The Koran

PAGE 33

The QuranDr. Ks Brief Synopsis of Key Theological, Moral, and Judicial Themes, including the Religious Imperative to Strive and Struggle in the Path of Allah (Jihad fi Sabil Allah) Paul Kamolnick, Ph.D., Professor East Tennessee State Universitykamolnp@etsu.edu** If citing, please use following format. Kamolnick, Paul. Ph.D. A Brief Synopsis of Key Theological, Moral, and Judicial Themes, including the Religious Imperative to Strive and Struggle in the Path of Allah (Jihad fi Sabil Allah; orig. 2006; revised 2015). Table of Contents

Absolute Crux

Chapter

1 A Prophetic Dialogue.

2 An Arabic Koran.

3 Gods Messenger: Muhammad, a Warner and Bearer of Good Tidings.

4 Muhammads Moral Cosmos.

5 Muhammads Message, I: Gods Oneness and Absolute Sovereignty.

6 Muhammads Message, II: The Covenant, The Last Day, and The Just One.

7 Muhammads Message, III: Surrender, Islam, and Abrahams True Religion.

8 Muhammads Message, IV: Allahs Justice, Mercy, Compassion, Knowledge, and Forgiveness.

9 Norms of Communal Conduct and Elements of Law.

10 Muhammads Jihad.

Crux of the Quran: A Masterkey.

Sura 41:1-12 [FUSSILAT or HA MIM].

Distinguished

In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate -----------------( Naming; and Seeking Favor in Life.

[1] Ha Mim --------------------(Abbreviated Letters? (See Ali, Appendix 1, The Abbreviated Letters,

pp. 122-124.; Ha Mim in Suras 40-46)

[2] A sending down from the Merciful, the Compassionate. ---------( Transcendent Authority of Koran

[3] A Book whose signs have been distinguished as ----------(An Arabic Koran

an Arabic Koran for a people having knowledge,

[4 ] good tidings to bear, and warning,------------------(Muhammad as Preacher: A

Warner, and Bearer of Good Tidings

[4-5] but most of them have turned away, and do not give ear.

They say, Our hearts are veiled from what thou callest us to, -------( Resistance to the Messageand in our ears is a heaviness, and between us and

thee there is a veil;so act; we are acting!

Say = Allah tells Muhammad to recite

[6] Say: I am only a mortal, like you are. ----------( Muhammad a Mere Mortal (Son of Man)

To me it has been revealed that ----------------( Muhammads Transcendent Authority

your God is One God; so go ------------( Muhammads Message/Preaching:

straight with Him, and ask for His forgiveness;

(your God is One God

and woe to the idolaters

( idolaters will be punished

[7] who pay not the alms, and disbelieve in the world to come. ( Alms, After-this-Life

[8] Surely those who believe, and do righteous deeds -------( Essence of the Covenant: If faith and works, then

Shall have a wage unfailing.

Eternal Blessings.[9] Say: What do you disbelieve in Him who -----------------( Argument from Design as Proof of Gods

created the earth in two days, and do you

Absolute Rule Over This World

set up compeers to Him? That is the

(Signs = ayat; sign = aya; verse)Lord of all Being.

[10] And He set therein firm mountains over it,

and He blessed it, and He ordained therein

its diverse sustenance in four days, equal

to those who ask.

[11] Then He lifted Himself to heaven when it was

Smoke, and said to it and to the earth, Come

Willingly, or unwillingly! They said,

We come willingly.

[12] So He determined them as seven heavensIn two days, and revealed its commandment

in every heaven.

And We adorned the lower heaven with lamps, and to

[preserve;

That is the ordaining of the All-mighty, the All-knowing.

Sources: (1) The Koran Interpreted (Arberry transl). vol. 2 (pp. 185-86).

(2) For verse numbering, see The Meaning of the Holy Quran (Ali transl.)

pp. 1230-33.

Chapter 1

The Koran: A Prophetic Dialogue

The unbelievers assert that they will

never be raised up. Say: Yes indeed,

by my Lord! You shall be raised up,

then you shall be told the things you did.

That is easy for God.

Therefore believe in God and

His Messenger, and in the

Light which We have sent down.

And God is aware of the things you do.

[64:7-8]

The Creator of the heavens and the earth

How should He have a son,

seeing that He has no consort, and He created

all things, and He has knowledge of everything?

[6:101]

God

There is no god but He, the

Living, the Everlasting.

He sent down upon thee the Book

with the truth, confiming what was before it,

and He sent down the Torah and the Gospel

aforetime, as guidance to the people,and He sent down the Salvation.

[3:2-3]

And the Outstrippers, the first of the Emigrants

and the Helpers, and those who followed them

in good-doingGod will be well-pleased with them

and they are well-pleased with Him; . . .

And some of the Bedouins who dwell around you

Are hypocrites; and some of the people

Of the City are grown bold in hypocrisy. . . .

And other have confessed their sins; they have

Mixed a righteous deed with another evil.

[9:100-102]

I.Dialogical Structure of the Koran.

A prophetic dialogue between God, the messenger Muhammad, and those to whom Muhammad addressed his message.

( The Koran may usefully be read as a complex dialogue involving many dialogical participants. The Koran is structured as a divine revelation, occurring over time and represented in many utterances/recitations, with Muhammad addressing many different kinds of person across a range of topics.

II.Dialogical Participants.

The major dialogical activity in the Koran involves Muhammad in dialogue with five types of person: (A) Muhammad versus traditional Bedouin Arabic idolaters; (B) Muhammad versus People of the Book, (ahl al-Kitab) namely Jews and Christians; (C) Muhammad versus hypocritical believers of the new faith; (D) Muhammad versus apostates to the new faith. (E) Muhammads dialogue with various categories of recent converts to the new faith. The following Koranic passages are some key examples.

A.Believers/Idolaters-Unbelievers

( The fierce, proud, polytheistic, this-worldly, tribal/clannish Arabian pre-Muslim Bedouin are Muhammads main audience. Their belief in many gods, a single life, the value of power and this-worldly wealth is opposed by Muhammads proclamation of one God, an Afterlife, a Day of Judgment, the prophetic call of Muhammad, and the sacredness of the divine revelations that will make up the Koran.

( e.g. K 18:32-44; 43:16-25.

( The danger of disbelievers as friends/associates (K 4:139-144)

B.Believers/Non-Idolater People of the Book

( Jews and Christians are also dialogical participants. Referred to as the People of the Book, Muhammad challenges these other privileged faiths by his unique interpretation of traditional Jewish and Christian Scripture and beliefs. He accuses them of having adulterated or only received portions (e.g. K 3:23) of Gods (Allahs) original Word, disavowed his demand for absolute monotheism (Tawhid), and failed to adhere to the Prophetic messages.( K 4: 153-176; 5:15-22, 116-20; 23:91C.Believers/Hypocrites

( Muhammad condemns those recently-converted pretenders to the new faith for their vacillation, weakness, and failure to live by and fight for the new faith.

( K 4:142-145; 33:60; 61:2-3.

D.Believers/Apostates

( Muhammad condemns those who after embracing the faith reject it. Apostasy is a capital crime.

( K 3:81-91.

E. Various categories of recent convert to new faith. 1.Emigres( K 16:41-43.

2.Sectarians( K 23:51-62.

3.Intra-believer squabbling ( K 4

Chapter 2

An Arabic Koran

This Koran could not have been forged

apart from God; but it is a confirmation

of what is before it, and a distinguishing

of the Book, wherein is no doubt

from the Lord of all Being.

[10:37]

Those are the signs of the Manifest Book.

We have sent it down as an Arabic Koran;

We will relate to thee the fairest of stories

in that We have revelaled to thee this Koran,

though before it thou wast one of the heedless.

[12:2-3]

I.A central objective of the Koran and Muhammads preaching is to establish the absolute authority of the Koran as Allahs Divine Message. This divinity must be established in order to convince the People of the Book to abandon their Scripture, but most especially, for the polytheistic Bedouin Arabs to receive a revelation in their own tongue.

II.Muhammad offers his own answer to those who cried lies to our signs, and who claimed that Muhammads Koran was a mere forgery, like the fairy tales of the ancients.

A.Allahs Heavenly Tablet Sent Down. ( K 2:185 (Month of Ramadan); 97: 1-5 (Night of Power); 4: 105, 113; 5:15; 44:1-5; 8:75; 10:37-39; 16:101-105; 85:21-22.

( Revealed in stages: 76:23; 24:1, 34B.A Literal Koran. ( K 6:115; 18:27

C.An Arabic Koran. ( K12:1-3; 26:192-196.

D.A Koran that Confirms All That Came Before ( K2:87-103Chapter 3

Gods Messenger:

Muhammad, A Warner and Bearer of Good Tidings

. . . for when it was said to them,

There is no god but God, they were ever

waxing proud, saying, What, shall we

forsake our gods for a poet possessed?

No indeed; but he brought the truth, and

confirmed the Envoys.

Now certainly you shall be tasting the painful

chastisement, and not be recompensed,

except according to what you were doing.

[37:35-38]

I.Muhammad was an example of what Max Weber (1864-1920) refers to as ethical prophecy (see eg. M. Weber ([1920] 1978: 439-451). An ethical prophet is one who claims to have been called by God to deliver Gods message regarding the necessity of living for Good and avoiding Evil. The ethical prophet reinterprets the world in terms of a fundamental moral demand that each individual is called to realize in their personal and social lives. The ethical prophets words amount to sacred commandments, or to a lawgiving, and in that sense Muhammad was a prophet-lawgiver calling persons to completely reorganize their lives on the basis of his interpretation of Gods sacred call. Muhammad was also a preacher, and his job was to call persons to an ethical life.

II. A great deal of the Koran consists of Muhammads declaration of his Messengership, and of the specific qualities of this Messengership. The following categories capture the central assertions in Muhammads preaching.

( For an extended specific example, see K 26:115-227.

A. Against those disbelievers who claim Muhammad was a sorcerer, a madman, a liar and deceiver, or a mere poet, Muhammad asserts his Divine Messengership.

( K 38:1-10; 69:38-52; 72:20-28; 36:69; 52:29-49

( Too inspired and beautiful confirms Messenger: 17: 85-93.

( Muhammads Night Journey: 17:1

B. Muhammad Insists, However, He is A Mere Mortal, Like You.

( K 39:30;

C.Muhammad is Ubiquitously Described as A Warner, and Bearer of Good Tidings.

( K 24:54; 33:45; 79:45; K 71: entire; 72:20-28; 38:65-70.

D.Muhammads Message is Not New, but a Pure Restatement of The

Same Message as Before, However it is no longer corrupted.

( K 4:47; 4:54; 46:7-10; but also states, they were only given a portion of the Book: 3:23; 4:44, 51; E.Muhammad, as Gods Final Messenger, His Seal of the Prophets (K 33:40), has also earned a right to absolute obedience as ruler of the new faith community: K: 33:36-40; 4:59, 65-70, 115; 24:51-54, 56.Chapter 4

Muhammads Moral Cosmos:

Humankinds Moral Frailty, Good and Evil, Light and Dark, Names and Signs

God desires to make clear to you, and to

guide you in the institutions of those

before you, and to turn towards you; God is

All-knowing, All-wise;

And God desires to turn toward you, but

Those who follow their lusts desire you

To swerve away mightily. God desires

To lighten things for you, for man was

created a weakling.

[4:26-28 Ali; 4:31-32 Arberry]

On no soul do We place a burden greater than it can bear. Before us is a record which clearly shows the truth. They will never be wronged. [23:62]

It is He who appointed you viceroys in the earth.

[35:39]

Perish the conjecturers

who are dazed in perplexity

asking, When shall be the Day of Doom?

Upon the day when they shall be tried at the Fire:

Taste your trial! This is that you were seeking to hasten.

Surely the godfearing shall be among gardens and fountains

taking whatsoever their Lord has given them;

they were good-doers before that.

Little of the night would they slumber,

and in the mornings they would ask for forgiveness;

and the beggar and the outcast had a share in their wealth.

[51:10-19]

I.For Muhammad, like the great Jewish prophet-lawgiver prophets before him (especially Moses), the essential thrust of prophecy is the (1) reinterpretation of the world as a meaningful totality, and (2) a fundamental moral reinterpretation of the universe. Profoundly unlike astrological fatalism, and very much like Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism, Muhammad views the world as locked into a battle between Good and Evil.

II. Muhammads doctrine of humankind. Muhammads view of humankinds moral status does base itself in the Old Testament view of an original Paradisical state, the Fall, and a vision of humankind aspiring to reacquire its original moral purity. It is also extremely far-removed from any forms of monasticism designed for religious virtuosos based on the desire to abolish the sinfulness of human nature through various forms of self-negation, self-mortification, or radical self-denial (e.g. vows of celibacy or poverty). The following elements comprise Muhammads conception of humankind.

A. Uniquely chosen humansAbraham, Noah, Moses, Jesus, Muhammadas well as humans generally are viewed as Gods deputies or Viceregents on earth.

( K 35:39 [Arberry 35:35-36]; 6:165-166.

B. Humans are created by Allah from a unique combination of physical and biological elements. These elements include dust, mud, clay, blood, and sperm. Several different accounts of the creation of humans is offered, sometimes in agreement, and sometimes differing in fundamentals. In at least one account (K20:26-29), the animating spirit is from wind or spirit that is breathed into humans.

Here are a couple of the most detailed accounts:

( K 22:5; 40:67-68 [Arberry 40:68-70]; K55:14-15 [Arberry 55:12-14] ; 15:33, 38:71 (from clay); 30:20 (from dust) ( Muhammad also proclaims that a single soul was created, that was later divided into two in order for humans to have a mate (K 39:6

( Allah takes the souls of those who die, and steals them while persons are asleep: K39:42

C. Humans were created as morally challenged and prone to hedonic sins and injustice, but not eternally corrupted by Adams original sin. Nevertheless, humans are not regarded by him as they are by the Pauline Christians as creatures whose material selves are virtually completely compromised by a satanic inclination toward the flesh. Life is a gift, and it is to be lived and enjoyed, but only through submission will humankind enjoy this life without violating the demands of righteousness. Valuing the self is natural and Allahs gift, but selfishnessextreme focus on ones own value in relation to othersis a sin.

( Though a Fall occurred (K 20:116-121), Allah still bestowed Grace (K 20: 122-128). Iblis, not Eve, as Satan, Devil, Tempter (K 20: 116); also, 24:21 for clear statement of grace.( humanitys moral frailty, weakness, and temptation to sin: 4:26-29; [Arberry 4:32-33]; 35:45.

( Every individual person is solely responsible for their own conduct, whether righteous or unrighteous: K 16:111; 17:13-15; 35:18; 39:41; 4:105-112.

( Contra Christian monasticism: K57:27

D.A cornerstone of Muhammads moral cosmos was the belief in an afterlife. Jews and Christians were not his principal targets, but rather the Bedouin whose cosmology did not embody a doctrine of the afterlife, nor a day of final judgment in which all souls would be judged based on their faith and especially their worldly deeds. Muhammads belief in the afterlife was virtually identical to the pharisaic Jewish and later Christian belief in the actual physical-bodily resurrection of the dead on the Last Day.

A few examples of insistence on the Afterlife: ( K18:32-44; 23:33-39; 44:34-37.

A few examples of insistence of a bodily resurrection of the dead: ( 15:35-36; 38:79; 86:5-10.

III.Moral Dualism Between Heaven and Hell, Good and Evil. Like the Jews and Christians before him, Muhammad very vividly describes the eternal fate that awaits the righteous ones in heavenly paradise, and the evil ones in a hellish fire. Here I only cite the existence of this dualism. Later when discussing the covenantal theology of Muhammad (chapter 6), I will go into greater detail.

A.Cosmic War Between Dark and Light. ( K37:1-11.

( Allah is the Light: K24:35

( Darkness and unbelief: K24:40i.Heaven and ParadiseLife ( K55:46-78; 22:23-25; 44:51-56; 76:5-23.

ii.Gehenna and FireDeath ( K22:19-22; 44:43-50; 92:14-20; 37:60-72; 15:44

B. Names and the Display of Submissive Loyalty to Absolute Power. The magical potency arising from saying and doing things in the name of Allah appears everywhere in the Koran. It is most likely identical to the protective powers and favors early Christians expected by proclaiming or doing things in the name of Jesus the resurrected Lord. In reference to the latter the pagan Celsus (c. 185) wrote in On the True Doctrine: Discourse Against the Christians: they [followers of Jesus the Christ] assume that by pronouncing the name of their teacher they are armored against the powers of the earth and the air and that their God will send armies to protect them. And they teach that no demon, lest it be an evil one, could want to do them harm anyway. And they are quite insistent on the efficacy of the name as a means of protection: pronounce it improperly, they say, and it is ineffective. Greek and Latin will not do; it must be said in a barbarian tongue to work. ([c. 185] 1987: 118; transl. R. J. Hoffman; NY: Oxford U Pr.)

( In light of this, consider the very first opening line of the vast majority of suras: In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate, and elsewhere in the Koran when the protective powers of Allah are invoked and demonic spirits are needing to be kept at bay.

C.Signs as Evidence of Muhammads Charismatic Power/Truth. For Muhammad, as for the Jews before him, Allah/God is Unseen, Invisible, and the Absolute Spiritual Monarch of the Natural World. The natural world, in every respect, and every event in the human world, is evidence or a sign of God. A sign is something that refers to something beyond itself, i.e. the signified. The most often-invoked sign of Gods existence is the orderly arrangement and design of the universe. This will be discussed in chapter five when I illustrate the chief means by which Muhammad claims to proves Gods ultimate sovereignty and power. Besides the design of the universe, miracles, military victories, all of lifes pleasures and sorrows, nature-defying miracles of all sorts, bodily resurrection of the dead, etc, are invoked as signs of Gods existence and power.

B. Allies, Friends, and Foes in the Cosmic Moral War. Besides Allah and humankind, Muhammads moral cosmos is populated with a variety of beingsgood and evil, and mostly spiritualthat participate as active agents in the cosmic war of good and evil. The omnipresence of these beings is evidence of Muhammads Arabian context and the assimilation into Muhammads moral cosmos of characters that on a strict reading appear to challenge the exclusive Spiritual reality of Allah.

i. Angels. ( K 2:97-98; 35:1ii. Jinn. ( K6:112, 130; 15:27; 34:12, 41.

( Allah created the Jinn: K55:15iii. satans, Satan. ( K2:102 [2:97 in Arberry]; 22:4; 58:19-22; 24:21 iv. Iblis ( K15:30-44; 38:73-88 (38: 76: Allah created Iblis from Fire and humans (with Allahs own hands) from clay)Chapter 5

Muhammads Message I:

Gods Oneness (Tawhid) and Absolute Sovereignty/LordshipO my people, serve God! You have no other God than He.

Will you not be godfearing?

[23:23]

The sending down of the Book is from God

the All-Mighty, the All-knowing,

Forgiver of sins, Accepter of penitence,

Terrible in retribution,

The Bountiful;

there is no god but He,

and unto Him is the homecoming.

[40:1-3]

I. A Brief Orthodox Credal Statement: K 4: 136.

II.God is One God, There is No God Besides He. ( K 4:48, 116; 11:2; 12:37-41; 59:22-25; K40:62-68; 64:13; 14:52; 25:2-5..There is no more fundamental absolute categorical assertion made by Muhammad than the one proclaiming that Allah is one God and there is no god besides Allah. The second most prevalent assertion made about Allah, besides his oneness, is his absolute sovereignty. There are many other attributes ascribed to Allah, in fact ninety-nine (see Braswell, 1996: p.. 46), and the most important of these others will be taken up in later chapters. But the oneness and absolute sovereignty is so fundamental to Muhammads preaching that it deserves a place of its own.

III.The Oneness or Indivisible Unity of a Single Unaccompanied God.

The oneness and singularity of Allah, virtually identical to that maintained by Judaism, is in opposition to any and all other conceptions of God or gods.

A. It opposes archaic animismpostulation of a universal non-anthropomorphic spiritualism responsible for natures existence and fate.

B. It opposes polytheism: a plurality or gods each worshipped as the lord of a distinct aspect of matter, lifes cycle, lifes journey, etc. generally represented by an idol whose cult is maintained by a priest, priestess, or priesthood charged with regulating its power and benefits. (K?:14-25; 71:21-25.C. It opposes henotheism: the concept of a God of gods, or Overlord of lords, that is superior to, though accompanied by, these lesser lords.

D. It upholds a doctrine of strict, uncompromising monotheism/monolatry. Muhammads uncompromising monotheism occurred in two distinct stages: (1) whereby a henotheistic Lord of lordsAllahwho was the pre-Islamic Arabic God of gods worshipped in Mecca, and is a tribal god (Allah of the Quraysh: God of gods) finally is transformed into (2)

Allah the exclusive, singular ruler of the entire cosmos and all humanity, who is without associates. This final move from henotheistic tribal worship to the monotheistic/monolatrous worship of a single universal deity is virtually identical to that taken by the Israelites who transformed a tribal cult of their Lord of lordsYahwehinto the absolute, universal God of all persons.

IV. Allahs Absolute Sovereignty. Besides Allahs oneness, Allahs absolute sovereignty is without question the most crucial fact that Muhammad seeks to impress among those he is preaching. The absolute power of Allah is virtually identical to that of the Jewish God.

(K 4:131-134; 24:33, 38, 40; 30:37-40; 36:82-83; 39:52-56; 40:1-3.

A. Allah is The Unseen. Allah is the unseen creator of all that is created: invisible and coterminous with the cosmos. All of creation owes its birth, life, and death to Allah; Allah is the unconditioned first principle that is responsible for every manifestation of the created world.

B. The Signs (pl: Ayat; sing: ayah) of the Unseen. Allah is known through his signs and wondersevery created event in the universe. Convincing others of Allah involves convincing others that Allah is the necessary and sufficient condition of all signs, i.e. of all creation. ( 30:20-27.

C. The Creator of the Seen. Allah, as the exclusive invisible (unseen) creator of the visible (seen), is involved at every level of creation:

i. Of cosmos: design versus the impotence of the idolater.

ii. Of all non-human life forms: design versus the impotence of the idolater.

iii. Of man, and woman: versus the impotence of the idolater.

V.The Power of Absolute Power. The power of absolute power is by definition, absolute. Though this might raise difficult logical questions for theologians regarding the free will versus determinism debate, this is not Muhammads concern and he preaches without question that nothing can happen at anytime in the universe that can contradict Allahs absolute will.

( Some examples free will/Allahs determinism, see K4:31, 38-39; 35:8-9, 15-17; also, K 24:21 for Allahs grace.VI.Muhammads Rejection of The Christian Trinity: Doctrine of the Incarnate Jesus as Son of God. Muhammad on several distinct occasions comments on the Christian conception of Jesuss incarnation as the risen Lord. The following is in general an accurate account of Muhammads preaching:

A. Jesuss immaculate conception. Jesus was born through an immaculate conception, as the Christians declare. ( K21:91; 4:156

B. Jesuss death and resurrection. Jesus died and was raised again (resurrected) by Allah. ( K4:158C. Jesus as prophet and mortal messenger. Jesus has the status of a prophet who in the Gospels is seen to have fulfilled/replaced the Jewish Torah, but is not regarded as son of God or Lord. Like Muhammad, Jesus is regarded as a sacred prophet, and a Messenger like Muhammad. ( K4:170-171; 5:75.D. Allah needs and has no son. Allah is one, and Muhammads Unitarianism is contrasted with the Trinitarian formula of the orthodox church.

( K9:30-33;19:92

E. Contra Christian monasticism. As stated in chapter 4, Muhammads view of humanity does not involve rejection of the world and an attempt to shed the body of all its human attachments in order to escape physical existence. It is an affirmative doctrine that warrants prosperity, fertility, and worldly success, but only within the ethical framework permissible by Muhammads preaching and lawgiving. Extreme focus on the self, not self-regard per se, is a sin against God and the community.

( K57:27Chapter 6

Muhammads Message II:

The Covenant, the Last Day, and The Just One

Say: O men, I am only for you a plain warner!

Those who believe, and do deeds of righteousnesstheirs

Shall be foregiveness and generous provision.

And those who strive against Our signs to void them

they shall be the inhabitants of Hell.

[22:49-51]

And those who believe, and do righteous deeds,

We shall surely lodge them in lofty chambers of

Paradise, underneath where rivers flow, therein

dwelling forever; and excellent is the wage of

those who labour, such men as are patient,

and put their trust in their Lord.

[29:58-59]

Surely those who believe, and do deeds of righteousness,

there awaits them Gardens of Bliss

therein to dwell foreverGods promise

in truth; and He is the All-mighty, the All-wise.

[31:8-9]

I.Introduction: The Just One and the Ideal Righteous Muslim.

A.Muhammads preaching has as its fundamental objective the absolute moral imperative to live a life that is based on moral righteousness. Righteousness is a state of heart, a state of mind, a state of the soul. This righteousness is also, and especially for Muhammad, manifest in righteous deeds. Muhammads vision of the just one is found throughout the Koran and is the pivot upon which his entire Messengership is warranted. The legal form of Muhammads demand to live a socially just life will be considered in a subsequent chapter and for now the focus is merely on the centrality of righteousness for Muhammads preaching. It is also especially important to keep in mind that a might makes right and kinship and tribe first view of justice are for Muhammad unworthy of the Allah of humanity. Muhammad, like Jesus before him, though sometimes inconsistently, abolishes privileges based on kin nepotism, and replaces them with a universal pan-tribal concept of the just one as an ideal righteous human being.

B.To be truly just, however, one must submit to a unique covenant between Allah and humankind. The nature, form, structure, and substance of the covenant creates an indissoluble link between Allah, humankind, and the possibility of justice and its rewards.

II. Muhammads Covenantal Theology: Its Nature and Structure.

A. Origins in Jewish covenantal theology. Muhammad inherits the essential elements of a covenantal theology from the Jews and Christians. Whether the origins of the idea of a covenant are to be found in (a) the ancient imperial relation between an empire and its subject nations and peoples, the (b) monarchical relation between an absolute sovereign and his subjects, or as I suspect, (3) the unique nature of the parent-offspring relation, the fact is that once originated, covenantal theology is remarkable for what its contribution to world history.

B. Key elements of the covenant.

1.Form of the covenant.

a.Assymetry between covenantal partners. (e.g. 2:122-126, 130In the case of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, God/Allah through an act of divine grace initiates a covenant with merely mortal humans. This free act of grace is not based on the virtues of humanity or a section thereof, but simply Gods decision to create and to favor a people of his own making. (e.g. K 17:30; 35:15-17, 39).

b.Irrevocability of the covenant. (e.g. 2:122-126). The covenant between God and humanity or a section thereof cannot be revoked either by God or by humanity: it is permanent and unconditional. Because God initiated the covenant, and God has chosen to forever honor this free gift, humanity is now eternally linked to Gods gift.

C. Two components of the Covenant.

1.The Promise. The irrevocability of the covenant that God makes with humanity is a freely given promise, a free gift, wherein God commits himself to an exclusive loyalty to humanity. I am your God, you are my people, not for what you have done, but simply because I have chosen you as my exclusive covenantal partner. This is the promise God makes.

2.The Law. The promise of Gods exclusive unconditional and permanent loyaltygracehowever, whether God bestows his blessings or curses on humanity is conditional on whether each individual human being exhibits righteousness, especially in their conduct toward others. God reward the just, and punishes the wicked (e.g. 4:13-14), though Gods promise of exclusive loyalty is never threatened by ones conduct. In short, God basically demands that if you want to be happy, be just and righteous; if you want to be miserable, be unjust and sinful.

III. Justification as Faith and Works. Islam is virtually identical to Judaism and quite dissimilar to orthodox Christianity in its view of the relation of faith and works.

A.Justified by Faith. Like Judaism and Christianity, an absolute faith in Gods existence and Gods promise in the covenant he made with humanity is the cornerstone of Islam as a faith. (e.g K 4:125; 16:120-129; 35:36-37). For Muhammad, as for Kierkegaard twelve centuries later, Abraham of the Jewish scriptures is the paradigmatic man of God for he believed in God with all his heart, soul, and might, and despite the possibility of murdering his first-born son Isaac, offered Isaac to God on the basis of faith alone. Abrahams leap of faith precedes the reception by Moses of Gods Torah and Commandments on Mount Sinai and Abraham is justified purely on the basis of faith in God, not righteous deeds based on the Torah. It is before Torah, before the Law comes in to the world, that Abraham is chosen by God, tested by God, and finally justified by his willingness to sacrifice that which is dearest to him for the sake of his belief.

( K16:120-123B. Justified by Works. While faith is essential, in Judaism and Islam

righteous works are also essential in order to truly find favor with God/Allah. In orthodox Christianity faith in Jesus as the risen Lord and his Saviorship, absolutely independent of any conduct in this world, guarantees the Christian believer eternal life and eternal salvation. It may be that works are a practical expression of faith, but faith in the Salvific nature of Jesus as the Crucified and Resurrected Lord, and as ones personal Lord and savior, guarantees for the believer all that God has to offer his blessed ones. Judaism and Islam, on the contrary, assume the necessity of faith but also repeatedly demand that the believer dispense justice in acts and deeds. (However, does faith alone justify? See K35:36-37). Each individual is regarded as morally accountable (4:110-112; 35:118; 23:62; 16:111)III.Justification in this Life, and After-this-Life: Covenantal Fruits of Righteousness for Gods Viceroys.

A.In this Life. Again virtually identical to Judaism, Muhammad emphasizes the importance of the present world as a theatre for the realization of Gods demand to act righteously. Life, health, a posterity, fertility, fruits, happiness, pleasures, enjoyment of Gods creation await those who abide by Allahs ethical demands. (e.g. K23:18-22; 21:105). Happiness in this world is Allahs gift to those who exemplify righteousness in deed. As creatures brought into this world along with Allahs entire creation, the just (like Abraham, 4:125) are promised repeatedly by Muhammad the bounty of Allahs creation. The opposite fate awaits those who fail to obey Allahs ethical demands. Consider Muhammads description of a person who exemplifies justice and righteousness (32:18-22; 4:13-14, 56-57, 122, 124-125; 24:55-56; 33:35):And those who avoid heinous sins

and indecencies and when they are angry

forgive,

and those who answer their Lord, and

perform the prayer, their affair being

between them, and they expend of

that We have provided them,

and who, when insolence visits them,

do help themselves

and the recompense of evil is evil

the like of it; but whoso pardons

and puts things right, his wage falls

upon God; surely He loves not

the evildoers.

And whosoever helps himself after he

Has been wrongedagainst them

There is no way.

The way is only open against those who do

Wrong to the people, and are insolent

In the earth wrongfully; there awaits them a

Painful chastisement.

But surely he who bears patiently

And is forgivingsurely that is

True constancy.

[42:37-43]

B.After-this-Life, for all Eternity. Muhammad preached that the fruits of ones faith and righteous deeds were also, and perhaps especially, to be reaped during ones eternal afterlife. Allah, following the Last Day (i.e. literally, the Day of Resurrection (Yawm al-Qiyamah) when all souls are revived, assembled, and judged based on their faith and deeds, allots to each soul a place in a sensuously delightful Paradise or a horrifically dreadful and ghastly Hell (Gehenna). The vividness of these two options is the subject-matter of Muhammads earliest Meccan preaching, and also persists throughout. Since the Jews and Christians of Muhammads time certainly already believed in the resurrection of the dead, the Day of Judgment, and the eternal afterlife as either one of damnation or paradise/salvation, Muhammads chief dialogical opponents were those of Muhammads own people. As discussed above, the Bedouin, like the archaic Greek warrior aristocracy represented in Homers epic poetry, had a fateful, this-worldly, ethic centered in clan, tribe, power, honor, pleasure, and poetry. Absent from the Bedouin cosmology is a Day of Doom, a concept of the afterlife, and a single individisible absolutely sovereign Godhead concerned virtually with the Viceroys on earth who are charged with upholding the righteousness demanded by Allah.

Repeatedly, with a predictable cadence and ubiquitous presence, Muhammad castigates and admonishes and warns the Bedouin of the fate that awaits them in an eternal Hellfire: an eternity neither they nor their idols can prevent.

(K 4:56-57; 40:69-76; 50:16-35; 57:12-16.

Justice is absolute and applies to all righteousness, regardless of kin relations (K 4:135).

IV. On the Concept of Moderation, Balance (al-Wasat), and the Middle Way (al-Wassatiya). Just as Aristotle discovered the Golden Mean between too much and too little, in this case extremes of zealous devotion on one hand, and complete neglect on the other, the Muhammad preaches a middle way suitable for the masses in their everyday world that is still exemplified in a commitment to aspire to righteous living. Islamic righteousness does not require saintly perfection and fault-finding. See for example:

Q 2:143: Thus have We made you an Umma justly balanced, that ye might be witnesses over the nations. . .

Q 2:185 . . . Allah intends every facility for you; He does not want to put you to difficulties. .

Q 2:194: There is the law of equality [equal retribution]. If then any one transgresses the prohibition against you, transgress ye likewise against him. But fear Allah, and know that Allah is with those who restrain themselves.

Q 31:17-19: Oh my son! Establish regular prayer, enjoin what is just, and forbid what is wrong; and bear with patient constancy whatever betide thee; for this is firmness (of purpose) in the conduct of affairs. And swell not thy cheek (for pride) at men, nor walk in insolence through the earth: for Allah loveth not any arrogant boaster. And be moderate in thy pace, and lower thy voice; for the harshest of sounds without doubt is the braying of the ass.Chapter 7

Muhammads Message III:

Surrender, Islam, and Abrahams True Religion

O men, bow you down and prostrate yourselves,

and serve your Lord, and do good; haply so you

shall prosper;

and struggle for God as is His due, for He has chosen you,

and has laid on you no impediment in your religion,

being the creed of your father Abraham; He named

you Muslims.

Aforetime and in this, that the Messenger might be a witness

Against mankind.

So perform the prayer, and pay the alms, and hold you

fast to God; He is your Protectoran excellent Protector,

an excellent Helper.

[22:77-78]

Only those believe in Our

signs who, when they are reminded

of them, fall down prostrate and

proclaim the praise of their Lord, not waxing

proud.

[32:15]

Your God is one God, so to Him surrender.

[22:34]

When his Lord said to him, Surrender,

he said, I have surrendered me to

the Lord of all Being.

And Abraham charged his sons with this

And Jacob likewise: My sons, God has chosen

For you the religion; see that you die not

Save in surrender.

[2:125-26 Arberry; 131-132 Ali]

I.Islam as Surrender: The Logical Outcome of Muhammads Concept of Allah as Absolute Sovereign, His Radical Monolatry, and Victory over the Bedouin Polytheists. The religion that Muhammad preaches is called Islam. Islam means to surrender, and for Muhammad surrender means to submit absolutely and completely to Allah by placing oneself in a position of utter and complete dependence on Allahs will and mercy. The following syllogism accurately represents the logical foundations of Muhammads new religion. It is important to note that Muhammad himself declared that Islam was merely the restored pure faith that Allah had bequeathed to Abraham (e.g K 4:47; 4:54; 46:7-10 K 4:47; 4:54; 46:7-10) and once Jewish and Christian corruptions of Allahs true message were removed, Muhammad is merely a final messenger but with the identical message to that of Abraham and many uncorrupted Messengers that preceded him.

Given, Muhammads moral cosmos. (see Kamolnick, chapter 4)

Given, Allahs absolute sovereignty.(see Kamolnick, chapter 5)

Given, Allahs absolute oneness.(see Kamolnick, chapter 5)

Given, Allahs covenantal demand(see Kamolnick, chapter 6)

Given, Mans absolute and utter dependency. (see Kamolnick, chapter 5)

Then, Absolute Unconditional Surrender must follow to reap the covenantal benefits and avoid Gehennas fire. (Kamolnick, present chapter [7])

II.Islam as Surrender and Submission, and Utter and Total Dependence.

The surrender that is Muhammads Islam is enacted at the level of

psychological surrender as well as ritualized in a number of acts that exalt honor Allah. Some examples include:

A. Prostration. The ritual act of kneeling and placing ones face to the ground.

B. Prayer and Worship. The ritual act of invoking Allahs name, honoring Allahs absolute sovereignty and oneness, and seeking mercy and forgiveness.

C. Monolatry. The absolute denial of any other spiritual powers and the worship thereof.

D. Ritual humility generally. The constantly-lived awareness of Allahs majesty and ones own utter dependence on Allahs majesty in every facet of every day.

III.Islam and Free Will. The Koran denies any limitation to Allahs absolute power. At the same time it proclaims that humans are morally free to choose between good and evil, and that each person will be held to account for their deeds and their deeds exclusively. Who, then, is responsible for unjust acts committed by individual persons if nothing can occur that is not permitted by Allah, and no one is held to account for acts that do not presume individual freedom from determinism? (E.g. 35:8-9, 17).

IV.What Does it Mean to Live Under Allah? Muhammads uncompromising monotheism, like Judaism, has given birth to differing interpretations of what it means to live under Allah. The same can be said for any faith, such as Judaism or Christianity, that locate the ultimate Authorship of all creation in a God whose absolute sovereignty is unconditionally granted. Because Muhammad preaches the viceregency of humanity as Allahs chosen mortal agents on earth, and because Muhammads vision of human nature largely affirms the this-worldly inclinations of the mass of humanity, living under God certainly does not require world-rejectionism, self-negationism, and indeed Muhammad strictly prohibits monasticism as Allahs chosen ideal.

Chapter 8

Muhammads Message, IV:

Allahs Justice, Mercy, Compassion, Knowledge, and ForgivenessSurely those who fear their Lord

in the Unseen---

there awaits them forgiveness

and a great wage.

Be secret in your speech, or proclaim it,

He knows the thoughts within your breasts.

Shall He not know, who created? And

He is the All-Subtle, the All-aware.

[67:12-14]

If God should take men to task for what

they have earned

He would not leave upon the face of the earth

one creature that crawls; but He is deferring

them to a stated term.

But when their term is comesurely God sees

His servants.

[35:45]

We have provided you; but exceed not

therein, or My anger shall alight on you;

and on whomsoever My anger alights, that

man is hurled to ruin.

Yet I am All-forgiving to him who repents

and believes, and does righteousness, and

at last is guided.

[20:81-82]

. . . for Allah doth blot out sins, and forgive again and again. [4:43]

I.Severity of an Unyielding Just God. There is no doubt that the essence of Allahs rule is to ensure the reign of righteousness throughout Allahs creation. But a strict and unyielding demand for justice is something that humans would find a crushing impossibility. Justice requires that a person receive an exact equivalent for their actions, deeds, and exertions of effort. It demands a pure meritocracy equating merit and reward. Justice is a strict ideal that regulates human interaction yet how many of us bend the rules, seek rewards that we did not truly earn, or seek to deny responsibility for bads that we have actually created? Humans will always fall short if their actions are judged by an exactingly strict measure of justice.

II.Allahs Absolute Knowledge of the Innermost Secrets of Every

Individuals Intentions and Heart. Add to the concept of justice the fact that Allahs knowledge extends to the innermost secrets of an individuals intentions and heart. Not just the deed, but the motivation and intention behind the deed, make a person righteous in Allahs eyes. Like the Jewish prophets and Christians before him, Muhammads focus is not on the ritual act itself, but the spirit and intention behind the act. The morally pure soul, the pure heart, the good heart, the well-intentioned and morally-motivated individual, is the real point behind Muhammads preaching. Imagine, then, an absolutely powerful and knowledgable Allah having complete knowledge of your innermost secrets and thoughts, let alone judging your deeds?

III. The Need for Allahs Mercy, Forgiveness, and Compassion. Strict justice, unaccompanied by mercy and foregiveness, is an unbearable and impossible burden for Allahs created mortals. Hence, Muhammads preaching emphasizes repeatedly and emphatically that Allah demands justice, but also completely forgives those who seek His complete foregiveness and that recommit themselves to living a morally righteous life. In short, strict justice is inhumane, if unaccompanied by Allahs mercy and foregiveness.

A.In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate and Merciful. Consider also that the opening of 113 out of 114 quranic surat begin, In the name of Allah, most gracious (al-Rahman), most merciful (al-Rahim) (Bismillah ir Rahman ir Rahim). It is only in the Name of Allah, with complete surrender and a completely humbled soul, that Allah will consider the request for mercy and foregiveness from the strict requirements of absolute justice.

B.The psychological power of Allahs mercy, foregiveness, and compassion. Muhammad exhibits in his preaching the recognition of humanitys imperfect moral nature. Recall, for example, from chapter four how Muhammad viewed human nature as morally challenged and prone to disregard righteousness and its demands. Imagine the power that comes from the willingness of Allah to remain unconditionally loyal to a creature whose acts do not deserve it, and for Allah to forgive and exercise mercy and compassion toward those who violated Allahs moral demands? Consider that ten of Allahs 99 names in the Quran (see George Braswell, Islam: Its Prophet, Peoples, Politics, and Power. Nashville, TN: Broadman and Holman, 1996, p. 46), are based in Allahs mercifulness, not strict justice: Forgiving (al-Tawwab), Pardoner (al-Afuw), Compassionate (al-Rauf), Merciful (Al-Rahman), Clement (Al-Rahim) Forgiver (al-Ghaffar), Forbearing (al-Halim), Forgiving (al-Ghafur), Forgiver (al-Ghafir), Gracious (al-Mannan), and Generous One (al-Karim). Consider the following quranic verses: Quran 2:109: Quite a number of the People of the Book wish they could turn you (people) back to infidelity after ye have believed. From selfish envy, after the Truth hath become manifest unto them: But forgive and overlook, till Allah accomplishes his prupose: for Allah hath power over all things.

Quran 2:194: There is the law of equality. If then any one transgresses the prohibition against you, transgress ye likewise against him, but fear Allah, and know that Allah is with those who restrain themselves.

Quran 4:43: For Allah doth blot out sins and forgive again and again

Quran 4:48: Allah forgiveth not that partners should be set up with Him; but He forgiveth anything else, to whom he pleaseth; to set up partners with Allah is to devise a sin most heinous indeed.

Quran 4:116: Allah forgiveth not (the sin of) joining other gods with Him; but He forgiveth whom he pleaseth other sins than this: one who joins other gods with Allah, hath strayed far, far away (from the right).

Quran 4:110: If anyone does evil or wrongs his own soul but afterwards seeks Allahs forgiveness, he will find Allah Oft-Forgiving, Most merciful.

Quran 7:199: Hold to forgiveness; command what is right; but turn away from the ignorant.

Quran 39:53: Say: O my servants who have transgressed against their souls! Despair not of the Mercy of Allah: for Allah forgives all sins for he is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

Quran 16:126-128: And if ye do catch them out, catch them out no worse than they catch you out: but if ye show patience, that is indeed the best (course) for those who are patient. And do thou be patient, for thy patience is from Allah; nor grieve over them: and distress not thyself because of their plots. For Allah is with those who restrain themselves, and those who do good.

Quran 20:82: But, without doubt, I am (also) He that forgives again and again, to those who repent, believe, and do rightwho in fine, are ready to receive True guidance.

Quran 35:45: If Allah were to punish men according to what they deserve, he would not leave on the back of the (earth) a single living creature: but He gives respite for a stated term: when their term expires verily Allah has in His sight all His servants.

Quran 42:5: The heavens are almost rent asunder from above them (by His glory): and the angels celebrate the praises of their Lord, and pray for forgiveness for all beings on earth: behold! Verily Allah is He, the Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

Quran 42:37, 40: Those who avoid the greater crimes and shameful deeds, and when they are angry forgive.. . The recompense for an injury is an injury equal thereto (in degree): but if a person forgives and makes reconciliation, his reward is due from Allah: for (Allah) loveth not those who do wrong.

Quran 45:14: Tell those who believe, to forgive those who do not look forward to the Days of Allah: It is for him to recompense (for good or ill) each people according to what they have earned.

Quran 53:32: Those who avoid great sins and shameful deeds, only (falling into) small faultsverily thy Lord is ample in forgiveness. . .

Quran 57:21: Be ye foremost (in seeking) forgiveness from your Lord, and a Garden (of bliss), the width whereof is as the width of heaven and earth, prepared for those who believe in Allah and His messengers: That is the Grace of Allah, which he bestows on whom he pleases: and Allah is the Lord of Grace abounding.

Quran 67:12-14: As for those who fear their Lord unseen, for them is forgiveness and a great reward. And whether ye hide your word or publish it, He certainly has (full) knowledge, of the secrets of (all) hearts. Should He not know he that created? And He is the One that understands the finest mysteries (and) is well-acquainted (with them).

C.The mercy of the powerful: charity, generosity, beyond resentment.

IV.The Delicate Balance of Justice and Mercy.

A.Mans moral frailty does not seek submission in times of plenty.

B.Moral freedom, intention, crime, punishment, repentance, forgiveness.

Chapter 9

Norms of Communal Conduct and Elements of Law

O Prophet, when you divorce women, divorce them

When they have reached their priod. Count the

Period, and fear God your Lord. Do not expel

Them from their houses, nor let them go forth,

Except when they commit a flagrant indecency.

. . . . Then, when they have reached their term, retain

them honourably, or part from them honourably.

And call in to witness two men of equity from

among yourselves; and perform the witnessing

to God himself.

[65:1-2]And of His signs

is that He created you of dust; then lo,

you are mortals, all scattered abroad.

And of His signs

is that He created you, of yourselves,

spouses, that you might repose in them,

and He set between you love and mercy.

Surely in that are signs for a people who consider.

[20:20-21]And slay not the soul God has forbidden, except by

Right. Whosoever is slain unjustly, We have appointed to

his next-of-kin authority; but let him not exceed in slaying;

he shall be helped.

[17:33]He said, What, has thou slain a soul innocent, and that not

to retaliate for a soul slain? Thou hast indeed done a horrible

thing.[17:74]I.Muhammad as Prophet-Lawgiver, Commander of the Faithful, Supreme Governor, and Allahs Supreme Envoy and Viceroy. Muhammads preaching, like that of Moses and the Jewish prophets, is directed at attaining the Kingdom of God on earth. The earth and all its creatures are to be practically organized in social and communal relationships that honor Allahs ethical demands.

( See (K17:23-39; 4:36-39) for a kind of Ten Commandments of Islam.

II.Religious Rites, Worship, Taboos, Prescriptions, and Proscriptions. Muhammad specifies that Islam be practically institutionalized and ritualized as a religious faith. The religious duties of the surrenderer, the Muslim, are identified in several closely clustered surahs in the Koran.( For example, for taboo foods see K16:115.

III.Elements of Criminal, Civil, and Domestic Relations (Family) Law. Because Muhammad was the head of an emergent community of faith, and this community was a factual reality participating in daily life, Muhammad also supplies authoritative legal judgments in matters of criminal law, civil law, and most especially, domestic (family) relations.

( See K4:2-150, for civil, domestic, marriage, contracts, women, prayer;

contra usury, 2:275; 30:39; 3:135-136.( See K 24:2-34, for fornication, criminal procedure, slander, responsibilities of haves toward have-nots, forgiveness, illegal home entry, sexual modesty and dress, treatment of women and slaves, table fellowship, and house fellowship. \ See, K 4:92 for unintentional intra-Muslim homicide; 4:93 for intentional intra-Muslim homicide.

See, K: 4: 65-70, for political obligation to Muhammads authority/state;

See, K 4: 71-104, for offensive jihad.IV.In Conclusion: Islam as Religion of Household, Clan, Tribe, and State: The Righteous Muslim versus the Loyal member of ones blood and kin. It is hard to appreciate the revolution Muhammad brought to the traditional legal conceptions of the pre-Islamic Arabian Bedouin. The most significant revolution of all, without question, was the elimination of the authority of kinship and blood, and its replacement with a universal concept of justification freely granted by the absolute sovereign of all creation, Allah. Not all elements of Bedouin or Arabic customary norms were eliminated from Muhammads new polity, but the ideal of might makes right rooted in the warrior aristocracy of a strictly tribal polity was rent asunder. The universalized ethic of social compassion, the elevation of the weak, the rights granted to daughters and females generally, marked an enormous innovation for its time. The faith community organized under Allah, not the tribal kinship structure organized under the most powerful shayk, would now serve as the new normative yardstick for those accepting the preaching of Muhammad.Chapter 10

Muhammads JihadO believers, devour not usury, doubled

and redoubled, and fear you God; haply so

you will prosper.

And fear the Fire prepared for the unbelievers,

and obey God and the Messenger; haply so

you will find mercy.

And vie with one another, hastening to forgiveness

from your Lord, and to a garden whose breadth

is as the heavens and earth, prepared

for the godfearing

who expend in prosperity and adversity in

almsgiving, and restrain their rage, and pardon

the offences of their fellowmen; and God

loves the good-doers;

who, when they commit an indecency or wrong

themselves, remember God, and pray for forgiveness for

their sinsand who shall forgive sins but God?

and do not persevere in the things they did unwittingly.

Thosetheir recompense is forgiveness from

their Lord, and gardens beneath which rivers flow,

therein dwelling forever;

and how excellent is the wage of those who labour [strive]!

[3:125-29 Arberry; Ali 3:135-36]No compulsion is there in religion.[2:256]And Say: I believe in whatever Book God has sent down;

I have been commanded to be just between you.

God is our Lord and your Lord.

We have our deeds, and you have your deeds;

There is no argument between us and you;

God shall bring us together, and unto Him is the homecoming.

[42:15]And fight in the way of God those

who fight with you, but aggress not: God loves

not the aggressors.[2:190]

Fight those who believe not

In Allah nor the Last Day,

Nor hold that forbidden

Which hath been forbidden

By Allah and His Messenger,

Nor acknowledge the Religion

Of Truth, from among

The People of the Book,

Until they pay the JizyahWith willing submission,

And feel themselves subdued.

[9:29; Ali transl.]

When you meet the unbelievers, smite their necks,

Then, when you have made wide slaughter among them,

tie fast the bonds;

then set them free, either by grace or ransom,

till the war lays down its loads.

So it shall be; and if God had willed,

He would have avenged Himself upon them;

But that He may try some of you by means of others.

And those who are slain in the way of God, He

Will not send their works astray.

He will guide them, and dispose their minds aright,

and He will admit them to Paradise,

that He has made known to them.

[47:4]I.The Importance of Jihad in the Koran. Jihad, or striving/fighting in the way of Allah, is prescribed by Muhammad as the superlative form of commitment to practically implementing Allahs absolute sovereignty. Based on my reading of the Arberry and Ali English translations of the Arabic text, about 96 of the Korans 114 surahs do not contain any passages that even generously can be construed to prescribe jihad. The eighteen surahs that do contain passages prescribing jihad and proscribing the motivations, means, rules and norms governing it, are the following: 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 22, 29, 33, 47, 48, 49, 57, 59, 60, 61, and 73.

II.Interpreting Muhammads Prescription for Jihad. Two distinctly different conceptions of jihad are maintained among Koranic commentators.

A. The Modernist Perspective. Many though not all modernists view the Koran

as an integrated and inseparable whole, and while not denying the offensive military dimension of jihad in the Koran, view these passages as exceptional expedients designed purely out of the need for self-defense, and having been forced on Muhammads pacific and righteous new faith. These modernists view jihad as a personal psychological quest of the individual to rid themselves of moral evil, to non-violently foment social justice and social compassion amongst Muslims and humanity generally, and finally, as a legitimate means of self-defense (a kind of just war doctrine) rightfully claimed by all free and sovereign nations as an inalienable right. It is also claimed that those who read a primarily militant intent into the Koran are victims of orientalism, i.e. a Eurocentric and prejudicial scholarly approach upholding Western colonial ambitions. Whatever violence that may be equated with Islam is not integrally related to the Koran itself, but to intentional or unintentional recognition of Islam as primarily a religion peacefully preaching a superior moral universal, and the legitimate use of militant means when, and only when, this superior moral universal comes under attack from within or without. B. The Classical and Traditional Perspective. Many though not all classical traditionalists hold a radically opposed interpretation of Muhammads prescription for jihad in the Koran. Muhammad, they claim, held a developmental-historical conception of jihad, one that is reflected in the changing substantive prescriptions for jihad as Muhammads community moved from a position of extreme vulnerability and political-military weakness, to a position of relatively favorable political-military strength. According to the classic traditionalists, as Allahs community found itself in a stronger and stronger position, earlier revelations/recitations of the prophet were replaced or abrogated, and that Allahs demands on the faith eventually found expression in surahs requiring the offensive military projection of Islam as a world-conquering faith. Like the modernists the classical traditionalists also view the personal moral-spiritual quest to purify ones intentions, thoughts, and soul as a highly regarded means of fighting/striving in the way of Allah. And all of the duties of a traditional Muslim as manifest in the five pillars of Islamcreed, prayer, alms, fasting, and the Hajj pilgrimage as crucial manifestations of righteousness. Also like the modernists, self-defense is regarded as an inalienable and essential right of Muslims who seek to ensure the free practice of their faith community and its polity. However, for the classical traditionalists these three forms of jihad (more below) are incomplete without the fourth and possibly most important of all: the expansionist military quest to bring the entire earth under Islam under penalty of conversion, submission, or death in battle. A logical progression of revelation exists, the classical traditionalists assert, that ultimately and finally prescribes offensive military jihad (for pure motives, and by just means) as a prescription that earns its most loyal combatants a privileged place in Allahs paradise. This logical progression is especially evident as one begins with the 2nd surah, and charts the evolution of revelation from counseling pacific pluralism and relative tolerance, to militant monism and the unequivocal options of conversion, surrender and submission, or death.

C. Classical traditionalists accuse modernists of turning a vice (relative

weakness of the early umma) into a virtue, rather than properly understanding Muhammads developmental revelatory experience that led him ultimately to transform his emergent power and its projection as the supreme virtue, and indeed, as evidence of Allahs will. Modernists accuse classical traditionalists of cherry picking the Koran to suit their own militant interpretations, failing to comprehend the spirit rather than the letter of what it means to strive/fight in the way of Allah, transforming what was only a historically contingent military expedient into a matter of permanent religious significance, and finally, of failing to consider the Koran as a wholeunderstood as an indivisible integrity, devoid of any notion of abrogation, repeal, or replacement of lesser with fuller substantive revelations.I.Four Forms of Jihad. What it actually means to fight in the way of Allah is subject to extensive debate within and without the Islamic world. Some of the key points of disagreement are noted above. Regardless, it is accurate to interpret the concept of jihad in four distinct and possibly interrelated ways.

A. Fighting in the Way of Allah, I. Jihad as the personal moral struggle that each individual must constantly wage within themselves to be righteous in intentions, thoughts, and deeds. This vision of jihad is exclusively pacific and is focused inward toward purification of the soul. Muhammad enjoins individuals to abide by the dictates of a genuine righteousness and such righteousness requires the pious individual to constantly struggle against their own worst inclinations. This vision of jihad as personal-moral crusade against ones own worst inclinations is similar to that enjoined by Jewish rabbis and Christian preachers who call their flocks to account for seeking opportunistic and unjust avenues for personal aggrandizement rather than purification of ones intentions.

B. Fighting in the Way of Allah, II. Islam requires the faithful to practically enact their faith in the form of social justice, mercy, and social compassion. While the first form of jihad is focused on purity of intention and the state of ones heart and soul, this second form of jihad embodies the universal ethical and dutiful thrust of Islam, at least toward those who are adherents of the faith. Such fighting in the way of allah involves the pen, prayer and devotion, ritual humility and alms, repentance, foregiveness, and kindly deeds. The practical organization of ones conduct in relation to others is the focus of this form of jihad.

C. Fighting in the Way of Allah, III. Jihad as Purely Self-Defensive Warfare to

Protect Allahs Faithful from Attack. Jihad as self-defensive military action is prescribed as a legitimate means for ensuring the free practice of the Islamic faith and its right to exist as a sovereign faith community.Self-defense against aggressors is justified in order to ensure the existence of Allahs Messenger and Message. More generally, Muslims have the right to defend their rights to worship Allah and organize the Islamic umma on the basis of Allahs revealed ethical and legal injunctions. Even in self-defense, enemies are viewed as a potentially non-hostile party and if an enemy ceases attack and permits freedom of the faith, Muhammad counsels an end to military hostilities. D. Fighting in the Way of Allah, IV: Jihad as Permanent Offensive Warfare to Expand Universally and until a Final Triumph Allahs Faith. The Koran in many key passages prescribes offensive, expansionist, military jihad as the superlative form of jihad, one that is ultimately most privileged by Allah. The options offered to unbelievers encountered in this offensive military jihad are three: conversion and entitlement to full rights as members of the Islamic umma; submission, and subjection to the payment of tribute (jizya) and the status of dhimmi or protected subject-population; or, death by refusal to accept the first two options.

II.Waging Jihad: Motivations; Means; Strategy and Tactics; Peace and Peace Treaties.

A. Motivation for Jihad. Only one motivation is acceptable in the waging of

jihad, no matter which form it takes: love and devotion to Allah, and to a lesser extent, his Messenger. Personal and selfish motivation is strictly proscribed by Muhammad when waging jihad. The desire to maximize ones possessions or secure favor with Allah for personal or familial reasons is strictly proscribed.

B. Means for Waging Jihad. The means that may be used to fight the military jihad, whether defensive or offensive, are proscribed: captives may be taken and enslaved; women, children, the elderly, and religious monks, are not to be killed; planted orchards, e.g date palms and fruit trees, of ones enemies are not to be cut down.

C. Military Strategy and Tactics for Waging Jihad. Muhammad makes mention of several military strategies and tactics involving fighting in ranks, concentration or dispersion of forces, ambush, surprise-attack, reconnaissance and spying.

D. Peace and Peace-Treaties. The cessation of hostilities and/or formation of pacts and alliancesare also addressed in the Koran. III.Warriors, Martyrdom, and the Privileges of a Privileged Paradise.A. The prescription to militarily defend and especially to offensively fight to

conquer lands occupied by unbelievers occupies a uniquely privileged role in the Koran. Like Christianity before it, Islam promises to those who die while fighting in the way of Allah a unique status, that of martyr (shahid). Martyrdom in Christianity was attained by those who refused to disavow their faith in Jesus as the Risen Lord, and non-violently suffered torture and often a gruesome death. These martyrs were later often sanctified and provided a unique proximate relation to God in Gods heavenly paradise. The promise of a place at Gods table in paradisea privilege for sureis done for love of God, but also it seems because it is an honor and privilege to occupy an exalted status in Gods world.

B. The Koran similarly privileges martyrs in Paradise, and like Christianity

though dying in the process of fighting for Allah is strictly and exclusively done to honor Allahs majesty, and out of love for Allah, many sensuous and fleshly-worldly enticements often figure in Muhammads preaching regarding the motivation and benefits to the believer, of martyrdom.

C.Profoundly unlike Christianity, however, martyrdom is not attained through the non-violent suffering unto death of an individual who refuses a tortured confession and disavowal of their faith. For Muhammad, martyrdom is achieved by Allahs military forces in the midst of their expansionist offensive during which a member of this faith community--while attempting to convert, exact submission, or kill unbelieversis killed instead.

Key Koranic passages that identify fighting/striving in the way of Allah, including all four forms referenced above(Ali numbering)

2: 148, 190-193, 216-218, 246, 256, 262-263.

3: 13, 104, 121-123, 134-136, 150-58, 167-171, 195.

4: 71-78, 89-96.

5: 35.

8:12-19, 30, 38-48, 59-75.

9: 1-16, 20-24, 29, 36-49, 111, 123.

22: 39-41, 58-59, 78.

29: 68-69.

33: 18-27, 60-62.

47: 4-11, 20, 33-38.

48: 15-29.

49: 15.

57:10.

59: 2-14.

60: 1, 7-9.

61: 4, 11-13.

73: 20

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Appendix

Some Reflections on the Relationship between Islamic Modernists and Fundamentalists over the Prescription for Jihad in the Koran.

Paul Kamolnick, Ph.D., Associate Professor (2/2006 rev.)

(R. Peters ed. . Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader.

Princeton, NJ: Marcus Weiner, 1996. (1996: esp chapters 7 and 8).

R. Peters, ed

I. The Debate within Islam between Modernists (and among Modernists) and Fundamentalists.

A.Islamic Modernists as Apologetic Defenders of the True but Unfairly Reviled Caricature of an Islam Produced by Western Orientalists.

1E.g. Mahmud Shaltuts Treatise, Koran and Fighting, pp. 72-80; Peters [1979] 1996: 148.

2.How is this True Islam authorized? (1) An ahistorical method of value-prejudiced Quranic interpretation (Shaltut, in Peters 1996:60-61).; (2) An idealized Past-Perfect presumed to have historically and factually existed (Shaltut, in Peters 1996: e.g. p. 62-63, 65, 68-69, 76f; p. 115-119).

3.What is the proper name that should be given to the Modernist project, if not True Islam? Reformed or Revised Islam. Why? The method of Quran interpretation and idealization of the Islamic past are invalid fictions, and Islam must reform or revise the classical doctrine of jihad because it is no longer morally acceptable to Muslims and non-Muslims, or to God.

B.Islamic Fundamentalists as Defenders of the Classical True Islam Forsaken by Modernists and Unbelievers in the Interest of Peaceful Relations and an Abandonment of Gods Message, Prophet, and Moral Demands.

1.E.g. Mawdudi, Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb.

2.How is this True Islam authorized? (1) An historical method of value-prejudiced Quranic interpretation (e.g. Shaltut, in Peters 1996: 60-61; Peters 1996:115-118); (2) An idealized Past-Perfect, and Future-Perfect, based on the earliest years of Islam as a Shariah-based Caliphate rule.

II.Islam versus the West.

A. Islamic Modernists. Islam anticipates and exemplifies virtually every major virtue of modern Western civilization, if only it is truly understood. Islam is an ideal to which the West should aspire, and there is no justification whatsoever in believing that Islam promotes or condones a ceaseless war between Islam and non-Islam, or that expansionist violence is authorized in the Quran in any manner whatsoever.

B. Islamic Fundamentalism. Islam must replace the West because the West is ruled by the doctrine that elevates the Sovereignty of Man over the Sovereignty of God. The Western division of religion and state, conceptions of pluralism, freedom, and rights are diametrically opposed to those demanded of true adherents of the pure Shariah state. Peaceful jihad is a capitulation to the West by those who abandon Islam and attempt to mimic and find favor with the West.

III.How to Reconcile these Two?

The Quran, and its classical interpretation, is in general, not in dispute regarding the core meaning of jihad. The fundamentalists are correct here.

The Quran does present contradictory passages, however, and historically understood, along with other source material, permit some room for interpretation.

The classical vision of Islamic jihad is incompatible with modern international relations, and must be revised. The alternative is a state of permanent warfare between True Believers and their enemies, i.e. unbelievers and false-believers (apostates).

Fundamentalists have more doctrinal and historical authority than modernists, but modernists are willing to embrace major aspects of secular/scientific modernity as compatible with Islam (though they mistakenly call it True Islam rather than Reformed Islam).

Is there a way to bring fundamentalist orthodoxy to relinquish the classical doctrine of jihad, on the basis that selective appropriation of aspects of the modern world are compatible with a revised view of what it means to live under God and the religious laws (shariah) required to uphold such?