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Vagabond Ventures Oil Group
Searches For Searches For Fossil FuelsFossil Fuels
Spring 2013
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Week 1: Geology & History of Fossil FuelsWeek 1: Geology & History of Fossil Fuels Week 2: Oil Exploration Week 2: Oil Exploration Week 3: Petroleum EngineeringWeek 3: Petroleum Engineering
Course OutlineCourse Outline
Week 4: ‘Vagabond Group’ proposes 2 prospectsWeek 4: ‘Vagabond Group’ proposes 2 prospects
Your chance to invest !Your chance to invest ! Week 5: ‘Vagabond Group’ plans productionWeek 5: ‘Vagabond Group’ plans production Week 6: Calculating the Payout?!Week 6: Calculating the Payout?!
The Basics:The Basics:
The Adventure:The Adventure:
A black-gold millionaire or dry hole hobo?A black-gold millionaire or dry hole hobo?
Today . . . .Today . . . .
Geology & History of Fossil Fuels
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Geology & History of Fossil Fuels
• Geologic Time & Plate Tectonics Geologic Time & Plate Tectonics • What are ‘fossil fuels’ and What are ‘fossil fuels’ and how are they created?how are they created?• History & potential of peat/coalHistory & potential of peat/coal• History & potential of oil/gasHistory & potential of oil/gas
Today’s AgendaToday’s Agenda
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5
GEOLOGIC TIMEGEOLOGIC TIME
AGE OF EARTH4.55 Billion Years
144.3 YEARS!144.3 YEARS!
IF YOU COUNTED EACH YEAR AT ONE YEAR PER SECOND,
YOU’D BE COUNTING CONTINOUSLY,24 HOURS A DAY, FOR
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GEOLOGIC TIMEGEOLOGIC TIME
60
30
1545 31.65 minutesSingle cell life
begins
52.85 minutesEnd of
Precambrian
56.97 minutesStart of
Dinosaurs
59.14 minutesDinosaursExtinction
59.97 minutesHominids
arrive!
40.22 minutesMulti-cell life
begins
7.25 minutesAsteroids stop
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GEOLOGIC TIMEGEOLOGIC TIME
Most of Geology is
here
PALEOZOIC MESOZOIC CENOZOIC
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GEOLOGIC TIMEGEOLOGIC TIME
PALEOZOIC MESOZOIC CENOZOIC
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11
GEOLOGIC TIMEGEOLOGIC TIME
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GEOLOGIC TIMEGEOLOGIC TIME
WANT A COPY OF THESE TIMESCALES?
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GEOLOGIC TIMEGEOLOGIC TIME
Now, let’s move on to another important geologic concept,
PLATE TECTONICS…
Go to our website at…www.vagabondgeology.com
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USA
SA
ASIA
AUS
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- PLATE TECTONICS -- PLATE TECTONICS -
MAP OF THE WORLDLet’s take a closer look at the area in white
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USAASIA
AUSSA
Pacific Plate
CocosPlate
NazcaPlate
Antarctic Plate
Australian Plate
Antarctic Plate
Eurasian Plate
NorthAmerican
Plate
Plate
PhilippinePlate
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- PLATE TECTONICS -- PLATE TECTONICS -
Earth’s surface broken into 7 major platesIn Geology they’re called “Tectonic Plates”
Australian Australian PlatePlate
Antarctic PlateAntarctic Plate
Pacific Pacific PlatePlate
North American PlateNorth American Plate
SouthSouthAmerican American
PlatePlate
African African PlatePlate
Eurasian Eurasian PlatePlate
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These plates MOVE around on the surface
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The movement is called “Continental Drift”
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- PLATE TECTONICS -- PLATE TECTONICS -
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- PLATE TECTONICS -- PLATE TECTONICS -
Remember this location at this time
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Geology & History Geology & History of Fossil Fuelsof Fossil Fuels
• Geologic Time & Plate Tectonics Geologic Time & Plate Tectonics • What are ‘fossil fuels’ and What are ‘fossil fuels’ and how are they created?how are they created?• History & potential of peat/coalHistory & potential of peat/coal• History & potential of oil/gasHistory & potential of oil/gas
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- What are Fossil Fuels -- What are Fossil Fuels -
•Fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried organic material
•Organic materials can be trees, branches, twigs, leaves, mosses, grasses, dead animals, algae, planktons, etc.
•Most common Fossil Fuels (in order of increasing burial depth/decomposition):
PeatPeat, , CoaCoal, l, Oil ShalesOil Shales, , OilOil, , GasGas•Non-fossil fuels are hydro, nuclear, wind, solar, biomass, geothermal, etc.
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels created -- How are Fossil Fuels created -
•350 million years ago (mya), time period known as the “Carboniferous Period”, North America is located on the equator
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels created -- How are Fossil Fuels created -
•“Carboniferous Period” includes the Mississippian (M) & Pennsylvanian (P) Epochs
•Permian Period (Pr)was 2nd most prolific coal period
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels created -- How are Fossil Fuels created -
•Most of the USA is underwater; swampy areas developing at the base of mountains
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels created -- How are Fossil Fuels created -
•Most of the USA is underwater; swampy areas developing at the base of mountains
Deep Sea
Shallow Sea
Primord
ial Swamps
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Geology & History of HydrocarbonsGeology & History of Hydrocarbons- CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD -- CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD -
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Geology & History of HydrocarbonsGeology & History of Hydrocarbons- CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD -- CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD -
400 ft!
260 ft!
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels created -- How are Fossil Fuels created -
•Hot, steamy, oxygen rich, CO2 rich causing plants and animals to grow LARGE!
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels created -- How are Fossil Fuels created -
•Fluctuating temperature and repeated cycles of drying/flooding of swamps cause massive die-off of flora, leaving thick piles of decaying organic material
• Weathering sediments from mountain rivers flood over swamps from time to time robbing the decaying matter of oxygen. Layer upon layer the decaying organic matter is being buried.
•As organic materials are buried deeper & deeper they are exposed to increasing heat & pressure
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels created -- How are Fossil Fuels created -
•Increasing pressure & temperatures break down the organic material to varying degrees, depending on burial depth
•Initial decomposition of woody material forms PEAT
•Further burial and compression forms COAL
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels created -- How are Fossil Fuels created -
•Chart to right shows that PEAT is developed in shallow environments
•Four kinds of Coal: each forming as depth of burial increases
•After deep burial, coal strata are often uplifted and become accessible at much shallower depths
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Name\Name\ LigniteLigniteSub-Sub-
bituminousbituminous BituminousBituminous AnthraciteAnthraciteNickname\ (brown coal) (hard coal)
Moisture high less high low very low
Carbon Content, % 60-75% 75-85% 85-91% >91.5%
Volatiles, % 45-65% 28-45% 12-28% <6-12%
Heating Value, kbtu/lb 4-8.3 8.3-13 10.5-15.5 15
% of USA Coal Reserves 9% 38% 50% 2%
Mining Source TX,ND WY,MT AL,WV,KY, IL,IN,OH,PA PA
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Coal Comparison -- Coal Comparison -
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels made -- How are Fossil Fuels made -
• Increased burial depth develops a decomposing organic ooze containing important Kerogen compounds
•Further burial and compression generates a high enough temperature and pressure to “crack” (breakdown) kerogen
• If the organic material is low in cellulosic material, e.g., algae, plankton, diatom, etc., cracking results in oil & gas
1
1 1/2
2
2 1/2
Depth, mi
3
90°
160°
190°
250°
300°
Temp,°F
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels made -- How are Fossil Fuels made -
• Oil is formed at 160 to 290degF, known as the “Oil Window”; 290 to 440degF is the “Natural Gas Window”
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- How are Fossil Fuels made -- How are Fossil Fuels made -
• Oil is formed at 160 to 290degF, known as the “Oil Window”; 290 to 440degF is the “Natural Gas Window”
• BUT, if the kerogen is very old, these windows could drop to: OIL- 85 to 200degF; GAS- 200 to 360degF
• Deep burial and decomposition can take millions of years, (sometimes 600+ million yrs) therefore fossil fuels are not considered a renewable resources
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Geology & History Geology & History of Fossil Fuelsof Fossil Fuels
• Geologic Time & Plate Tectonics Geologic Time & Plate Tectonics • What are ‘fossil fuels’ and What are ‘fossil fuels’ and how are they created?how are they created?• History & potential of peat/coalHistory & potential of peat/coal• History & potential of oil/gasHistory & potential of oil/gas
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PEAT
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT-- Overview of PEAT-
• an accumulation of an accumulation of partially decayed partially decayed vegetationvegetation. Most . Most common component is common component is SphagnumSphagnum moss moss
• Forms in wetland Forms in wetland conditions where conditions where flooding flooding obstructs flows obstructs flows of oxygen from the of oxygen from the atmosphere, reducing atmosphere, reducing rates of decompositionrates of decomposition
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT-- Overview of PEAT-
•Peatlands cover a total of +/- 3% of global land area
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT-- Overview of PEAT-
•Approximately 60% of world's wetlands are peat
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Peat hand dug from a glacialPeat hand dug from a glacial bog in Scotlandbog in Scotland
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT-- Overview of PEAT-
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Commercial peat operation, Ireland
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT-- Overview of PEAT-
Russia, Canada & USA have the Russia, Canada & USA have the largest reserves of PEATlargest reserves of PEAT
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT-- Overview of PEAT-
• Peat reserves distribution on 6 of the 7 continents
• North America, Europe & Asia constitute 90% of world’s peatlands
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Peat bog
• 95% of Peat harvested in the USA is used for supplementing soil
• As a result, harvesting As a result, harvesting techniques are techniques are differentdifferent
• Vacuum trucks suck up Vacuum trucks suck up the the top 1/4 inches top 1/4 inches of of peat at a timepeat at a time
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT-- Overview of PEAT-
• Florida, Michigan, and Florida, Michigan, and Minnesota Minnesota are the leading are the leading producers of peat in the USAproducers of peat in the USA
• 2 to 3 inches 2 to 3 inches of peat bog can of peat bog can be harvested each yearbe harvested each year
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COAL
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
• Coal (from the Old English term col, "mineral of fossilized carbon") is a combustible sedimentary rock occurring in rock strata called coal beds or coal seams
• What’s a “Sedimentary” rock?
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Geology BasicsGeology Basics- Rock Cycle -- Rock Cycle -
• Only 3 types of rock exist on the planet:
• SedimentarySedimentary• MetamorphicMetamorphic• IgneousIgneous
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Geology BasicsGeology Basics- Rock Cycle -- Rock Cycle -
• Only 3 types of rock exist on the planet:
• SedimentarySedimentary• MetamorphicMetamorphic• IgneousIgneous
• They are inter-They are inter-related as depicted related as depicted in a diagram called, in a diagram called, the “the “ROCK CYCLEROCK CYCLE””
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Geology BasicsGeology Basics- Rock Cycle -- Rock Cycle -
• Only 3 types of rock exist on the planet:
• SedimentarySedimentary• MetamorphicMetamorphic• IgneousIgneous
• They are inter-They are inter-related as depicted related as depicted in something called, in something called, the “the “ROCK CYCLEROCK CYCLE””
• The 3 types of rock The 3 types of rock leads to 24 different, leads to 24 different, individual rocksindividual rocks
Now, back to COAL
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
• Coal contains mainly carbon; conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization
• Coal is found in Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae
• Coal is also found in later geological periods as well. The exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare PRE-CAMBRIAN%
Gen
era
dis
app
ear
ance
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
• most widely distributed fossil fuel
• mined in 100 countries on all continents except Antarctica
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
•Britain: 3000-2000 BC outcrop of coal used for funeral pyres
•Fu Shun, China: 1000 BC used for smelting copper
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
• Two methods of producing coal:
• Surface Surface MiningMining
• Underground Underground MiningMining
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
•USA coal fields are largest in the world (22.6% OF WORLD TOTAL)
Anthracite
Low volatile Bituminous
Other Bituminous
Sub-Bituminous
Lignite
Proved/Possible
INC
RE
AS
ING
VA
LU
E
SWAMP/MARSH COAL
WHAT’S HAPPENING
HERE?
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Rivers bring
organic rich
sands & muds to coastal bays,
swamps, &
marshes
Sand = future sandstone
Mud (clay) = future shale
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
Rising/ Falling
sea level moves
deposits to
ocean; ocean
currents move &
sort deposits
Massive Massive accumulation of accumulation of
sediments form in sediments form in the Gulf of Mexicothe Gulf of Mexico
This same This same transport/distribute/transport/distribute/
sorting process sorting process happened in the happened in the
past over geologic past over geologic timetime
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Millions of years
ago, East &
SE Texas and
southern LA
didn’t exist
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
Coastal bays,
swamps &
marshes were more
interior to
country; early
deposits are there
As deposits move the coastline into the GOM,
coastal bays,
swamps &
marshes are then
deposited there
As a result of
this coastline change, massive amounts
of sediments
are located in Texas &
LA’s interior & in the Gulf of Mexico
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
As a result of
this coastline change, massive amounts
of sediments
are located in Texas &
LA’s interior & in the Gulf of Mexico
Early onshore, woody deposits have been
converted to young coal, LIGNITE; let’s have a look
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Lignite at or near the surface in
TexasLet’s look at how Lignite is mined
in Texas
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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Open Pit Lignite Mining, TexasOpen Pit Lignite Mining, Texas
Huge drag-line crane removes rock covering the lignite layer
Continuous belt
conveyer digs up lignite
layer and loads
lignite into huge dump
trucks
Dump trucks move
lignite to nearby
furnaces to be burned to make
electricity
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
This is calledThis is calledSURFACE MININGSURFACE MINING
What if the coal is buried
deeper?
Then there is a Then there is a need for need for
UNDERGROUND UNDERGROUND MININGMINING
Let’s take a look…
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- buried deposit: underground mines
SEDIMENTARY ROCK LAYERSSEDIMENTARY ROCK LAYERS
SOIL
COAL LAYER
Where did it all start?
earliest
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
How does it work today?
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HOW IT’S DONE TODAY?
Two methods of recovering coal from underground deposits: -room & pillar mining -long wall mining
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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most common underground mining most common underground mining techniquetechnique
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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COAL LAYER
COALSURFACE
SSHHAAFFTT
grid of corridors20-30’ wide
(extracted coal)
coal columns 100’ wide
hold up roof
‘retreat mining’pillars are mineduntil ceiling falls
most common underground mining most common underground mining techniquetechnique
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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HOW IT’S DONE TODAY?
Two methods of recovering coal from underground deposits: -room & pillar mining -long wall mining
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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How does it work today?
1 - surface mines2 – underground mines
- room & pillar mines- long wall mines
COAL
COAL LAYERORIGINAL
COAL LAYER
MINING
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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COAL LAYER
COLLAPSED ROOF MATERIAL
COAL FACE
7000’ X 800’mining zone
mining zone
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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COAL LAYER
COLLAPSED ROOF MATERIAL
COAL FACEmining zone
mining zone
miningminingmachinemachine
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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mining zone
mining zone
miningminingmachinemachine
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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COAL
mining zone
mining zone
miningminingmachinemachine
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
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HOW IT’S DONE TODAY?
Two methods of recovering coal from underground deposits: -room & pillar mining -long wall mining
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
So, who has coal reserves?
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
22%
USA
14%
Russia13%
China9%
Australia
7%
India
% of
%% of Coal Production of the World of Coal Production of the World
15%15%
6%6%
6%6%
5%5%
all others: 35%
48%48%
all others: 20%all others: 20%
Reserve Life (years)
241 yrs
495 yrs
35 yrs!
world average: 118
180 yrs
106 yrs
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of COAL-- Overview of COAL-
•USA coal fields are largest in the world (22.6% OF WORLD TOTAL)
Anthracite
Low volatile Bituminous
Other Bituminous
Sub-Bituminous
Lignite
Proved/Possible
INC
RE
AS
ING
VA
LU
E
Any questions on Peat or Coal?
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Geology & History Geology & History of Fossil Fuelsof Fossil Fuels
• Geologic Time & Plate Tectonics Geologic Time & Plate Tectonics • What are ‘fossil fuels’ and What are ‘fossil fuels’ and how are they created?how are they created?• History & potential of peat/coalHistory & potential of peat/coal• History & potential of oil/gasHistory & potential of oil/gas
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Rivers bring
organic rich
sands & muds to coastal bays,
swamps, &
marshes
Sand = future sandstone
Mud (clay) = future shale
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of O&G -- Overview of O&G -
Rising/ Falling
sea level moves
deposits to
ocean; ocean
currents move &
sort deposits
Massive Massive accumulation of accumulation of
sediments form in sediments form in the Gulf of Mexicothe Gulf of Mexico
Remember this diagram when talking about river sediments transported to the Continental
Margin?
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and this Geosyncline is bending the crust
Hinge Line
rising
Sinking
Causing some areas
to rise & some to sink
This massive accumulation
is called a Geosyncline
A thick (1000’s of feet)
accumulation of rock debris
(sediments) in the ocean at the
continental margin
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of O&G -- Overview of O&G -
Situation is similar to a “seesaw”
Mr. Geosyncline!Mr. Geosyncline!
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Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of O&G -- Overview of O&G -
OceanRocks of the Iberian continental crust
land River debris
river debris atContinental
Margin
Geosyncline
Cross-section of Continent
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New Orleans
Subsurface Cross Sections: Gulf of Mexico
Austin
Sun City
Gulf of Mexico Geosyncline
SandstoneRocks
65,
00
0 fe
et t
hic
k
Modern day Gulf of Mexico
rising
SinkingHin
ge L
ine
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of O&G -- Overview of O&G -
12.3 mithick!
Shale Rocks
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Geology and Oil & Gas Fields: GOM
Aerial extent of Gulf of Mexico GEOSYNCLINE
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IN FACT, coal deposits are also found in geosynclines
Ouachita-A
ppalachian-Geosynclin
e
Ouachita-A
ppalachian-Geosynclin
e
Paradox-Wind River Paradox-Wind River GeosynclineGeosyncline
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of O&G -- Overview of O&G -
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Central Texas
Geosynclines are an important source of most fossil fuels; O&G wells shown here
Grey=dry holes!
More to come on O&G in the weeks ahead!
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REMEMBER…REMEMBER…
GEOLOGY ROCKSGEOLOGY ROCKS94
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT, COAL, Oil & Gas -- Overview of PEAT, COAL, Oil & Gas -
THANK YOU!
THANK YOU!
THANK YOU!
THANK YOU!
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What we’ll use to make our investment decisions
maps
cross sections
Land-lease reports
Next week . . . . Oil exploration!
Until then . . . . visit our website:
vagabondgeology.com
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ANY QUESTIONS??96
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- Overview of PEAT, COAL, Oil & Gas -- Overview of PEAT, COAL, Oil & Gas -
All class material either is All class material either is or or
will be on will be on 1) the University’s website1) the University’s website
and onand on
2) Our website at:2) Our website at:
www.vagabondgeology.comwww.vagabondgeology.com
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http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es0701/es0701page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization http://www.fi.edu/guide/dukerich/intro2.html http://www.uky.edu/KGS/coal/coalform.htm http://www.stovesonline.co.uk/how-coal-formed.html http://www.ket.org/trips/coal/agsmm/agsmmhow.html http://www.fi.edu/guide/dukerich/intro2.html http://www.ohiodnr.com/Portals/10/pdf/EL/el08.pdf http://teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=40991 http://epcamr.org/home/content/amd-amr-and-more-alphabet-soup/coal-types-formation-and-methods-of-mining/ http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/coal/?ar_a=1 http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/peat-distribution-in-the-world_8660 http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Coal_plant_conversion_projects http://www.peatsociety.org/peatlands-and-peat/global-peat-resources-country http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C08/E3-04-06.pdf http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter08.html http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1996/of96-092/map.htm http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1303/ http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70041041 http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1998/of98-036/pdf/tables/tbl01.pdf http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Do_We_Need_Oil_From_Outer_Space_999.html http://www.eoearth.org/article/Peat http://www.gpnmag.com/harvesting-peat http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/dku01 http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/17/1/38.abstract
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenic_petroleum_origin http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerogen#Type_III http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolymers http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbons http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil fuels http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conglomerate_(geology) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siltstone http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_ages http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_CcrgKLyzc&feature=player_embedded http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bogs http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longwall_mining http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_River_Range http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon_exploration http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=jvdMkKFqdm8 http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/dku01 http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/17/1/38.abstract
Geology & History of Fossil FuelsGeology & History of Fossil Fuels- References-- References-
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Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness… and narrow-mindedness…
Broad, wholesome, charitable views of Broad, wholesome, charitable views of men and things cannot be acquired by men and things cannot be acquired by
vegetating in one little corner of the vegetating in one little corner of the earth all one's lifetime. earth all one's lifetime.
~Mark Twain~Mark Twain
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““Twenty years from now Twenty years from now you will be more disappointed by the you will be more disappointed by the things you didn’t do than by the ones things you didn’t do than by the ones you did do. So throw off the bowlines, you did do. So throw off the bowlines, sail away from the safe harbor. Catch sail away from the safe harbor. Catch
the trade winds in your sails. the trade winds in your sails. Explore. Dream. Discover.” Explore. Dream. Discover.”
– – Mark TwainMark Twain