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Vocabulary:Theory, research, and promising
practices
Michael C. McKenna
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Today’s Goals
Learn about how children acquire word meanings
Examine research findings on vocabulary instruction
Discuss scientifically-based instructional approaches
practice making a vocab. lesson
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Is the word vocabulary in your vocabulary?
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What is vocabulary? Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary
Modality
Domain
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What is vocabulary? Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary
Modality
Domain
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What is vocabulary? Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary
Modality
Domain
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What is vocabulary? Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary
Modality
Domain
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What is vocabulary? Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary
Modality
Domain
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
114,000 words
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
114,000 words
impertransibilityquecknould
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.)
114,000 words
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.)
114,000 words
660,000+ words
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2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.)
660,000+ words
webcamcyberphobic
doh
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English users follow set rules for coining new words, thus adding greatly to the number of potential words in the language.
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English users follow set rules for coining new words, thus adding greatly to the number of potential words in the language.
The postman likes our street because it is dogless.
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Are you a logophile?
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Are you a logophile?
words
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A Vocabulary Riddle
To comprehend what we read, at least 95% of the words must be recognized
automatically.
How is this possible given the number of words in English?
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50K
40K
30K
20K
10K
0
K 12
5,0001,500
45,000
17,000
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Oral vocabulary at the end of first grade is a significant predictor of comprehension ten years later.
Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.
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Why is a large vocabulary associated with good
comprehension?
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The Instrumental Hypothesis
Vocabulary aids comprehension by providing the reader with a tool, or instrument.
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The Knowledge Hypothesis
It’s not so much the words themselves that help, but the knowledge they represent.
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The Aptitude Hypothesis
Comprehension and vocabulary are correlated “not because one causes the other, but because both reflect a more general underlying verbal aptitude.” – Stahl & Nagy (2005)
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The Access Hypothesis
A larger vocabulary means
a deeper understanding of words (including nuances of meaning)
quicker access to words in the lexicon
flexibility in deciding among multiple meanings
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The Reciprocal Hypothesis
Being a better reader makes it possible for
you to read more
Reading more gives you a bigger
vocabulary
Having a bigger vocabulary makes you a better reader.
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Four Obstacles to Acquiring a Large Vocabulary
1. The number of words in English is very large.
2. Academic English differs from the kind of English used at home.
3. Word knowledge involves far more than learning definitions.
4. Sources of information about words are often hard to use or unhelpful.
– Stahl & Nagy (2005)
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How do we learn words from experiences?
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gavagai
An aborigine points to a running rabbit and says “Gavagai.” Can you infer the word’s meaning?
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Each encounter with a word helps a child narrow its meaning. For example, if he next hears the word gavagai used to refer to a sitting rabbit, the child will infer that running is not connected with the meaning.
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Young children learn word meanings from one-on-one interactions with parents and siblings. These interactions may be rich or poor. Consider two examples based on Hart and Risley’s (1995) comparison of families of different socioeconomic levels.
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Do I have to eat these?
Yeah.
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Do I have to eat these?
Yes, because they have vitamins that will help you grow and get stronger.
“Motherese”
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What does it mean to know a word?
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A Continuum of Word Knowledge
No knowledge
A vague sense of the meaning
Narrow knowledge with aid of context
Good knowledge but shaky recall
Rich, decontextualized knowledge,connected to other word meanings
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A Continuum of Word Knowledge
No knowledge
A vague sense of the meaning
Narrow knowledge with aid of context
Good knowledge but shaky recall
Rich, decontextualized knowledge,connected to other word meanings
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The Reading System (Adams)
Reading Writing Speech
MeaningProcessor
Phonological Processor
OrthographicProcessor
ContextProcessor
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The Reading System (Adams)
Reading Writing Speech
MeaningProcessor
Phonological Processor
OrthographicProcessor
ContextProcessor
Lexicon
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lexicon
That part of long-term memory devoted to word knowledge
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How is a word stored in the lexicon?
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cat
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cat
/kat/
c-a-t
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cat
/kat/4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
pet
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cat
/kat/4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
animal
petlion
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cat
/kat/
mammal
4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
animal
petlion
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cat
/kat/
mammal
4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
animal
petlion
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cat
/kat/
dog
mammal
4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
animal
petlion
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cat
/kat/
dog
mammal
4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
animal
petlion
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cat
/kat/
dog
mammal
4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
animal
petlion
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Dual Coding Theory
Two systems are involved in learning words. One contains verbal information, the other non-verbal (images). When we learn a word, real-world images that we associate with the concept are also stored. Accessing a word in the lexicon therefore involves both the verbal system and non-verbal (imagery) system.
~ Moral ~When teaching new words, use pictures and other images where possible.
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cat
/kat/
dog
mammal
4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
animal
petlion
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The Nonverbal (Imagery) System
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New meanings and even new pronunciations of a word may be added to a child’s lexicon over time.
produce
próduce
Raw veggies
prodúce
to make
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Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 28-40). New York: Guilford.
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 •••
leanTo rest
oneobject againstanother
To rely on anotherperson
forsupport
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Is wide reading enough?
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Why Wide Reading Why Wide Reading Is Enough Is Not Enough
Vocabulary size andthe amount a child reads are correlated.
Direct instruction cannot possibly account for the number of word meanings children acquire.
Context is generally unreliable as a means of inferring word meanings.
Most words occur too infrequently to provide the number of exposures needed to learn them.
Marzano, R.J. (2004). The developing vision of vocabulary instruction. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 100-117). New York: Guilford.
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“There is no obvious reason why direct vocabulary instruction and wide reading cannot work in tandem.”
– Marzano (2004, p. 112)
RobertMarzano
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The Vocabulary Catch-22
Children need to learn more words to read well, but they need to read well to
learn more words.
McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers. Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.
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What are some of the guiding principles of
teaching vocabulary?
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Preteach key words to improve comprehension.
Guiding Principle
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In 1367, Marain and the settlements ended a seven-year war with the Langurians and Pitoks. As a result of this war, Languria was driven out of East Bacol. Marain would now rule Laman and the other lands that once belonged to Languria. This brought peace to the Bacolean settlements. The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks from Laman. The Bacoleans were happy to be part of Marain in 1367. Yet a dozen years later, these same people would be fighting the Marish for independence, or freedom from United Marain’s rule.
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In 1763, Britain and the colonies ended a seven-year war with the French and Indians. As a result of this war, France was driven out of North America. Britain would now rule Canada and the other lands that once belonged to France. This brought peace to the American colonies. The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks from Canada. The Americans were happy to be part of Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later, these same people would be fighting the British for independence, or freedom from Great Britain’s rule.
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Provide more than definitions.
Guiding Principle
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WORD = DEFINITION
Stimulus Response
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WORD = DEFINITION
Stimulus Response
truncate “to cut off”
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WORD = DEFINITION
Stimulus Response
truncate “to cut off”
“She truncated the lights.”
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Combine definitions and contextual examples.
Guiding Principle
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Minimize rote copying of definitions.
Guiding Principle
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Introduce new words in related clusters.
Guiding Principle
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wing
antennae leg
abdomen
thorax
In content areas, clustering words is natural!
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But general vocabulary words can be clustered if you work at
it!
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Provide brief, periodic review.
Guiding Principle
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A Thought Experiment
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Group 1
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20 words
• This hour is uninterrupted.
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Group 2
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Group 2
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20 words
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Group 2
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20 words
• This hour is broken into 6 10-minute sessions, 1 per month for 6 months.
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Assuming that no one encountered any of the 20 words again, which group would do better on a test after a delay of 10 years?
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Massedvs.
DistributedPractice
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What did the National Reading Panel conclude
about teaching vocabulary?
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NRP Findings on Vocabulary
Teaching vocabulary improves general comprehension ability.
Preteaching vocabulary helps both word learning and comprehension of a selection.
Much vocabulary is acquired through incidental exposure.
Repeated exposures in a variety of contexts are important.
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NRP Findings on Vocabulary
A combination of definitions and contextual examples works better than either one alone.
Many instructional methods can be effective in teaching vocabulary.
Instructional methods should result in active engagement.
Both direct and indirect methods should be used.
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NRP Findings on Vocabulary
The more connections that are made to a word, the better the word tends to be learned.
Computer applications can be effective. The effectiveness of some instructional
methods depends on the age or ability of the children.
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What the NRP said they didn’t know about vocabulary instruction
Which methods work best with students of different ages and abilities?
How can technology best be used to teach vocabulary? How is vocabulary best integrated with comprehension
instruction? What combinations of instructional methods tend to work
best? What are the best ways to assess vocabulary?
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To what extent do you see these findings reflected in your core materials?
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What are some of the most effective ways of teaching vocabulary?
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Some Research-Based Techniques
Read-Alouds Semantic Feature Analysis Graphic Organizers List-Group-Label Semantic Maps (word webs) Word Lines Word Sorts Possible Sentences
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Read-Alouds
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Planning a Read-Aloud Choose engaging, well-illustrated books. A number of words should be unknown to about
half the students. Choose 3 target words that are important for
comprehension but likely to be unfamiliar. Keep track of the words you choose. Plan to repeat the read-aloud. Plan multiple exposures in the days following.
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Conducting a Read-Aloud Be “performance oriented”; read with expression. Include “rich, dialogic discussion.”
Activate prior knowledge. Link the story to experiences of students. Elicit responses from students.
Give direct, clear, and simple instruction in word meanings before the read-aloud.
Give a sentence context from the story in advance.
Discuss words before and after the story. Embed quick definitions while reading. (Biemiller) Do not display pictures while reading (Beck et al.)
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Warning!
Spending too much time discussing read-alouds may detract from valuable reading practice.
– Stahl (1998).
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A Closer Look at Definitions
golf
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golf n.1. a good walk spoiled
(Mark Twain)
2. a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course (Webster)
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a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course
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a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course
class distinguishing features
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a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course
class distinguishing features
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class distinguishing features
Aristotle
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Semantic Feature Analysis
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humans adult female
woman + +
man + o
girl o +
boy o o
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games clubs ball o
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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games clubs ball o
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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games clubs ball
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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games clubs ball
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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games clubs ball
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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games clubs ball
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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games clubs ball
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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games clubs ball
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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games clubs ball
golf + +
hockey + o
basketball o +
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popinary
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popinary
“a fry cook”
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popinary
“a fry cook”
Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure, and Preposterous Words: Gathered from Numerous and Diverse Authoritative Sources
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + o + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker + + + adult female
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cooks fries makes bakesthings salads
popinary + o o
chef + + +
baker s + + adult female
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Characters Wise Adventurous
Frog
Toad
Curious George
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Graphic Organizers
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A graphic organizer is a diagram that shows how key terms are
related.
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What’s so great about them?
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What’s so great about them?
They help kids “see” abstract content.
There is little to “read.”
They are easy to construct and discuss.
Technical terms can be taught in clusters.
They enhance recall and understanding.
They have an impressive research base.
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Shakespearean TragedyAct 1 ExpositionAct 2 ComplicationAct 3 ClimaxAct 4 ResolutionAct 5 Conclusion
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Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
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Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
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Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
Complication
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Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
Complication
Climax
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Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
Complication
Climax
Resolution
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Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
Complication
Climax
Resolution
RisingAction
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Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
Complication
Climax
Resolution
RisingAction
FallingAction
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pupa
egg
larvaadult
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How to Find the Area of a Triangle
Right triangle?
Multiplylegs
Determine height
Multiplyby base
No Yes
Divideby 2
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Tree Diagrams
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Musical Instruments
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Musical Instruments
wind nonwind
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Musical Instruments
wind nonwind
brass woodwind
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Musical Instruments
wind nonwind
brass woodwind string percussion
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Musical Instruments
wind nonwind
brass woodwind string percussion
trumpet clarinet violin drum
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Venn Diagrams
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Frog and Toad Curious George
No people
AnimalCharacters
Animals talk
Could happen
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Blue People
Thin PeopleTall People
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Blue People
Thin PeopleTall People
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Blue People
Thin PeopleTall People
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drugsstimulants
depressantsalcohol
barbituatescaffeine
dexadrine
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drugsstimulants depressants
caffeinedexadrine
alcoholbarbituates
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drugsstimulants depressants
caffeine dexadrine alcohol barbituates
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wing
antennae leg
abdomen
thorax
Labeled Picture
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Sociograms
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HH
H H H
P P P P P P P P P
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James Roosevelt
(1828-1900)
Sara Delano
(1855-1941)
Elliott Roosevelt(1860?-94)
AnnaHall
(1863-92)
FranklinDelano
Roosevelt(1882-1945)
AnnaEleanor
Roosevelt(1884-1962)
Anna James Elliott FDR, Jr. Johnb. 1906 b. 1907 b. 1910 b. 1914 b. 1916
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List-Group-Label
Hilda Taba
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ListStudents brainstorm all the words they can recall at the end of a unit.
GroupStudents suggest logical ways to group the words.
LabelStudents suggest a label for each group they form.
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ListStudents brainstorm all the words they can recall at the end of a unit.
GroupStudents suggest logical ways to group the words.
LabelStudents suggest a label for each group they form.
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ListStudents brainstorm all the words they can recall at the end of a unit.
GroupStudents suggest logical ways to group the words.
LabelStudents suggest a label for each group they form.
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no legs garterboa
venomcobra
fang scales
coral tail
rattlecopperhead
treesholes
ground
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no legs garterboa
venomcobra
fang scales
coral tail
rattlecopperhead
treesholes
ground
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no legs garterboa
venomcobra
fang scales
coral tail
rattlecopperhead
treesholes
ground
Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral
Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail
Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground
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no legs garterboa
venomcobra
fang scales
coral tail
rattlecopperhead
treesholes
ground
Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral
Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail
Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground
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Semantic Maps
(Word Webs)
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BrainstormingStudents offer ideas related to a topic.
MappingTeacher and students form categories and map the words into a diagram.
ReadingStudents read a nonfiction selection.
Completing the MapTeacher and students revisit the map and together refine and expand it.
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no legs garterboa
venomcobra
fang scales
coral tail
rattlecopperhead
treesholes
ground
Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral
Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail
Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground
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Snakes
treesholes
ground
garterboa
copperheadcobracoral
Kinds Where
Things Snakes Might Have
rattle no legsscales venomfang tail
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Semantic maps have the advantage of mirroring how
words are stored in the lexicon.
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cat
/kat/
dog
mammal
4 legs
“meow”c-a-t
animal
petlion
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Word Lines
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hot cold
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hot tepid cold
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hot tepid cold
sweltering
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hot tepid cold
sweltering chilly
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hot tepid cold
sweltering chilly
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Word Sorts
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thorax pupaabdomen antennaewing larvaadult headegg leg
Open Sort Categories are not given.
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Closed Sort Parts Stages
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thorax pupaabdomen eggwing larvahead adultlegantennae
Closed Sort Parts Stages
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Possible Sentences
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1. Present a list of 8-12 words the students will encounter in the new text.
2. Add a few familiar terms.3. Ask for sentences containing at
least two of the words.4. Teach the text.5. Return to the sentences.6. Together decide whether they are
correct or can be edited to make them so.
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lexiconsyntactic clue
distributed practicepopinary
worddefinition*eponym*toponym
*portmanteau
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Some Research-Based Techniques
Read-Alouds Semantic Feature Analysis Graphic Organizers List-Group-Label Semantic Maps (word webs) Web Trees Word Lines Word Sorts Possible Sentences
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What do all of these techniques (except one) have in
common?
1. They involve clusters of related words.
2. They encourage children to categorize.
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What’s the exception?
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Huckleberry Finn
fan-tods
yallerboys
mudcat
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Illinois
Kentucky
Tennessee
Mississippi
Louisiana
Arkansas
Missouri
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Illinois
Kentucky
Tennessee
Mississippi
Louisiana
Arkansas
Missouri
Hannibal
•
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Illinois
Kentucky
Tennessee
Mississippi
Louisiana
Arkansas
Missouri
Hannibal
•
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More Suggestions
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Echo student talk, using richer vocabulary.
I wrote this.
Wonderful. I hope you told me exactly what you saw on your trip to the zoo.
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“Sprinkle” your classroom with vocabulary.
Beck & McKeown (2004)
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Talk around words.
Stahl & Stahl (2004)
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Be a Word Wizard!wary scowl ridiculous fortunate
Tom Sue Ed Juan Maria Lakesha Paul Jack
– Beck & McKeown (2004)
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Ask “silly questions.”
– Beck & McKeown (2004)
Would a fortunate person scowl?
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Encourage word play
(including teachers!)
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Words Named for People(eponyms)
• einsteinium• teddy bear• boycott• pasteurize• watt• decibel• saxophone• braille
• silhouette• sousaphone• zinnia• sideburns• shrapnel• magnolia• hooligan• gardenia
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Words Named for Places(toponyms)
• bikini• tuxedo• badminton• hamburger• californium• uranium• plutonium• damask
• ottoman• bayonet• cologne• frankfurter• magenta• marathon• tangerine• manila
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Words with Unusual Stories
• bazooka• bleachers• blurb• cowlick• crowbar• Dixie• gas• goatee
• googol• gorilla• jeep• jumbo• sandwich• Pacific• serendipity• tank
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Blends (Portmanteaus)
• beefalo• bit• brunch• caplet• cockapoo• electrocute• guestimate• infomercial
• jack rabbit• liger• lox• modem• moped• motel• sitcom• skort
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More Blends . . .
• slurb• smog• snazzy• splatter• spork (why not
foon?)• squiggle• tangelo
• telethon• tiglon• transister• twiddle• zap• zedonk
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Acronyms
• scuba
• radar
• sonar
• laser
• snafu
• fubar
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Mnemonics
principle
rule
principal
pal
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Connotations
What’s the difference between a fiddle and a violin?
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What can we do increasechildren’s vocabularies?
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1. Make vocabulary a school-wide goal
Amend your plan.
Establish instructional goals.
Raise consciousness.
Communicate expectations.
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2. Establish teacher study groups
Organize groups by grade level.
Provide time for discussion.
Reward participation.
Encourage administrator participation.
Select resource books.
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3. Consider supplemental and intervention programs
Tie their use to assessments.
Establish guidelines for use.
Locate product reviews.
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“In the long run, effective intervention will involve extended vocabulary work as a normal part the curriculum. (p. 34)
Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 28-40). New York: Guilford.
AndyBiemiller
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Suggested ReferencesBaumann, J.F., & Kame’enui, E.J. (2004). Vocabulary
instruction: Research to practice. New York: Guilford.Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S.R., & Johnston, F.
Words their way (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.
Nagy, W.E. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Newark, DE: IRA.
Stahl, S.A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Stahl, S.A., & Kapinus, B.A. (2001). Word power: What every educator needs to know about teaching vocabulary. Washington, DC: NEA.
Stahl, S.A., & Nagy, W.E. (2005). Teaching word meanings.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.