What do I need to know about map skills?
Concepts Tools Geographers Use
Scale – Maps can be large scale or small scale to show more or less detail
Scale – Used to measure distance between two points Latitude/Longitude – Be able to find points using these
lines Relative Location – Locating a place based on features
located around it such as bodies of water, mountains, etc…
Orientation (direction) – Be able to use the compass rose on the map
GIS (Geographic Information System) – A computer program that layers different types of maps to find the best location for public or private buildings
Field Work Satellite Images
(Think Google Earth)
Photographs Maps, Globes Databases Primary sources
Mental Maps Ways that Maps Show Information
Mental maps are maps people have in their heads to carry out daily activities, give directions to other people, and understand world events
Ways Mental Maps can be Developed and Refined
Comparing sketch maps to maps in atlases or other resources
Describing the location of places in terms of reference points
Describing the location of places in terms of geographic features
Describing the location of places in terms of human characteristics
Symbols – Look in the legend to see what they mean
Color Lines Boundaries Contours – used
to show elevation
Types of Thematic Maps
Population distribution, density
Economic activity
Resource Language Ethnicity Climate
Precipitation Vegetation Physical –
Shows elevation Political – Shows
human made features such as cities, countries, roads
Maps Reflect Change Over Time Place Names on Maps
Maps of the world are better now because we have better technology such as satellite images and Geographic Information Systems
The island of Taiwan used to be called Formosa by the Portuguese. It is also called the republic of China
Palestine, Israel, Occupied Territories
Boundaries Perspective of Place Names
Africa 1914 – 1990s – The maps of Africa are different today than 100 years ago because African countries are now independent. They used to be colonies of European countries
Europe before WWII and after WWII – The map of Europe has changed many times in the last 100 years due to conflict
Russia/Soviet Union – The Soviet Union broke up in 1991 and now it is called Russia and several countries were formed. The fall of communism caused the maps to be changed
Middle East – Before 1948/After 1967 – The maps of the Middle East changed because Israel was created as a Jewish country by the United Nations in 1948 and Israel occupied parts of Palestine after a war in 1967
Arabian Gulf is called the Persian Gulf by people in Iran
Sea of Japan is called the East Sea by people in Korea
Middle East is also called Southwest Asia
Disputed Areas
Korea – Korea is divided into two countries, North and South Korea. This dispute is political in nature
The country of
Western Sahara is occupied by Morocco
The country of Yugoslavia broke into several smaller countries based on ethnicity. This is primarily an ethnic and religious dispute
Kashmir is a region located between India and Pakistan. This dispute is primarily based on religion. In India they are Hindus, in Pakistan they are Muslims
What do I need to know about population and urban geography?
Factors that Influence Population Distribution
Natural resources (People live near arable land, water, and other resources that are valuable like oil)
Climate (hot/cold; wet/dry) Economic development Government policy Rural/urban settlement Capital resources Conflicts
Factors that influence growth rates Modern medicine and hygiene – If
fewer people die of disease the population will increase
Education Industrialization and urbanization –
Industrialized countries have lower population growth rates
Economic development Government policy – China has a one
child policy Role of women in society – In
countries where women have fewer opportunities for education and to work the birth rate is normally higher
Impact of migrations on regions Language Religion and religious freedom Customs/traditions Cultural landscape
Characteristics of Human Populations Birth and death rates Age distribution Male/female distribution Life expectancy Infant mortality Urban/rural GDP Ethnicity Language Religion Education
Push Factors (factors that cause people to migrate to other places)
Overpopulation Religious persecution Lack of job opportunities (Mexicans
immigrating to the United States) Agricultural decline (people leaving
the Sahel in Africa because of desertification)
Conflict Political persecution (Cubans
immigrated to the U.S. because of the political persecution of Fidel Castro and the communists)
Natural hazards – droughts, floods, famines, volcanic eruptions
Limits on personal freedom Environmental degradation
Pull Factors Religion Economic opportunity Land availability Political freedom Ethnic and family ties Arable land
Examples of Site Examples of Situation Harbor sites: New York City;
Alexandria, Egypt,; Istanbul, Turkey Island sites: Paris (originally located
on an island in the Seine River) Hong Kong, Singapore
Fall line sites: Richmond, Virginia Confluence sites: Khartoum, Sudan
Situation is another name for relative location – the location of a city with respect to other geographic features, regions, resources, and transport routes
Baghdad – Command of land between the Tigris and Euphrates
(Confluence of Blue and White Nile); Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Hilltop sites: Rome, Athens, Jerusalem
Oasis sites: Damascus, Syria Sites where river narrows: London,
Quebec City
Functions of Towns and Cities Security, defense Religious centers Trade centers Government administration Manufacturing centers Service centers
Examples of changes in cities’ functions over time
Rio de Janeiro – Move of Brazil’s capital city from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – Early function connected to defense, then became steel manufacturing center, later shifted to diverse services
New York City – Changes in trade patterns, coastal and transatlantic trade, trade from Great Lakes via Erie Canal, worldwide trade and finances
Mining towns, “ghost” towns – resource depletion, changes in environment
Problems associated with growth of urban areas
Providing essential services (fresh water, sewage, electricity, schools)
Air, water, and noise pollution Sprawl results in conversion of
agricultural land to urban uses In developing countries major cities
are more connected to regions outside the country than to regions within the country
Rivers Istanbul – Command of straits and
land bridge to Europe Mecca, Saudi Arabia (Islam);
Varanasi, India (Hinduism) – religious cities
Samarkand, Uzbekistan; Xi’an, China; Timbuktu, Mali; Singapore – Cities that grew up along trade routes
o Timbuktu – Trans-Saharan trade route
o Singapore – Strait of Malaccao Samarkand and Xi’an – Silk
Road Cape Town, South Africa – Supply
station for ships Omaha, Nebraska; Sacramento,
California – Cities that grew up along the U.S. Transcontinental Railroad
Novosibirsk, Vladivostok – Cities that grew up along the Trans-Siberian Railroad
Influences of urban areas on their regions and countries
Nation-building (monuments) Transportation/communication
hubs Magnets for migration Seed beds of new ideas and
technologies Diversity leading to creativity in the
arts Universities, educational
opportunities Corporate headquarters Media centers
Problems associated with growth of urban areas
Transportation problems emerge, especially as automobile travel increases
Rich and poor neighborhoods exist in different areas isolated from one another
Shantytowns
Map that shows the location of Istanbul, Turkey. It is on the Bosporus Strait, a narrow body of water that connects the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea (eventually). Istanbul is also on the land route from Europe to Asia.
Map that shows the Erie Canal connecting Lake Erie and Ontario to the Hudson River that flows to New York. This canal changed
the trade patterns of New York City.
Map that shows the location of Singapore. It is on an important sealane called the Strait of Malacca.
Picture that shows the confluence site of Pittsburgh. A confluence is when two rivers join together to form a third.
Map of the Trans-Continental Railroad in the United States. When the railroad was built it
transformed the cities of Sacramento and Omaha into major urban areas and transportation centers.
Map of the Trans-Sahara trade route. Notice Timbuktu, Mali in West Africa.
Map of the Trans-Siberian railroad in Russia. Notice Novosibirsk, a major city on the route.
What do I need to know about economic geography?
Use of Energy Resources Resources Wood – deforestation Coal – pollution, mining
problems, competition with oil and gas
Petroleum – transportation Nuclear – contamination/waste Solar, wind – coast/aesthetics
Levels of Economic Activity Primary – Dealing directly with
resources (fishing, farming, forestry, mining)
Secondary – Manufacturing and processing (steel mills, automobile assembly, sawmills)
Tertiary – Services (transportation, retail trade, informational technology services
Resources are not distributed equally.
Effects of Unequal Distribution of Resources
Interdependence of nations/trade in goods, services, and capital resources
Uneven economic development – Some countries are rich and some are poor
Energy produces and consumers – Some countries have oil and coal and some must buy it
Conflict over control of resources – Countries will fight for resources such as fresh water, gold, oil, etc…
The use of a resource depends on a nation’s
Natural substances become resources if and when they become useful to humans.
Natural Resources Renewable – soil, water, forests Nonrenewable – Fossil fuels (oil,
coal, natural gas) and metals (gold, iron, copper, bauxite)
Human Resources Level of education Skilled and unskilled workers Entrepreneurial and managerial
abilities
Capital Resources Availability of money for investment Level of infrastructure Availability and use of tools,
machines, and technologies
Costs of Using Resources Resource depletion Environmental degradation Health problems
Benefits of Using Resources Production of goods and services Employment opportunities Development of technologies
Patterns of Land Use Proximity of economic activity and
natural resourceso Steel mills are located next to
coal depositso Cattle ranches are located
near sources of graino Fishing is located near the
oceano Aluminum smelting is
located near hydroelectric power plants because it takes a lot of electricity to extract aluminum from bauxite ore
Non-proximity of economic activity
culture, values, access to technology, and governmental priorities as they change over time
Social and economic priorities that influence a culture’s perspective on
resources Economic development priorities
(China values economic development over saving the environment)
Environmental conservation priorities
Priorities of indigenous minorities
Indicators of Economic Development Urban/rural ratio – developed
countries have more people living in cities
Labor force characteristics – in developing countries more people work in primary and secondary activity
GDP per capita – developed countries have a high GDP
Educational achievement
Indicators of Standards of Living Population growth rate – developing
countries have a higher growth rate Population age distribution –
developing countries have younger populations
Literacy rate (who can read and write)
Life expectancy Infant mortality Percentage of urban population
Changes Over Time
and natural resourceso Japan – limited natural
resources; major manufacturing region
o United Arab Emirates – oil; lack of industry
Technologies that have created a demand for particular resources
Steam engine – demand for coal Internal combustion engine –
petroleum Computer chips – demand for skilled
labor
Differences between developed and developing nations
Access to natural resources Access to capital resources Numbers and skills of human
resources Levels of economic development Standards of living and quality of life Relationship between economic
development and quality of life
Comparative Advantage Comparative advantage: countries
will export goods and services that they can produce at lower relative costs than other countries
Specialization of goods and services that a country can market for a profit
Some Countries’ Use of Resources Japan – Highly industrialized nation
despite limited natural resources Russia – Numerous resources many
of which are not economically profitable to develop
United States – Diversified economy, abundant natural resources, specialized industries
Cote D’Ivoire – Limited natural resources, cash crops in exchange for manufactured goods
Switzerland – Limited natural resources
Examples of Economic Unions
Industrial labor systems (factories replaced cottage industries)
Migration from rural to urban areas Industrialized countries export labor
intensive work to developing nations Growth of trade alliances Growth of service industry Growth of financial services
networks and international banks Internationalization of product
assembly Technology that allows instant
communication among people in different countries
Modern transportation networks that allow rapid and efficient exchange of goods and materials
Widespread marketing of products (Nike, Coke)
EU – European Union NAFTA – North American Free Trade
Agreement ASEAN – Association of Southeast
Asian Nations OPEC – Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries
Advantages of Economic Unions More efficient industries Access to larger markets Access to natural, human, and capital
resources without restrictions Greater influence on the world
market
Disadvantages of Economic Unions Closing of some industries Concentration of some industries in
certain countries Agribusiness replacing family farms Difficulty in agreeing on common
economic policies
What do I need to know about physical geography?
Climate Characteristics World Climate Regions
Temperature Precipitation Seasons(hot/cold; wet/dry)
Climate Elements Influence of latitude (It gets colder
the farther north or south of the equator you go)
Influence of winds Influence of elevation (It gets
colder when you gain elevation) Proximity to water (water has a
moderating influence on climate – the summers are cooler and the winters warmer)
Mountains Rocky Mountains create rain
shadows on leeward slopes Himalayas block rain to create
steppes and deserts in Central Asia
Low latitudes – tropical wet, tropical wet and dry, arid, semiarid, highland
Middle latitudes – semiarid, arid, Mediterranean, humid continental, humid subtropical, marine west coast, highland
High latitudes – subarctic, tundra, icecap
Vegetation Regions Rain forest (Amazon rain forest
Brazil) Savanna (tropical grassland in Africa) Desert (Arid) Middle latitude forests Taiga (in subarctic climate, coniferous
trees) Tundra (cold grassland with some
bushes, lichens, and mosses located in northern Canada, Russia)
Weather Phenomena Monsoons – Seasonal wind that brings
rain to South and Southeast Asia. Causes flooding but provides water for crops
Typhoons – Same as hurricane in Pacific Ocean
Hurricanes – Atlantic Ocean Tornadoes – United States
Effects of Climate Crops – Different crops grow in
different climates Clothing Housing – log houses in areas with
many trees, adobe houses in dry areas, tiled roof in Mediterranean
Natural hazards – droughts, floods
Physical and Ecological Processes Earthquakes Floods Volcanoes Erosion
Human Impact on Environment
Water Diversion Aral Sea – shrinking due to over
irrigation, located in Central Asia Colorado River – location of Hoover
Human Impact on Environment
Environmental Changes Acid rain (causes by air
pollution/problem in Black Forest in Germany and Eastern North America
Dam, used for irrigation in Southwest U.S.
Aswan High Dam – located on Nile River, built to stop flooding of river and provide water for irrigation and hydroelectric power
Canals, reservoirs, irrigation
Changing Landscapes Agricultural terracing (China and
Southeast Asia) Polders (reclaimed land from the
sea in the Netherlands) Deforestation (Nepal, Brazil,
Malaysia) Desertification (expansion of arid
conditions into non-arid areas – basically the desert is getting bigger, big problem in North Africa near the Sahara and parts of Asia)
Pollution (air pollution in Mexico City, nuclear pollution near Chernobyl, oil spills
Influence of Technology
Agriculture (fertilizers, mechanization), people can grow more food now because of tractors and better growing practices
Energy usage (most countries use fossil fuels but some countries have nuclear power
Automobiles – the automobile has impacted the environment because people have to make roads, parking lots, and cities have grown with suburbs
Airplanes – airport expansion/noise
Environmental Impact on Humans Settlement patterns (some places are
too hot or cold) Housing materials Agricultural activity Types of recreation Transportation patterns
Picture of an arid climate zone (desert) Picture of agricultural terracing in Asia
Picture showing ship sitting on the bottom of the Aral Sea
Picture of Hoover Dam on the Colorado River
Map showing the direction of the seasonal wind to South and Southeast
Asia (monsoon)
Diagram showing how a polder is made in the Netherlands. Note the windmills, a
common cultural landscape in the Netherlands.
Picture of two cooling towers of a nuclear power plant