Draft WaSH Manual of Procedures for Schools built by Menschen fr Menschen

Menschen fr Menschen FoundationDraft WaSH Manual of Procedures for Schools built by Menschen fr MenschenDraft DocumentHenock Markos6/30/2015This manual of procedures is intended to be used for the schools built and/or support my Menschen fr Menschen foundation. In the preparation of this manual, global principle of school WaSH is consulted and adapted to the national and MfM concept. The overall objective is to create child friendly schools with effective integration of WaSH.

Draft WaSH Manual of Procedures for Schools built by Menschen fr Menschen

June 30, 2015

iii

Table of Content

Table of Contenti

Section I.Introduction1

1.1.Importance of WaSH in Schools1

1.2.Purpose and Scope of the Manual1

Section II.Water Supply3

2.1Estimate Water Demand3

2.2Consider Available Water Supply System4

2.2.1Groundwater Sources4

2.2.2Rainwater catchment system/School Rooftop Water Harvesting/5

2.2.3Ground Reserve Wire Water Storage system7

2.2.4Pipe Water Supply Connection7

2.2.5Water Carting (from home drinking and river for hygiene & sanitation)8

2.2.6Ensure Combined System and Multipurpose Use of MfM Water Developments8

2.3Management of Water Sources8

2.4Accessibility for Use: Disinfection, Water Quality test and Accessibility9

Section III.Sanitary Facilities in Schools9

3.1.Key Principles for WaSH Facilities9

3.2.Latrine Facilities (VIP Refresher)10

3.3.Number and Location Latrines10

3.4.Hand Washing Facilities12

Section IV.Waste Management13

4.1.Type and Nature of Waste in Schools13

4.2.Waste Water Management14

4.3.Multiple Use of Waste Water in Schools15

4.4.Garbage-Solid Wastes15

Section V.Management and Sustainability of School Wash Facilities and System15

5.1.Key Principles in Management of School Wash Facilities16

5.2.Monitoring School WaSH Facilities16

5.3.Financing School WaSH Program17

Section VI.Participation and Linkages with Community and Stakeholders18

6.1.Involving Parents and Community in Planning for Improvements18

6.2.Main Roles of Community in the Management and Promotion of School WaSH18

6.3.Training of School Community19

Section VII.Child Participation and WaSH Education20

7.1.Life Skills-Based Hygiene Education20

7.2.Development of WaSH Teaching Aids and IEC Materials23

7.3.Establishing School WaSH Club23

Section VIII.School WaSH Program Planning for Improvements25

8.1.Participatory Assessment of the Current Condition, Needs and Problems25

8.2.Setting Objective25

8.3.Making Action Plan26

Annex I.School WaSH Program Regular Action Plani

Annex II.Outlines for training of teachers , PTA and community members on WaSHi

Annex III.VIP Latrine Descriptionii

Annex IV.Lay out of school WaSH facilityiii

Acronyms

EFA

Education for All

ESDP

Education Sector Development Program

IRDP

Integrated Rural Development Program

MDG

Millennium Development Goals

MfM

Menschen fr Menschen

MfM PCO

Menschen fr Menschen Project Coordination Office

MoE

Ministry of Education

MoH

Ministry of Health

MoWE

Ministry of Water and Energy

PTA

Parent- Teacher- Association

UNICEF

United Nations Children Fund

VIP

Ventilated Improve Pit

WaSH

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

Section I. Introduction

1.1. Importance of WaSH in Schools

Access and Quality of education requires suitable infrastructure, teaching and learning materials, competent teachers and good governance. But the role of physical infrastructure is paramount to sufficiently implement other components of access and quality education. In this line MfM has been building standard schools since 1982 with the object of creating access to quality education. Rehabilitating, maintaining and expanding school sanitation and hygiene infrastructure which includes water supply, latrine and hand-washing facilities, needs to be part of this priority in improving school infrastructure.

The strategic approach of providing schools with safe drinking water, improved sanitation facilities and hygiene education that encourages the development of healthy behaviors for life is known as Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education (WaSH). The strategy helps fulfil childrens rights to health, education and participation, and has been widely recognized for its significant contributions to achieving the MDGs particularly those related to providing access to primary education, reducing child mortality, improving water and sanitation, and promoting gender equality. WaSH in Schools not only promotes hygiene and increases access to quality education but also supports national and local interventions to establish equitable, sustainable access to safe water and basic sanitation services in schools.

School water, sanitation and hygiene contribute to childrens learning and school experiences in many ways. It evident that well implementation of WaSH directly contributes for improved cognitive function and attention of children, reduces drop-out and days missed from school, increased safety and other results. A survey made by MoH in collaboration with UNICEF in 2007 showed that about half of the ailment found among school children is related to urinary infections. The experiences and observations made during assessment in rural areas for planning of new schools by MfM also support the impact is more apparent among girls. Inadequate school WaSH system disables children from meeting their learning potentials. Thus, despite high enrollment achieved by classroom infrastructure, drop-out and completion rate can be low.

Considering this importance for education, not only MfM but also MoE positioned WaSH as one of the priority action program in the strategic documents. Focus on school WaSH has also impact on the community level. Schools have a central place in a community. Children can act as agents of change, since schools stimulate a learning environment for children; they can initiate change of what they learned in schools about WaSH to their family and community. The schools by themselves can also be promoted as a model for the community in its practice of WaSH.

1.2. Purpose and Scope of the Manual

This manual of procedure is meant to be a guiding and stimulating material on WaSH for the rural schools built by MfM for MfM personnel and school community who have involvement in design, construction and implementation of WaSH program. It intends to give complete range of components and elements of WaSH program and seeks to set out the current state of knowledge and experience for schools in rural setting. This manual is prepared consulting the principles and designs stipulated in the manual prepared by Ministry of health, education and water and energy in collaboration with UNICEF and also national WaSH strategy. The concepts basically derived from the national strategies and procedures of education programs and particularly on WaSH. Thus, it presents illustrations and physical activities from Design and Construction Manual for WaSH for Schools prepared by Ministry of Health, Education and Water & Energy in collaboration with UNICEF in 2012 and ESDP IV. Accordingly, in the child friendly principles are taken as the prior basis for implementation of this practices stated in this manual.

This manual on WaSH deals with both hardware and software aspects needed to bring about changes in hygiene behavior of students and, through these students, in the community at large. The hardware is the total package of sanitary conditions and facilities available in and around the school compound. It gives prescription on structures since it is national guideline documents which presented tried and tested technical solutions. However, the applicability of the proposed type WaSH facilities are subject for scrutiny for detailed cost effectiveness.

The software is the activities aiming to promote conditions at school and practices of school staff and children that help to prevent water and sanitation-related diseases. The software, it is not only prescribe but also it gives overviews, stimulate change and provide ideas and guidance to make schools center of change and diffusion of good sanitation and hygiene practices for the children their teachers and parents, and their communities at large.

In general the manual intends to give directions for Menschen fr Menschen the important concepts and principles that required adhering to in all stages school project; from the inception-planning-implementation, monitoring and handover phases. Detail procedures and action plans that are expected to be implemented in each phase of school project is presented in Section 9 and Annex I. The conceptual framework the manual is derived from globally accepted Child-friendly-school principle, which is presented below.

Box 1: Child Friendly Principles

1. Girls and boys should be consulted about the number, location, orientation and design of school WASH facilities. This consultation should be organized with girls and boys separately, discussions facilitated by women and men respectively.

2. The numbers of toilets should be sufficient to ensure that students do not have to wait in a queue to use the toilet for anything more than a few minutes. Urinals can help reduce load on the toilets at peak times. Equally, the school administration should arrange and if necessary stagger school breaks to avoid overloading

3. WASH structures in schools must be physically safe for users to use - in terms of the structural stability; in terms of a child not being able to fall through an oversized drop hole; in terms of children not risking abuse, bullying or attack when approaching, using or leaving the facilities provided

4. Physically separate facilities must be provided for girls and boys, spaced sufficiently apart to ensure that girls do not feel embarrassed but secure when approaching and using the facilities. Separate hand-washing areas should also be provided, affording privacy for girls who may need to wash and dry menstrual cloths.

5. The orientation of facilities specifically the direction that the toilet entrance faces, must also take into account the perceived security and safety of girls. The orientation of the squatting plate should also take into account cultural and religious norms

6. The location of toilets needs special consideration. Too close, and users may feel embossed as peers can see them from the class room; the smell from the vent pipe may be offensive. Too far, and it may take too long to get to the toilet for a child with a small bladder. Remote toilets are often neglected, and may be perceived as unsafe.

7. The detailed design of the facilities provided must also be child friendly. Steps must be easy to climb. Door handles must be easy to reach. The toilet interior cannot be too dark. Squatting plates must be designed to accommodate a childs feet rather than those of an adult.

8. Hand-washing facilities must be provided in each toilet block, together with water and soap. The hand-washing stand must be sized to facilitate its use by smaller as well as larger children. The facility must provide an acceptable degree of privacy for girls. The design must facilitate the filling of water containers by children

9. Facilities provided must include provision for disabled children, with at least one toilet cubicle for girls and one for boys modified accordingly. In terms of design, ramps and hand rails should be provided, with more internal space for a caregiver to assist if necessary. Disabled girls and boys should be consulted with their able bodied peers to get the design right.

10. WASH facilities and related practices should be designed to encourage children to understand their environment and conserve scarce resources, especially water resources. With the right technology and safe supervision, urine, waste water and composted fecal matter from toilet pits can be reused to support agricultural production and boost the schools budget.

Section II. Water Supply

Availability of water inside schools is imperative for drinking as well as to maintain acceptable sanitation and hygiene practices. Without access to water it will be very challenging to implement WaSH practices in schools and children become very susceptible for diseases. MfM is very active in improving water supply for rural community since its establishment. However, the assessments made indicate quite a number of schools do not have a stable water supply. As stated in WaSH document prepared nationally stated, the design of WaSH cannot function without water.

Whilst there are a wide range of water supply solutions applicable in schools, in most cases, relatively few will be feasible because of the schools specific location and elevation, the limited budget available for construction, and the limited budget available to pay for operation and maintenance.

Thus, the potential means need to be thoroughly explored to address the water requirements in schools built by MfM.

2.1 Estimate Water Demand

Water is the critical resource to effectively implement WaSH practices. Children, and also teachers and staff working in the school need water for healthy learning environment. Children need water for drinking, metabolic sanitary and hygiene requirements, to keep the toilets and urinals clean as well as for hand-washing after using toilets and urinals. However, accurate basis is important for estimation the water demand and apparently to deciding the proper water supply system. In this manual the water demand estimation method used in MoEd documents of ESDP IV and WaSH and UNICEF is taken as source.

ESDP IV document indicated 5 liters per child per day is an ideal and a norm for schools. On the other hand UNICEF, MoEd, MoE and MoWE suggested, for a typical rural school with a VIP type toilet, it is estimated that 1 liter is needed for drinking, 0.5 liters for hygiene (hand washing with soap) and 0.5 liters for cleaning both the toilet and urinal per student per day. For a 4 stand toilet block and urinal (catering for 400 students), this equates to 200 liters for hand-washing and 200 liters for cleaning. Inevitably, some water is wasted, and additional water may be needed for menstrual hygiene, so an average of 2 liters per student per day only for sanitation and hygiene is appropriate. An additional 1 to 2 liters per student per day is needed for drinking. But it is also observed even providing a total of 3 to 4 liters per student and teacher can be a great challenge for some schools. Much more water is required for residential schools, for staff living on campus, and to operate flush toilets. The greater the water demand, the greater the amount of waste water and grey water that will need to be disposed of.

Taking the above information into consideration, MfM should take 4 to 5 liters of water per day per child and teachers as ideal demand estimation for schools in rural areas[footnoteRef:1]. Based on this calculation the estimated demand of water supply is depicted in this table. [1: The demand per child is estimated to be 5 liters per day if shower is included as standard facility. Depending on the available fund MfM shall consider including shower, especially for girls.]

R. No.

Number of Students

Estimated Liters of Water Demanded per Day

1

500-600

2400

2

600-700

2800

3

700-800

3200

4

800-900

3600

5

900-1000

4000

6

1000-1100

4400

7

1100-1200

4800

8

1200-1300

5200

9

1300-1400

5600

10

1400-1500

6000

11

1500-1600

6400

2.2 Consider Available Water Supply System

The WaSH document prepared by Ministry of Health, Education and Water and Energy explained broadly there are two water supply systems for rural schools, Rainwater Catchment System and Groundwater Supply System. Apart from the above two major water sources, there are conventional water supply sources where water may be taken directly from a river or lake or reservoir and subjected it to treatment before domestic use. Water development is involves complex level of cost assessment and physical activities which will be the basis to select among the available alternative water supply means[footnoteRef:2]. This section discussed the available options that can be considered for the rural schools built by MfM. In the considering the alternative water supplies, apart from availability and physical dealing, the issues regarding implementation costs and sustainably (especially after hand-over) need to be given prior attention. [2: Detailed physical design and construction it is advised to consult the WaSH document prepared by Ministry of Health, Education and Water and Energy in 2012 in Collaboration with UNICEF, which this manual takes as its principal source and adapt it to context of MfM education program.]

2.2.1 Groundwater Sources

Studies show that 70% of the water supply source in Ethiopia is from ground water source such as spring and wells. In addition, unlike roof catchment, ground water sources do not require special treatment for water quality, means it is generally safe to drink directly from the source because the natural filtering through the soil. For this reasons, groundwater sources are one of the most ideal sources of water supply for MfM schools considering their availability.

MfM operated on quite diverse topographic, climate and geomorphology areas where the groundwater sources can also be wide range. The major groundwater supply sources identified that are considered appropriate, financially realistic and useful for school water supply are spring water and wells. MfM is already has spring water, shallow wells and hand dug-wells in many rural parts of Ethiopia. Below explanation is given on how to integrate groundwater sources for school water supply with their benefits and constraints.

Spring Water

Springs in Ethiopia are located in large number in high rainfall areas, along the slopes and valley bottoms of mountainous areas and escarpment of edges of plateaus that have adequate rainfall input and vegetative land cover. Spring water is considered as the most ideal for most of MfM because generally considered as safe water and inexpensive in its development.

The main structural components of the spring water system include (the detail design and construction is found in manual prepared by MoEd, MoH and MoWE together with UNICEF):

i). A protective structure at the sources or where it appears at the ground surface (eye of the spring).

ii). A collection chamber (storage) which is used for collecting night storage and it is located downstream of the protective structure

Spring water is reliable water sources that can supply water in adequate quantity and quality, if the catchment of the spring is conserved and protected. The collection point needs to be protected properly and the necessary natural hydraulic conditions (free flow) should be maintained for its optimal use.

Wells (Hand-dug well & Bored or Drilled Wells)

A well can be defined as a hydraulic structure, which when properly designed and constructed, permits the economic withdrawal of water from underground water-bearing formation or aquifer. Wells can be shallow or deep which are vertically shafted through dug, bored or drilled to access water from water supply. Two types well types are discussed in this manual; Hand-dug well and bored or drilled wells.

Hand-dug wells are done by hand and their diameter is larger one meter. Hand dug wells for schools are lined or use concrete tubes (Caisson sinking). In the case of bored or drilled well the drilling is done by hydraulic tools.

If technically feasible, hand dug wells can be constructed with the premise of the schools, and it can provide a cheaper water supply services. It is recommended the existence of shallow water bearing geological formations-aquifers within in less than 30 meters depth suit to the hand dug wells technology. Perched water tables are less reliable water sources and it should be avoided.

However, due to depletion of ground water level, hand dug wells and spring development may not be effective in the future, thus it is important to focus on shallow wells and also deep well wherever appropriate.

2.2.2 Rainwater catchment system/School Rooftop Water Harvesting/

Studies show the average rainfall in Ethiopia is 800 mm and from most part of the country 80% of the rainfall occurs between July and September. For areas where there is adequate rainfall, roof top water harvesting is considered as the simplest and obvious choice for schools with large roof structure made of corrugated galvanized iron sheets. Schools open after summer break on mid-September, thus, the harvested water in rainy season can be directly utilized in the dry season which is also the academic season. It more applicable for MfM schools, because all of roof structure is very suitable in terms of size and the nature of the sheet.

Considerations for Rainwater Catchment System

Due to the fact that establishing rainwater catchment system requires quite high investment, certain considerations need to be given prior to making decision to invest in school water harvesting system:

i). Evidently, rooftop water harvesting system should be selected in areas that receive higher rainfall and have longer rainy season. MfM intervene in its education program in multiple areas of Ethiopian where the rainfall amount is also diverse. Accordingly, consideration and design of rainwater harvesting system to meet water demand of the school built by MfM is made only in areas identified for substantial rainfall. Nationally identified areas that can meet their water needs through harvesting rainwater in higher possible size storage facilities are south western, central and eastern highlands of Oromia, South Western Amhara, most of SNNO regions. In central and eastern highlands of Oromia, North and eastern Amhara and most of Tigray, rainwater harvesting can be an important supplementary resource to meet demand in schools. In areas where there are less than 350 mm annual rainfall this system is not cost effective.

ii). Though rainwater catchment system is simplest method that can be used in schools, there are some challenges to use it as the ideal one. These challenges include:

a. Water quality from rooftop water catchment is less safe for drinking because of

Roof can be a natural collecting space for dust, leaves, blooms, insects bodies, airborne pesticides and insecticides in areas where there are commercial farms

The harvested water stays a while before freshwater refills the storage tank. Due to this utilizing for water collected need go through thorough treatments before using it for drinking.

b. It is relatively costly as school population increase due to requirement to place more water tankers in additional buildings. Additional costs also expected for pipe lines, debris, gutters, etc particularly from additional designs of MfM. For illustration, water demand for a school of 500 students amounts to 1,000 liters every day. A reservoir designed to hold 40 school days supply (around two calendar months) would need to have a volume of 40,000 liters, making this a relatively expensive proposition. This is also because two 20,000 liters tanks is better (though more expensive) to collect more water per block. This also means as the number of children increase additional tankers per blocks may also be required. If the masonry tankers are used it will more expensive due cost of construction materials and skilled labor, added to maintenance costs. The roof catchment and gutters need frequent maintenance, and the system should be fitted with a first flush system to reduce the risk of debris- and contamination entering the tank.

c. This system is difficulty to implement it in areas protracted dry period of three months or more due to evaporation rate, and apparently requires larger tankers, which in term becomes more costly. For this reason in many areas of Ethiopia, even if there are tankers per each block it is difficult to use to water for the whole academic season.

Thus, apart from availability of rainfall, this method should be selected only in areas where:-

groundwater development is either difficult or has been rendered unusable by high level fluoride content, salinity, etc, and

the only available option is surface water

Designing Rainwater Catchment System

This section will not address detailed designing and construction specification and bill of quantities. As explained earlier, the detail information is available from the WaSH manual prepared by MoEd and UNICEF[footnoteRef:3]. In this part, however, the basic physical structure recommended to be used for MfM schools is presented. [3: In case selection is made any specific type of water supply the details regarding the designs will be consulted with MfM Water and Irrigation program coordination office. ]

Estimating roof runoff: Prior to the designing the water harvesting system, the harvestable water from roof runoff must be estimated. The equation used for estimation is:

Q = Roof top runoff

R = is the rainfall in millimeters

A = is the guttered roof area of the building block in square meters

0.8. = is a runoff coefficient, C which takes into account losses between the roof and the storage facilities

For example, in Woreilu annual rainfall is estimated around 950. According to MfM construction design the roof area for one block or four classrooms is 34.6 meters by 9.9 meters. Thus as per this calculation, from one block 260 m3 or 260,033 liters is expected per year.

Sizing storage facilities: According to MoEd, MoH, MoWE and UNICEF the common design for sizing storage facilities is to take a quarter of the estimated demand. Placing two tankers at each side of school building is strongly advised to take the full advantage roof water.

Two types of materials can be used as storage facility for roof top water harvesting and the first is plastic water storage facility with water holding capacity of 2, 3, 5 and 10 m3. The second one is masonry storage facility with similar design as the widely used in rural community.

2.2.3 Ground Reserve Wire Water Storage system

The ground reserve wire water storage system is same to roof water harvesting system in the source of water as it is collected from roof-tops, in calculation of water supply and risks. The basic difference is in roof water storage system tankers is place on ground to collect water from roofs using the pipes connected from the roof to the tanker. Whereas in ground reserve wire water storage system, the water collected from the roof directly go to underground tanker preparing gutter and the ditch. However, the challenges of:-

Limited use for drinking water and,

Limited use for areas protracted dry period of three months due low capacity to collect rain water, are still present in this system also.

2.2.4 Pipe Water Supply Connection

For some schools it may be feasible to extend a pipeline from the local community or Woreda town into the school. In such cases, it is very important to prepare an elevated storage reservoir (tanker) in the school compound and feed this reservoir. The water is fed to a drinking water fountain and hand-washing facility.

This option is very effective providing that:

i). the capital cost if affordable using correctly sized HDPE or PVC pipes helps reduced the costs compared to Galvanized steel;

ii). the system has capacity to meet water demand from the school

iii). The school can afford to pay for the water it uses, or the water supplier agrees to cross subsidize this cost from water sales to private users.

2.2.5 Water Carting (from home drinking and river for hygiene & sanitation)

When there is severe water shortage water carting can be recommended. Here the technology may be as simple as a donkey cart fitted with two 200 liters water drums. The water catering could be considered for meeting the sanitary water needs. The main issues are in fact financial and institutional, relating to the management of the local water filling point, how a school is expected to pay for the water provided. How to ensure water safety when it comes from a remote supply is also an issue if the water is used for drinking.

One variation on this theme, already mentioned, is to agree with parents that older children bring a limited quantity of water to school each day, some of this going into hand washing containers. One challenge may be to ensure that all students have access to water containers of the right size, and that their families have reasonable access to safe water in the first place.

2.2.6 Ensure Combined System and Multipurpose Use of MfM Water Developments

It is clearly stated in MfM strategic documents that potable water supply work both for the rural villages and rural towns will be given emphasis and intensified, especially for newly identified or started project areas. MfM has been developing ground water for many years. But considering the fact that ground water level, hand dug wells and spring development are depleting from time to time efficient water development is imperative.

Earlier the different water supply technologies that can be considered are demonstrated. But as discussed above single water source may not be sufficient to satisfy demand within the school. Thus, to effectively utilize all available water source options elevated storage reservoir (tanker) need to be placed in schools where the different water supply systems can be stored.

In addition, as stipulated in the draft strategic document of MfM combined and integrated water development systems that serve local community and schools will be promoted. In this regard, one approach shall be to strengthen multipurpose use of water supply development of MfM, and as much as possible ensure water supplies constructed for irrigation and community purposes linked with schools constructed by MfM.

2.3 Management of Water Sources

The problem of water sources, especially spring water, is their location is rarely conceded within the premise of a school. It was explained spring water section that catchment area should be conserved and protected to ensure sustainable water supply. In this case, in order to protect, develop and use the water of such sources, the school administration, local government and leader has to hold consultation with the downstream community users in the area, and provide the necessary provisions accordingly. MfM has to ensure such procedure is taken place if spring water is established as the source of water for a school constructed before design and hand-over. In addition, the detail design and construction specifications have to be consulted to address spring protection.

On the other hand managing any water supply includes dealing with possible costs of operation and manual. Excess water from a school supply, or grey water from a hand-washing stand, may be used to water a cash crop grown in the school compound which is then sold. The funds raised can pay towards the upkeep of the water supply, for soap, and for a caretaker to ensure the upkeep of the school toilet. Whether this is a feasible option depends on the capacity of the water supply.

Finally, many schools are fully integrated with the local community. This may be an advantage in many respects, for example, it may be possible for the school to share water from a community water supply. The converse also holds true. A school water supply is likely to be used by the surrounding households, unless local agreement has been reached not to do this that agreement being enforced through a robust water management system. An additional concept on management of WaSH facilities is discussed in section 7.

2.4 Accessibility for Use: Disinfection, Water Quality test and Accessibility

In preceding sections a number of water supply options that can be most relevant for schools, particularly for MfM constructed schools were discussed. However, there are certain tasks that need to be conducted for childrens safety and increased access for sanitation and hygiene. These include:

i). Disinfection: Particularly for well water sources and storage facilities, they must disinfected immediately following their construction or repair to neutralize any contamination from equipment, material, or surface drainage introduced during construction. The disinfection process shall comply with all Federal regulation.

ii). Water Quality Testing: The water supply for schools should be free of pollutions. Thus, water quality tests have to be made during the drilling, construction and later on a regular basis as per the requirement stipulated in Federal Water Quality guidelines. The result of the water quality should be documented and kept within MfM offices and the relevant sectors.

iii). Accessibility: All dug or drilled wells shall be located with an adequate distance from buildings, fence, and school and playground for repair and maintenance and rehabilitation. Further illustration will also presented on the sanitation sections.

Section III. Sanitary Facilities in Schools

In this section dealings with sanitary facilities, namely the latrine and hand-wash facilities, will be discussed. This detail construction design and specification will not be discussed in this part. MfM personnel or those working with MfM in construction of sanitary facilities should consult the manual developed by MoEd for school WaSH.

3.1. Key Principles for WaSH Facilities

There are certain principles which are stated in national WaSH strategy and widely accepted. Though, details of constructions and designs will not discussed in this manual, the following principles need to be addressed in order to achieve a CHILD-FRIENDLY WaSH facility:

WASH structures in schools must be safe for users to use - in terms of the structural stability; in terms of a child not being able to fall through an oversized drop hole; in terms of children not risking abuse, bullying or attack when approaching, using or leaving the facilities provided

The detailed design of the toilet must be child friendly. Steps must be easy to climb. Door handles must be easy to reach. The toilet interior cannot be too dark. Squatting plates must be designed to accommodate a childs feet rather than those of an adult. Surfaces must be easy to clean. The drop hole must be correctly sized. Too large, it may be unsafe. Too small, cleaning will be needed after every visit. Ventilation is important to minimize any smell.

Facilities provided must include provision for disabled children, with at least one cubicle for girls and one for boys arranged accordingly. In terms of design, ramps and hand rails should be provided, with more internal space for a caregiver to assist if necessary. Disabled girls and boys should be consulted with their able bodied peers to get the design right. Girls and boys should be consulted about the number, location and orientation of school WASH facilities. This consultation should be organized with girls and boys separately, discussion facilitated by women and men respectively.

Physically separate facilities must be provided for girls and boys, spaced apart to ensure that girls do not feel embarrassed but secure when approaching and using the facilities. Separate hand-washing areas should also be provided, affording privacy for girls who may need to wash and dry menstrual cloths.

The orientation of facilities for example, the direction that the toilet entrance faces, must also take into account the perceived security and safety of girls. The orientation of the squatting plate should also take this into account, as well as cultural and religious norms

The location of toilets needs special consideration. Too close, and users may feel embossed as peers can see them from the class room; the smell from the vent pipe may be offensive. Too far, and it may take too long to get to the toilet for a child with a small bladder. Remote toilets are often neglected, and may be perceived as unsafe by both boys and girls.

3.2. Latrine Facilities (VIP Refresher)

In almost all schools constructed by MfM VIP type latrine is constructed. In areas where water is scarce the VIP is very suitable to operate and maintain cleanliness since it uses relatively little water and certainly they do not depend on regular water supply. These conditions make VIP technology suitable to almost all conditions of rural areas. This type latrine is recommended because it is relatively simple to design, build and maintain. For this reason, MfM will prefers to use VIP technology for schools built in the rural areas adapting to certain local situations. Such local situations include:

High ground level

Areas prone to floods

Hard rock geology

Unstable and low permeability soils

Stable soil, gravel and coarse material

Dry and stable soil

Annex III, provides detailed image and description of how VIP latrines function.

3.3. Number and Location Latrines

Number of Stands

Number in this case refers to the number of toilet stands (toilet cubicles) or pit-holes that are needed. The current Government norm is that applies to primary schools in Ethiopia is one stand for every 100 girls and one stand for every 150 boys, with physically separate facilities for girls and boys (Sanitation protocol, MoH, 2005). In other African countries, design ratios of 1:50 1:100 are common, but these standards are not always met due to resource constraints. This is also the case in much of rural Ethiopia, where the on the ground average is one stand per 200 students or more[footnoteRef:4]. [4: UNICEF stated By Using appropriately designed latrines the number of toilets stands needed by one third or more, which also needed to be given consideration. ]

In determining the number and location of toilet stands needed, MfM and government education office authorities should take into account the projected population of the school, with a recommended planning horizon of 3-5 years. Most primary schools in Ethiopia start off relatively small with 250-300 students, and develop over time to around 600-750 students.

The following table indicates the number of toilet stands required for schools of different sizes. It is based on a 1:100 toilet stand - student ratio, with both girl and boys having access to appropriate urinals. The minimum number of stands for both boys and girls is two, ensuring a degree of emergency capacity.

One important point is that the toilets provided are used by students and staff alike, with no separate facilities for teachers. This is not just a cost-saving measure. Teaching staff have an important role play in encouraging the proper use of school toilets and ensuring their upkeep. Having separate facilities for staff may undermine this responsibility[footnoteRef:5]. [5: MfM does not construct schools for school population less than 400, but for reason of giving complete estimation is presented in the table. Teachers and school staff will not have separate latrine building, but can lock and use on stand/partition for each gender. ]

No. of Boys

Min. No. of Stands

No. of Girls

Min. No. of Stands

Up to 100

2

Up to 100

2

100-200

2

100-200

2

200-300

3

200-300

3

300-400

4

300-400

4

400- 500

5

400- 500

5

500-600

6

500-600

6

600-700

7

600-700

7

700-800

8

700-800

8

These figures show the minimum number of toilet stands required. If resources allow, adopting a 1:50 toilet stand / student ratio is preferred, reducing pressure on toilets, increasing their fill up time, and making their upkeep easier to manage.

Location

Many schools were visited during the preparation of this manual. A common problem encountered concerned the location of school toilet blocks in relation to the classroom and boundary wall. The relative location of boys and girls toilets (basically, the distance between them) is also very important.

Getting the location right is very important factor in ensuring that toilets are used. In line with the principles listed earlier, girls and boy students must be consulted. This consultation should be undertaken separately, the girl group led by a woman, the boys group led by a male (here it makes sense to enlist the help of teachers).

Factors to consider in locating toilet blocks are set out in the following table. Inevitably, with all these factors to consider, the location of school toilets is going to be a compromise. This reinforces the necessity of consultation, with school girls and boys and their teachers. Drilling a test hole with an auger (or digging a test pit if this is not available) to see what lies underneath the surface can save considerable amount of time and money.

Below is a location checklist that should be consulted in the selection process.

Factor

Check

The normal wind direction it is best if the toilets vent pipes are down- wind of the classrooms

The distance from the toilet block to the class between 30 and 50 meters if possible. More than 50 meters may be too far for a small child in a desperate hurry, and in terms of toilet management and upkeep, its best to keep the toilet nearer rather than far from the classroom

The distance to the boundary wall if the toilet is placed on the boundary, there may be a risk of students extending their trip to the toilet to a trip outside the school. Equally, girls in particular may feel insecure here its best to get their opinion

The need to empty toilet pits when they are full. If the sludge or compost is to be picked up by a tractor-trailer, then there needs to be enough space for vehicle access.

The distance between the boys and girls toilets. Again, this is best fixed with consultation. 15 meters or more may be needed to secure the privacy and security needed by girls. It is also important to get the relative orientation of girls and boys toilets blocks right see below

The distance to a well or borehole a minimum of 30 meters is recommended to avoid any risk of contamination

Future plans to expand the school

Soil conditions avoiding rocky outcrops, unstable ground conditions and depressions with a shallow water table. Here a small earth auger can be used to test ground conditions if there is any doubt

Drainage ensuring that rain water does not flood the pit

In selection location, social and cultural considerations are paramount so again, its important to consult with boys and girls. In particular, this concerns the direction the toilets (and here we mean the toilets entrance) faces. For example, if the entrance of a girls toilet is opposite a classroom or the entrance to the boys toilet, girls may not want to use it. Alternatively, if the entrance faces a nearby boundary wall, boys and girls may feel insecure for another set of reasons. Orientation, like location, is case specific, but consultation is critical to encourage rather than discourage the use of toilets.

Annex IV shows one possible layout of school WASH facilities. There is no blueprint, but the changes of the toilets being used are much higher if the guidance set out above is followed. Inside the toilet block, the orientation of the squatting slab is also important, for example, respecting religious norms.

3.4. Hand Washing Facilities

In most schools observed which are constructed by MfM, there are no hand-washing facilities immediately outside latrines. But the most basic practice of WaSH for schools is students should wash their hands after using the toilet or urinal to avoid the possibility of getting or making others sick by fecal or oral contamination. It is widely accepted principle that it is absolutely critical to provide hand-washing facilities, water and soap at toilet itself. Furthermore, separate and relatively private facilities are needed by adult girls, who may have to use these facilities to wash sanitary cloths if they happen to be having a menstruation. To improve this situation the design of sanitation facilities for schools constructed by MfM is under revisions which consult WaSH design and construction manual of MoEd (2013). Appropriate hand-washing facilities should consider:

i. Location: the hand washing facility should be located very close to the latrine so that children see it in front as they leave.

ii. Standard Dimensions: Each facility is made up of a minimum of two stands (four is preferred), each comprising a 100 liters plastic drum and tap, drain and soap cage. A concrete structure with varying heights is constructed to keep plastic barrels for carrying water for hand-washing. The dimensions vary to suite to the heights of school children. For small children the height while for older children between age 9 and 15 years will use a 70 cm height of hand washing facility. If conditions permit in terms of finance and other aspects, privacy wall for girls can be incorporated as additional design.

iii. Materials: A plastic container with taps installed on it is used. Soap or ash is also kept as hand-washing agents and hygienic materials.

iv. Access: Hand-washing facilities are located within one and half meters distance from the latrine and it is near and readily available and accessible for school children using the latrines.

The drums could be filled by a water pipe from an elevated tank. If piped water supply is not available, water need to be filled manually, and steps (elevated ground) are also provided to facilitate this process.

Latrines for boys (left) and girls (right) showing Hand Washing Stands

Section IV. Waste Management

One of the key issues of WaSH program that need to be addressed in school is on how to deal with wastes. MfM handover schools with their WaSH facilities, but as the visits on those handover schools shows the poor waste management is a problem in many school. A clear waste management system is also an important component that schools need to prepare for to achieve WaSH friendly schools. Thus, establishing procedures in dealing with waste management for school to be handed-over to government is important.

4.1. Type and Nature of Waste in Schools

Wastes are items that are not needed and which required to be discarded from the school and the community. Communities handle their waste or trash differently. Some common methods of managing their waste include landfilling, recycling and compositing. Other communities strongly embark on waste reeducation and litter prevention aimed at reducing the production of waste in the first place. Pollution is also a concern in this regard as it is part of current international trend.

Generally, waste types generated in schools can be grouped as liquid or solid type. Both of them could be hazardous mostly because they can be

Toxic: waste can be easily decomposed and transformed to be poisonous for children and animals,

Corrosive: most wastes can easily eat through metals and other valuable items which cause damage to the school property which can be costly to repair or replace

Reactive: Though it is not common in rural primary schools, in some cases wastes from laboratory and offices can be reactive to create explosions.

Schools are a place where all of the population is children which can be easily exposed for contamination. This makes the issue more delicate and deal with waste management delicately. In the next topics of this section the common types of school wastes, water and garbage, management will be discussed.

4.2. Waste Water Management

It is very obvious how harmful it can be if water waste disposal management is not well taken care in school context, especially if the major sources of water wastes are from latrines. If waste water is not properly managed, the school compound could end up contaminated with puddles of water, possibly contaminated, also providing mosquitoes that carry disease with a breeding site. But whilst disposing of waste water efficiently and safely is important, we are also wasting a valuable resource. So, before deciding on how to dispose of waste water, one should first consider if and how it could be reused more productively. The following summary taken from manual of MoE and UNICEF should be consulted in deciding whether water should consider as wastes, grey water or a valuable resources.

Waste water or black water refers to water discharged from toilets and urinals. This may contain very high levels of pathogens and it smells pretty bad as well.

Grey water is untreated waste water that has not come into contact with high concentrations of fecal contaminants. In this case, grey water refers to water from hand washing stands, which may be slightly, but not highly contaminated.

The way we manage waste water and grey water is very important. If left to pool on the ground, it may present a health risk not least by providing mosquitoes with a breeding ground, or attracting domestic animals into the school compound. Water combines with soil to make mud, which may be fun for some but this can also put off users from entering the toilet or washing their hands.

The option described in this manual is one solution. Infiltrate water back into the ground. This may work in terms of reducing the health risk. But it is also wasting a valuable resource. If properly handled, grey water can be reused to for cleaning toilets and urinals, or for watering trees and plants - which can be sold by the school to augment its budget. Waste water can also be used in this way, although it needs more careful handling.

The information above provides insight on the type of Assuming the decision is made to dispose of waste water rather than reuse it, the following information must be considered.

The total volume of urine and waste water (from hand-washing stands, from rainwater and from cleaning the urinal may exceed 800 liters a day for a four stand sanitation block, designed to meet the needs of 400 students.

The following box takes one through the basic design of an infiltration trench. In this case, a trench is being used to drain liquid into the ground. Liquid drains through the sidewalls of the trench rather than the bottom, which rapidly silts up. The key factor that determines the length of the trench is the soils infiltration rate (I, here measure in litres per metre squared), which varies enormously depending on the type of soil. The more clay there is in the soil, the less liquid it can handle and the lower the value of I.

Infiltration rates for different soil types are tabulated below. For more detail on how to classify soil type and assess infiltration rate by physical inspection and the jar test, see Annex A.

Soil Type

Infiltration Rate I (l/m2)

Coarse to medium sand

>50

Fine sand, loamy soil

33

Sandy loam

25

Porous silt clay

10

Expansive clay