
• The average decline in world per-capita output is 0.75 percent during these episodes; about 3 percentage points lower than the average.
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Statistical Method
• Identification of peaks and troughs in world output per-capita.
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World GDP (per capita)
100
150
200
250
300
3501
96
0
19
65
19
70
19
75
19
80
19
85
19
90
19
95
20
00
20
05
20
10
PPP-weighted World per Capita Real GDP
Market-weighted World per Capita Real GDP
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Growth of Per Capita World GDP (in percent)
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
19
61
19
65
19
69
19
73
19
77
19
81
19
85
19
89
19
93
19
97
20
01
20
05
20
09
Real per Capita World GDP Growth
Market Weights
PPP Weights
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Judgmental Method
• Broad set of world activity indicators (output per-capita, IP,
unemployment, oil consumption, trade and capital flows) to reach a
judgment on whether a preponderance of the evidence points to a recession.
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Output During Global Recessions (growth, per capita, in percent)
-2.1
-1.4
-0.7
0.0
0.7
1.4
2.1
2.8
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other Years
GDP
-
1.83
-
.16
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Consumption and Investment (growth, per capita, in percent)
-8.0
-6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other
Years
Consumption
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other
Years
Investment
-
1.0
-
.25
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Industrial Production and Oil Consumption (growth, in percent)
-9
-6
-3
0
3
6
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other
Years
Industrial Production
-9
-6
-3
0
3
6
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other
Years
Oil Consumption
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Unemployment Rate (change, percentage points)
-0.3
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.8
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other Years
Unemployment
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International Trade and Capital Flows (change, trade in percent, capital flows/GDP)
-12
-8
-4
0
4
8
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other
Years
Total Trade
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other
Years
Capital Flows over GDP
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What Happens During Global Recessions? (in percent)
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other Years
Output
Industrial Production
Unemployment
Oil Consumption
Total Trade
Capital Flows over GDP
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Financial Sector During Global Recessions ( growth, in percent)
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
1975 1982 1991 2009 Other Years
Credit
House prices
Equity Prices
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Synchronization of Recessions
• How synchronized are national recessions around episodes of global recessions? Not surprisingly, the fraction of countries in recession went up sharply during the four global recessions.
• In all global recession episodes, the fraction of countries in recession started picking up ahead of the recession year.
• During the two global downturns (1998 and 2001), the fraction of countries in recession was relatively low.
• In the last three episodes, financial disruptions play an important role.
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Fraction of Countries in Recessions (PPP weighted percent of countries)
0
20
40
60
80
19
61
19
65
19
69
19
73
19
77
19
81
19
85
19
89
19
93
19
97
20
01
20
05
20
09
Advanced economies
Emerging Markets
Other Developing
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What is a global recovery?
• National Cycles: The recovery is the early part of the
expansion phase. It is associated with the first year following the
trough of the global business cycle. Also examine the recovery
in the first three years following a global recession.
• Global Cycles: A recovery corresponds to a rebound in
worldwide activity in the first year (three years) following the
recession.
• Driven by a pickup in c, i, and international trade.
Unemployment remains high and persistent.
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Output Growth During Global Recoveries ( one year after the recession, growth, in percent)
0
1
2
3
4
5
1976 1983 1992 2010 Other Years
Output
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Output Growth During Global Recoveries (three years after the recession, average growth, in percent)
0
1
2
3
4
1976-78 1983-85 1992-94 2010-12 Other Years
Output
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What Happens During Global Recoveries? (three years after the global recession, average growth, in percent)
-2
0
2
4
6
8
1976-78 1983-85 1992-94 2010-12 Other Years
Output Industrial Production Unemployment
Oil Comsumption Trade Flows Capital Flows over GDP
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Financial Sector During Global Recoveries (three years after the global recession, average, growth, in percent)
-5
0
5
10
15
20
1976-78 1983-85 1992-94 2010-12 Other Years
Credit
House prices
Equity Prices
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Answers - 1
1. What is a global recession? What is a global
recovery? What are the main features of these
episodes?
A global recession corresponds to a contraction in the
world per-capita GDP accompanied by a broad
synchronized decline in various other measures of global
economic activity. Four episodes since 1960: 1975, 1982,
1991, and 2009…
A global recovery corresponds to a rebound in worldwide
activity in one to three years following a global recession.
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Outline •Database and Methodology
•What is a global recession? What is a global recovery?
What are the main features of these episodes?
•How different are the latest global recession and ongoing
recovery?
•How are national cycles related to global cycles?
•Conclusion
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Ongoing global recovery does not seem unusual (index, year of the recession=100)
1975 1982 1991 2009
Average of Global Recessions
98
100
102
104
106
108
110
112
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
GDP
(index)
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Strong divergence of activity across countries (index, year of the recession=100)
1975 1982 1991 2009
Average of Global Recessions
90
100
110
120
130
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Advanced Countries
90
100
110
120
130
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Emerging Markets
Weakest recovery
Strongest recovery
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Consumption During Recoveries (per capita, cumulative, percent change)
-5
0
5
10
15
20
1975 1982 1991 2009
Year of the recession 1 year after
Advanced Countries
-5
0
5
10
15
20
1975 1982 1991 2009
2 years after 3 years after
Emerging Markets
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Investment During Recoveries (per capita, cumulative, percent change)
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1975 1982 1991 2009
Year of the recession 1 year after
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1975 1982 1991 2009
2 years after 3 years after
Advanced Countries Emerging Markets
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Unemployment During Global Recoveries (in percent)
1975 1982 1991 2009
Average of Global Recessions
2
4
6
8
10
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Advanced Countries
2
4
6
8
10
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Emerging Markets
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Why is this recovery in the ACs different?
•Recoveries from recessions associated with financial
crises are sluggish (i.e. Reinhart and Rogoff, 2009).
•Recoveries with high uncertainty are weaker. Increased
policy uncertainty in the ACs has contributed to slow
recovery (i.e. Baker et al 2012)
•Current macroeconomic policies are different to past ones
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Divergent Policies Fiscal policy
(Primary expenditure indices = 100 in the year before the global recession)
2009 (Dashed Line = Projection)
Average of Previous Global Recessions (1975, 1982, 1991)
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Advanced Countries
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Year of Global
Recession
Emerging Markets
Year of Global
Recession
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Pattern holds across major ACs
(Primary expenditure indices = 100 in the year before the global recession)
2009 (Dashed Line = Projection)
Average of Previous Global Recessions (1975, 1982, 1991)
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Year of
Global
Recession
USA
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Year of
Global
Recession
EURO
AREA
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Year of
Global
Recession
UK
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Accommodative monetary policies.
(Short Term Interest Rate , %)
2009 (Dashed Line = Projection)
Average of Previous Global Recessions (1975, 1982, 1991)
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Advanced Countries
Zero interest bound
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Emerging Markets
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Unconventional monetary measures in the ACs
(Percent of RGDP in the year before the global recession)
2009 (Dashed Line = Projection)
Average of Previous Global Recessions (1975, 1982, 1991)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Year of
Global
Recession
USA
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Year of
Global
Recession
Euro
Area
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Year of
Global
Recession
UK
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What could explain divergence of policies?
High public debt in the ACs (Public Debt to Real GDP ratios)
2009 (Dashed Line = Projection)
Average of Previous Global Recessions (1975, 1982, 1991)
20
40
60
80
100
120
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Emerging
Economies
20
40
60
80
100
120
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Advanced
Countries
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And low inflation rates across the world
(Inflation rates)
2009 (Dashed Line = Projection)
Average of Previous Global Recessions (1975, 1982, 1991)
0
4
8
12
16
20
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Advanced Countries
0
4
8
12
16
20
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Emerging Markets
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Answers - 2
2. How different are the latest global recession and
ongoing recovery?
The latest global recession has been the most severe and
synchronized episode of the past 50 years.
The latest global recovery has been comparable to the earlier
ones. But this masks two important divergences.
•A divergence of activity. This recovery has been the weakest
for the ACs and the strongest for EMEs.
•A divergence of policies, mainly in the ACs. While policies
were aligned in the past, fiscal and monetary policies have
marched in opposite directions this time.
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Outline •Database and Methodology
•What is a global recession? What is a global recovery?
What are the main features of these episodes?
•How different are the latest global recession and ongoing
recovery?
•How are national cycles related to global cycles?
•Conclusion
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Linkages Between National and Global Cycles • To examine the sensitivity of the national to the global cycle during
different phases of the global cycle. A parsimonious framework
(autoregressive distributed lag model, dynamic panel regressions with
fixed effects).
• The baseline model describes how growth in a country is linked to
global growth, its own growth history, and global financial conditions.
• Extend the model by interacting global growth with a global recession
dummy and with trade and financial linkages
• Database: 103 countries (21 AC, 28 EM, 54 ODE; exclude small states,
poor data coverage; 1970-2011)
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How important is the global cycle for national cycles?
• Positive and statistically significant association between national output
growth and the rest of the world growth. National cycles often move in
tandem with the global cycle.
• This relationship varies over the two phases of the global cycle.
National cycles tend to be much more sensitive to the global cycle during
recessions than they are during expansions.
• A negative association between the national cycles and the world real
interest rate. This relationship differs across the two phases of the cycle.
During global expansions, it is negative and statistically significant
whereas, during global recessions, it is slightly positive but insignificant.
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Linkages Between National and Global Cycles
(3) (6) (11)
Output Growth (Lagged) 0.463*** 0.277*** 0.285***
Rest of the World Output Growth 1.469*** 0.710*** 0.706***
Rest of the World Output Growth x 0.519**
Global Recession Dummy
Real Libor Rate 0.095 -0.121*** -0.122***
Real Libor Rate x 0.165***
Global Recession Dummy
Number of observations 406 4455 4861
Number of countries 103 103 103
R2 Adjusted 0.167 0.132 0.16
Global Recession Global Expansion Full Sample
Notes : The dependent variable is the growth rate of per capita real GDP in each country.
***,**,* denote significance at 1 percent, 5 percent, and 10 percent levels, respectively. All
regressions include fixed effects.
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Do country-specific features affect the sensitivity of
national cycles to global cycles?
• Both the advanced and emerging market economies appear to be more sensitive to the global business cycle during global recessions than are the other developing countries.
• In the case of advanced countries, the national cycles tend to move with the global interest rate cycle (a statistically significant positive association between the domestic growth and the world real interest rate). However, in the case of emerging markets and other developing countries, the national cycles tend to move in the opposite direction of the world interest rate cycle during global expansions.
• Interest rate shocks have differential effects on the business cycle of debtor and creditor countries. While there has been a role reversal in recent years, advanced countries were often creditors and emerging markets and other developing countries were debtors during most of the time period we study here.
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National and Global Cycles: Country Groups
(5) (10) (15)
Output Growth (Lagged) 0.260*** 0.279*** 0.287***
Rest of the World Output Growth 0.680*** 0.670*** 0.684***
Rest of the World Output Growth x 1.333*** 0.768* 0.233
Global Recession Dummy
Real Libor Rate 0.235*** -0.183*** -0.228***
Real Libor Rate x 0.103 0.169 0.190**
Global Recession Dummy
N of observations 1050 1341 2480
Number of countries 21 28 54
R2 Adjusted 0.344 0.151 0.144
Advanced
CountriesEmerging Markets
Developing
Countries
Notes : The dependent variable is the growth rate of per capita real GDP. ***,**,* denote significance
at 1 percent, 5 percent, and 10 percent levels, respectively. All regressions include fixed effects.
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Do country-specific features affect the sensitivity of
national cycles to global cycles? • Both trade and financial integration appear to influence the sensitivity of national cycles to the global cycle and the world interest rate. The national cycle is more sensitive to the global business cycle in countries that are more open to trade flows.
• The statistically significant negative association between the national cycle and the global interest rate cycle during global expansions remains intact when we introduce additional integration variables, but this association becomes weaker in countries with stronger international financial linkages.
• Countries with stronger financial linkages tend to attract a diverse set of capital flows, including FDI and portfolio investment, whereas those weaker linkages often rely on debt flows that are sensitive to movements in world interest rates.
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National and global cycles: Does integration mater?
(2) (3) (5) (6)
Output Growth (Lagged) 0.259*** 0.261*** 0.260*** 0.260***
Rest of the World Output Growth 0.543*** 0.502*** 0.646*** 0.494***
Real Libor Rate -0.120*** -0.140*** -0.183*** -0.183***
Rest of the World Output Growth x 0.273*** 0.207*** 0.212***
Trade Openness
Rest of the World Output Growth x 0.969*** 1.166*** 0.993***
Global Recession Dummy
Real Libor Rate x Global Recession Dummy 0.170** 0.201*** 0.187***
Real Libor Rate x Financial Opennes 0.0291** 0.0300**
N of observations 3666 3666 3666 3666
Number of countries 103 103 103 103
R2 Adjusted 0.618 0.584 0.561 0.569
Notes : The dependent variable is the growth rate of per capita real GDP in each country. ***,**,* denote
significance at 1 percent, 5 percent, and 10 percent levels, respectively. All regressions include fixed effects.
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Answers - 3
3. How are national cycles related to global cycles?
National cycles are tightly linked to the global cycle. They are
more sensitive to the global cycle during global recessions
than during global expansions. The degree of sensitivity to
the global cycle differs across countries: AC and EMEs are
more sensitive to global developments than developing
countries. Countries are more sensitive to global cycle, the
more integrated they are.
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Outline •Database and Methodology
•What is a global recession? What is a global recovery?
What are the main features of these episodes?
•How different are the latest global recession and ongoing
recovery?
•How are national cycles related to global cycles?
•Conclusion
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Conclusions
59
• The world economy experienced 4 global recessions/recoveries since 1960.
• Global recessions feature synchronized declines in worldwide activity. Global recoveries are accompanied by a rebound in activity, driven by a pickup in consumption, investment, and trade.
• The 2009 recession was a unique episode. The recovery from this recession, however, has been comparable to previous episodes. Yet this recovery has featured divergence of activity—weakest recovery for the ACs and strongest for the EMEs--and policies—fiscal policy was contractionary and monetary policy was accommodative in the ACs.
• National cycles are tightly linked to the global cycles. The sensitivity of national cycles is more pronounced during global recessions. More integrated economies tend to be more sensitive to the global cycle.
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Questions & Comments
Thank You!
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Global Recessions: Output in AC and EM (index, year before the recession=100)
80
90
100
110
120
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Advanced Countries
80
90
100
110
120
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Emerging Markets
1975 1982 1991 2009
Average of Global Recessions
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Future Research
62
• Comparisons between global recessions and downturns: why do
some become recessions? And why do some others become
downturns?
• How and why are certain countries more sensitive to the global
cycle (commodity vs. manufacturing goods exporters; debtor vs.
creditor countries)?
• Through which channels are the regional cycles influenced by the
global cycle (especially during global recessions)?
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What happened during global recessions?
• 1975: the first oil price shock, fourfold increase, the beginning of a
prolonged period of stagflation, with low output growth and high inflation
in the United States. All of the G-7 countries except Germany experienced
high inflation rates.
• 1982: the rapid increase in oil prices; tight monetary policies in several
advanced economies; and the Latin American debt crisis.
• 1991: difficulties in the U.S. credit markets; banking and currency crises
in Europe (Norway, Finland, Sweden in 91; ERM crisis in 92) and
challenges faced by the east European transition economies; burst of the
asset price bubble in Japan; and the uncertainty stemming from the Gulf
War and the subsequent increase in the price of oil.
• 2009: global financial crisis
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Growth of World GDP (in percent)
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
19
61
19
65
19
69
19
73
19
77
19
81
19
85
19
89
19
93
19
97
20
01
20
05
20
09
Real World GDP Growth
Market Weights
PPP Weights
3 percent rule
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Credit During Global Recoveries (index, year of the recession=100)
1975 1982 1991 2009
Average of Global Recessions
80
100
120
140
160
180
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Advanced Countries
80
100
120
140
160
180
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Emerging Markets