DRAWING&ILLUSTRATIONACOMPLETEGUIDE

JOHNMORANZ

DOVERPUBLICATIONS,INC.MINEOLA,NEWYORK

BibliographicalNote

ThisDoveredition,firstpublishedin2008,isanunabridgedrepublicationofMasteryofDrawing,byJohnMoranz,originallypublishedbyRichardR.SmithPublisher,Inc.,NewYork,in1950.Thecolorplatesintheoriginaleditioncanbefoundinthecolorsectionlocatedbetweenpages208and209.Theyhavebeenreproducedinblackandwhiteintheiroriginalpositionwithinthebook.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataMoranz,John,1902-

[Masteryofdrawing]Drawingandillustration:acompleteguide/JohnMoranz.p.cm.Originallypublishedundertitle:Masteryofdrawing:NewYork:RichardR.SmithPublisher,1950.Includesindex.ISBN-13:978-0-486-46606-4ISBN-10:0-486-46606-X1.Drawing—Technique.I.Title.

NC730.M5852008741.2—dc22

2007051583

ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaDoverPublications,Inc.,31East2ndStreet,Mineola,N.Y.11501

CONTENTS

PREFACE

SILENTINSTRUCTOR

PARTONE—HEADSANDPORTRAITS

PARTTWO—HANDSANDFEET

PARTTHREE—FIGUREDRAWING

PARTFOUR—THEDRAPEDFIGURE

PARTFIVE—PERSPECTIVE

PARTSIX—COMPOSITION

PARTSEVEN—ADVERTISINGLAYOUT

PARTEIGHT—CREATINGILLUSTRATIONS

PARTNINE—ANIMALS

PARTTEN—CASHINGIN

INDEX

NUDESINCOLOR

(Seecolorinsertafterpage208.)REDHEAD

COOLPALETTE

BLONDE

WARMKEY

RHYTHM

GYPSY

RELAXATION

SUNLIGHT

TPREFACE

HEREISpresentineachofusacompellingurgetoexpress,indrawingorart of some kind, what we see, what we hear or what we think. The

cavemanhad thisurgeand lefthisartscrawledorchiseledon thewallsof thecavern he called his home.Down through the ages others have had this samecompelling urge, and each era has left its record in picture, sculpture orarchitecture.

Forsomeofusinthesemoderntimes,thisurgemayfindexpressiononlyinscribbling in school books, doodling on telephone scratch pads, or puttingmustachesonmagazinecovergirls.Othersmayhaveadvancedfromthisstageto thepointofbeginningaseriousstudyofart,andare lookingforwardto thetime,comingsoon,whentheycanturntheir talent intoasourceofprofit.Andthere are otherswhohave already passed through the scribbling stage and thestudentperiodtojointheranksoftheprofessionalartists.My experience shows that doodler, student and professional need a single

bookondrawingtowhichthedoodlercangofortraining,thestudentforfurtherhelpindevelopinghisskill,andtheprofessionalforreferencematerial.It is to meet these needs that this book has been designed. It presents a

comprehensivebut simple studyof the fundamentals of drawing in its variousphasesandfields,andanexplanationofthemethods,techniquesandprocedurescommonlyemployed.Thisisdonebymeansofasfewandsimplewordsandasmanyandvarieddrawingsaspossible.In the major part of the book is presented material, the understanding and

masteryofwhichareessentialforallartists,butadequatetreatmentisgivenalsotothepracticalapplicationofthesefundamentalprinciplesandtechniquesinthefieldofcommercialart.Hencenotonlythenewcomerinthecommercialfield,but also the established professional artist will find this volume extremelyhelpfulonmanyoccasions.Unusuallyfulltreatment—forageneralvolume—isgiventoportraits,figuredrawingandanimals;toadvertisinglayoutandcreatingillustrations. Hands, perspective, composition and the draped figure areadequatelydiscussedandillustrated.

Eventhelayman,whoappreciatesartbutdoesnotwishtopracticeit,willfindhispleasure increasedby theknowledgeof theartist’scraftwhichhecangainfromthesepages.Masteryofdrawingisthenecessaryprerequisitetotheeffectiveuseofcolor,

but as there are now available a number of excellent books on painting, thissubject has not been treated here. There have been included, however,reproductions in color of eight oil paintings to show the application of thefundamentals of figure drawing and to encourage the student in his efforts tomasterthesefundamentals.Paintingsfromlivingmodelsinthenudehavebeenchosenforthispurpose.I am deeply grateful for the valuable assistance in the preparation of this

volumewhich I have received from theseprofessional colleaguesofmine andothers: JackCowan,LouSegal,Henry J.Bracker,BeckerCline,A.D.Greer,FriedPâl,FrankLarocco,GeorgeS.Moranz,VernManson.Success in art cannot be gained easily, but it is no more difficult to attain

proficiency indrawing than tobecomeexpert in anyother field.Youwhoarestudentsknowthatthereisnoformulawhichwillassureyoursuccess.Youhavelearned that art is an expression of a personality and that art devoid ofpersonalityhaslittlereasontoexist.Itismyhopethatyouwillfindinthisbookthesolutionsofmanyof theproblemswhichwillconfrontyouasyoudeveloptheskilltoobeytheurgetoexpressyourpersonalityonpaperorcanvas.

Houston,TexasJuly,1950

J.M.

LSILENTINSTRUCTOR

ETUSASSUMEthatyouhaveadesiretodrawandabeliefthatyouwilllike the experienceof learning todraw,but thatyoucannot attendan art

school.How,then,canyoumakeastart?Obviously,justbybeginningtodraw—nomatterwhatorhow.Andthisbookcanbeyoursilentinstructor;itcanhelpyoutosucceedifyouareintentonsuccess.

An artist is able to draw because he can see—because he sees people andinanimate objects as surfaces or planes reflecting the light to which they areexposed.Thelaymanonlylooks,buttheartistsees—perceives.Thestudentmustlearntoseepeopleandthingsintermsofpicturesandtoconsiderhowhewouldputthemonpaper.Thishecanlearntodoonlybytrying,forthehandwillputdownonlywhattheeyeandmindobserve.Thepurposeofthisbookistoopenyoureyestowhatisaroundyou.Itseeks

togiveyouhonesthelpbyavoidingthejargonofhigh-flownart talk,whichisbeyondtheneedsorunderstandingofthestudent—theartofdrawingisnotanexactscience.Theartschoolstudentaskshisinstructorwhatiswrongwithhisdrawing,but

the instructor insists that the student find his ownmistakes. By becoming hisownanalystandcritic,thestudentstartsontheonlyroadtoartisticachievement,andhemaytravelthisroadrapidlybytheaidofthisbookashissilentinstructor,becauseheisforcedtodevelop,atthestartoftheroad,hiscriticalandanalyticalfaculties.The drawings in this book are reproduced on a large scale and with great

clarity so that the student can analyze them, learn how the effects have beenobtained,anddeterminewhicharebasicandwhichindividualstrokes.Wespeakofbasicstrokesbecauseallhumanbeingshaveineverypartoftheir

bodiesmorelikenessestoeachotherthandifferences.Theartistmustbeguidedby this basic similarity and yet know how to put on paper the characteristicdifferencesoftheindividual.Therearemanymediumsandmanykindsofsurfacesonwhichtousethem.

Thefourbasicmediumsarepencil,charcoal,penandwash;andskillintheuse

ofallismandatoryforanycommercialartist.PENCIL isthemostnaturalbecauseofitsfamiliarity,butcharcoaliseasierto

usebecauseastrokemaybeimmediatelyremovedbyasweepofafinger,whilethepencilrequiresaneraser.Usealongpencilwithlonggraduatedpoint—neverasharppoint,andformostartistsaflat,chiseledpointisthefavorite.Alsoasoftlead—2Bor3Bgraphite.Othersketchingpencilsareofcarbonorcrayon.The pencil should feel so comfortable in the hand that it seems like a

continuationofthefingersandthuspermitsthemindtocauseafreeflowfromthefingertipsthroughthepenciltothepaper.Astubbypointorshortpencilwillbreakthisflowandcauseahalting,awkwardmovement.Ahardpointdentsthepaperandmakeslineswhicharehardtoerase.Thebestsurfacesforpencilarebond,offsetandlayoutpapers.CHARCOALisusedmostofteninfiguredrawingbecauseitisthemostflexible

medium.With it an area can be filled in quickly and changesmade with theswishofafinger.Don’tbeafraidtogetthepaperdirty.Somegoodinstructorstell students to smudge up the entire surface before they start to draw.Whitepaperispoisontothestudent—itfrightenshim!Theusualmethodofputtingintonewithcharcoalistocovertheareawitha

fewswiftstrokeswiththecharcoalheldattheanglewhichwillmakethewideststrokes.Thensmudgewithfingertogetagraytone.Theamountofcharcoalinthefirststrokesdetermines thevalueof the tone.Whendrawingfromamodelthebeginnerwillhave to tryseveralstrokesbeforehe finds the rightone.Thebestsurfacesarespecialcharcoalpaperswhichhavearoughsurface.PEN AND INK in art terms means drawing with either pen or brush in

waterproofblackdrawingink.AgoodbrushforinkdrawingisaNo.3pointedred sable; thiswill have lots of life.Don’twaste time andmoney on inferiorbrushes;don’tuseonewhichdragsitspointwhenwet.Getridofexcessinkandpointupthebrushwithpreliminarystrokesonscratchpaper.ThebestpenisaGillottpenNo.170,290or440(apersonalchoice).BestsurfaceisapenboardofwhichStrathmorethreeplyispreferred.Twosurfaces—smoothoreggshell—aresuitableforpenandink.WASHisdrawingwithsolutionsordilutionsofwater-colorlampblack,ivory

black or soluble and waterproof india ink. The latter makes a very good buttrickymedium,buta fewdropsofammonia in thewatermake the ink readilysoluble.Thesewash techniquesarecalled transparentwashes.Anotherpopularmedium is opaque wash which is black water color mixed with white water-color paint. A little burnt umber added to ivory or lamp black warms up thecolor;thisisdesirableforreproductionpurposes.Atfirstthebeginnerwillfindthesewashtechniquesdifficult,butwithpracticehewilllearnthattheyarevery

usefulandsatisfyingmediums.Weadvisethestudenttosticktotheblackandwhite,ofwhichwehavebeen

speaking,forquiteatime,ascolorismorecomplicatedandexpensive.Thebestsurfaceforwashisillustrationboard,ofwhichWhatmanisthepreferredmake,buta lessexpensiveone is suggested for thebeginner.Lethimputhismoneyfirstintogoodbrushestowhichhemayattributehalfofhissuccessinwashandinkdrawing.Pencil and charcoal are excellent for practice and for preliminary work in

preparingillustrations,buttheyareseldomusedforreproduction.Penandinkisusedforlineengravings(madeonzincandphotographedwithoutascreen)andwash for half tones (made on copper and photographed through a screen—atgreatercost).SCRATCHBOARD is the engraver’s delight, but it is a difficult medium on

accountofthedetailedpreliminaryplanningrequired(describedonpage302).When the student draws with lines he draws the boundaries of surfaces.

Shadingfurtherdevelopswhathappensinsidetheseboundarylines,andshadingcan be studied by observing what happens to these inner sections. Althoughshading is softer than lines, it helps define the areas enclosed by lines, givesformtotheoutlineandpullsthewholedrawingtogether.Itisbetter,however,forartiststothinkintermsoflightanddarkareasinstead

of lines.“There isnosuch thingasa line innature,” isahelpfulaxiom.Whatappeartobelinesareonlynarrow,elongateddarkareas.Ifwetrainourselvestothink of objects—nomatter how small—as combinations of planes instead ofseriesof lines, thenthe lineswhichwedodraw(andwemustdrawlines)willachievethatelusivequalityknownascharacter.Yoursilentinstructorwillseektoorientyouasyoubeginthestudyofeachof

the ten Parts of the volume. The fundamental methods and their underlyingprinciples presented in the general introductions to the earlier Parts, will beequally useful when you come to the later Parts—the instructions arecumulative. The brief comments, hints and explanations throughout the bookwillshowyouhowtopracticeandtoapplythemethodsandtechniques,and—above all—how to develop your critical and analytical faculties. Thus yourprogress fromHEADS AND PORTRAITS,HANDS AND FEET, andFIGUREDRAWINGthrough PERSPECTIVE and COMPOSITION, TO ADVERTISING LAYOUT, CREATINGILLUSTRATIONSandANIMALS,willbemarkedbythesteadydevelopmentofyourpowertoseeintermsofpicturesandbyyourskillintransferringthesepicturestopaper.The resultinggrowthofyourcreative imaginationwill enableyou todevelopyourownstyleandgiveexpressiontoyourexpandingpersonality.Your silent instructor isnow ready to serve.Asyoumakeyour start on the

road to artistic enjoyment and achievement under this guidance, we wish toassure you that you are about to acquire the best of all life-long hobbies, andalso, if you desire, a profession of which one never wearies. Said Emerson,“Everyartistwasfirstanamateur.”

REDHEAD

Vividcoloring inredheadscanbeshowntobestadvantageby theuseofpurpleshadows.Theshadowsinthefaceandbreastssuggesttheveinlinessonoticeableinthiscolortype.Thewarmyellow-brownbackgroundgivesthepaintingadramaticmood—itseemstovibratewithlife.Thelightingonthemodelwassetbeloweye levelandadimtop lightwasused to lessentheopaquenessoftheshadows.Thebluegossamerveilingaccentuatesthevividnessofthewarmredandbrowntones.

(Seecolorinsertafterpage208.)

PARTONE

HEADSANDPORTRAITS

HHEADS

EADandfacialcharacteristicsareofprimeimportancetotheartist.Ofthefive senses, four center in the head. Your thoughts, your every act and

feelingaffectyourfacialexpression.Tobecomeproficientindrawingtheheadand face, however, is not inordinately difficult.Almost everyone has, at sometime,drawnanoval,placedtheeyes,noseandmouthinside,addedtheearsandthehairline—andthenwonderedwhathadbeenleftout!

In order to draw the head youmust be able to capture the expression, youmust be able to give sharp definition to each of the features of the face, butprimarilyyoumustknowwherethesefeaturesfitintotheface!Weshallhavealook at the eyes, thenose, themouth and the ears separately, but let’s not getaheadofthestory.Weknowthatthroughourfacialexpressionsweshowourinnerfeelings.The

face is in a continual process of changing expressions, but nearly everyindividualhassomeparticular facialexpressionbywhichhecanbe identified.There arevery fewprinciples toguide the artist in putting expression into thefaceshedraws.Wecan,however,dividetheheadintothreeterminalexpressionzones:first, theareaof themouthandjaw;second, thenoseandcheeks; third,theeyesandbrow.Theartistcanbeststudyexpressionbyexamininghisownfaceandobserving

the faces of his friends. Stand before a mirror and express various emotions.Noticewhensmilinghowthemouthopensandthelipscurveupatthecorners.Thefaceisbroadenedasthecheeksmoveupandformadeeperpouchbeneaththeeyes.Theeyesaregenerallynarrowed.Afrown,onthecontrary,willbringtheeyebrowsclosertogetherandwrinklethebrow.Themouthisusuallymorecompressedandthelipswillappearthinner.Theoutlineofthenostrilsismoresharplydefined.Whenever the face expresses emotion some change occurs in each of the

expression zones. Handling expressions delicately will lend subtlety to yourdrawing.Overemphasisonanyparticularpartofthefacemaydestroytheeffect.

Anychangeinoneexpressionzonewillhaveadirectbearingonanother.Frominfancytooldagethefacedevelopslinesofcharacter.Noteparticularly

thewrinklesabout theeyes, furrowsof thebrowand the linesextending fromthenostrilsdownward.Developingtheselinesofcharacteraddsindividualitytoaface.Drawingthehair isoftenastumblingblock.Acommonmistake is tospend

toomuchtimeandputtoomuchdetailintothedrawingofthehair.Itshouldbedrawn in its simplestmasses.Byaddinga few lines following thedirection inwhichthehairgrows,youwillestablishthewholeeffect.Therearenotwofacesexactlyalike.Approacheveryfaceyoudrawasanew

adventure,butrememberthatallfaceshavethisincommon:nofacecanberightwithoutproperconstruction.Thetwosidesofthefacemustbalance,andproperrelationshipmustbemaintainedbetweenthefeaturesandtheshapeoftheheadonwhich they are placed.Watch particularly the space between the eyes, theplacement of the ears and nose, the location of the mouth and the hairlineframingtheface.Thereare severalmethodsordeviceswhichyouwillneed tousewhileyou

aretrainingyoureyeandhand.Thesemethodsarenomorethanpropsonwhichyoucanleanwhileyouarelearningtodraw,butyouhaveeveryrightandeveryreasontousethesepropsordevices.Oneofthesedeviceswillhelpyougreatlyinhandlingtheprimaryproblemofproportion.Solet’sbeginourstudyofheadsby quickly and simply tackling this problem. The block method is the mostuniversalapproachtoproportion.

THEBLOCKMETHOD

Whenviewedfromthefrontorback,theaverageadulthumanheadmeasuresapproximatelysix incheswideandeight inchesfromthechin to the topof thehead. A block, six inches wide and eight inches high, will give you theframework.Within this framework guide lines will be drawn to give you thecorrectproportionsoftheface.Thefourillustrationsonthefollowingpagewillshowyouhowtoproceed.In the first figure, four guide lines have been drawn.Down the center is a

verticalline.Threehorizontallinesaredrawnacrosstheblock.Thefirstisaboutmidwaybetweenthetopandthebottomoftheblock.Thesecondhorizontallinedivides the lower part of the block in half. The third horizontal line is drawnthree-fourthsthedistancedownfromthecenterhorizontallineorone-eighthofthetotalblockfromtoptobottom.Nowwhatisthepurposeoftheseguidelines?Theverticallinewillkeepthe

balance between the two sides of the face you are going to draw. The centerhorizontal line is the eye line onwhich you construct the eye.On the secondhorizontal lineyoumark thebaseof thenose.Andon the thirdhorizontal lineyouhavethelocationofthemouth.Remember, these aremerely guide lines.Youwill need to, and be able to,

change them to meet particular facial characteristics. But for this explanationyoushouldfollowthemclosely.Nowyouarereadytostartworkingontheface.Inthesecondfigureyouwill

seehowthisisdone.Withstraightlinesdrawtheboundariesoftheforehead,topandsides.Roughintheupperborderoftheeyesocketsonthecenterhorizontalline,makingsurethattheyarebalancedoneithersideofthecenterverticalline.At the intersection of the second horizontal line and the vertical line draw asmalltriangletodenotethebaseofthenose.Andattheintersectionofthethirdhorizontalandtheverticalline,drawasmalllinetoindicatethelocationofthemouth.Roughintheearsonthesidesoftheheadbetweenthecenterhorizontallineandthehorizontallinejustbelowit.You are now ready to fill in the features at the locationsmarked.The third

figure showshow this isdone.Withheavystrokes fill in the features thatyouwant to appear in the final drawing. At this point you will have reached thefourthfigure.Erasetheguidelinesandseewhatyouhavebeenabletodounderthe block method. Even on your first attempt, if you have followed theinstructions step by step, you should have a head and facewhich show soundconstructionandproportion.Theartist,likethearchitect,hasadefiniteconstructionproblem.Lettheblock

representthescaffoldingwhileyouarelearningtodraw.Itwillprovideagoodframework as well as an accuratemeans ofmeasurement.With practice yourhandwill follow your eye and youwill be able to take the preliminary stepsautomatically,withouttheuseofprops.

THEPROFILE

Uptothispointwehaveconsideredtheheadandfacefromafrontviewonly.Thisisveryconvenientasabeginningindrawing,butitisonlythebeginning.Let us consider now the sideor profile.Byusing theblockmethod again thiswillbeverysimple.You’llrememberthatinthefrontviewyouusedablocksixbyeightinchesasanaverageadulthumanhead.Theaveragehead,whenviewedfromtheside,iseightincheswideandeightinchesfromtoptobottom.Whenyouarereadytostartdrawingprofiles,justdrawablockeightbyeight.

Useyourguidelinesexactlyasyoudidforthefrontview.Roughinthefeaturesontheindicatedguidelines,usingthesamefourstepsthatyouusedindrawingtheheadfromthefrontview.Whenyouaredrawingthefaceinprofile,theearisplacedjustbehindthecenterverticalline,betweenthecenterhorizontallineandthehorizontallinewhichisjustbelowit.

THEBLOCKTOTHECUBE

Byusing the block and guide lines, you have been able to construct awellproportionedheadandface in frontandprofileviews,butyouhavedrawnthehead only as a flat surface. From the front view you saw the head in twodimensions, length and width. From the side you saw two dimensions again,lengthanddepth. Inorder todraw thehead inanyof itsvariedpositions,youmustuseall threedimensions, length,widthanddepth.Thebasicprinciplesoftheblockmethodstill serve,butbyaddinga few linesyoucan turn theblockintoacube.Nowyoucanviewtheheadinanyposition—turnedupordownorsidewise.The illustrationson this and the next four pageswill showyouhowthisisdone.Studyandpracticethemcarefully.

THESKULL

Inbuildingastructure theengineermusthaveafirmframeworkoverwhichhecanmoldhisoutsidecovering.Soitiswiththehumanbody,andtheskullistheframeworkoverwhichthefaceismolded.Ingeneralappearancetheskullisthesameinallhumanbeings.However, itvaries inshape indifferent racesofmenandindifferentpartsoftheworld.Sowemaysaythatrace,geographicalorigin,sexandageareallinfluencingfactorsintheshapingoftheskull.

Aswestudyeachof thefeaturesyouwillseehowthepartsof theskullareutilized.

1.Theparietalbonemakesuptheupperandsideregionsoftheskull.2.Thefrontalboneformstheroofsoftheeyesandnose.Itformstheupperpart

oftheeye-socketwhichactsasaprotectiontotheeye.3.Thenasalbones,oneoneachside,joininthecentertoformthebridgeofthe

nose.4.Thetemporalbonesarelocatedatthesidesandbaseoftheskullandhouse

thehearingorgans.5.Themalarislocatedattheouterandupperpartoftheface.Thisisknownas

the cheekbone,onepurposeofwhich is to form the lowerpart of the eye-socket.

6. Theupper jawbones form theupper jawand the roofof themouth.Theyalsoformthesocketsfortheupperteeth.

7.Themandibleorlowerjawboneisthelargestandstrongestboneintheface.Itformsthesocketsforthelowerteeth.

8.Theoccipitalboneislocatedatthebackandlowerpartoftheskull.Ithasalargeopening throughwhich the lower divisionof the brain connectswiththespinalcord.

MUSCLESOFTHEHEAD

Fromtheartist’sstandpoint,acompletestudyofthemusclesoftheheadisnotnecessary.Theimportantconsiderationisthegeneralformofthehead;henceweshalllimitthisdiscussiontothosemusclesmostprominentinthegeneralform.The muscles which control the closing of the jaw, the masseter and thetemporalis, fillmostof thesideplanesof thehead.Theactionof themassetercontrolschewingwhile the temporaliseffects theclosingof themouthand theretractionofthejaw.The buccinator muscle compresses the cheek. The nasalis contracts the

nostrils.Thetriangularis,whichoriginatesinthelowerjaw,actstopulldownthesides of themouth. The function of the frontalis is to raise the eyebrows andwrinkle the forehead. These muscles are often referred to as the muscles ofexpression.The illustrationson thispagewill show the locationof thevariousmuscles.

Emotions help to affect the action of the muscles and give the face itsexpression.

EXCESSWEIGHT

Excessweight canchange theappearanceof the face. In thesedrawingswehaveoveremphasized theweight to show just how radically the appearanceofface can be changed. Note how the puffiness of the cheeks makes the eyesnarrower. The creases leading from the corner of the mouth downward aredeepened.

THEEYE

You are now ready to isolate the features of the face for closer study.Youhavedrawntheeyesandyouknowtheirpositioninrelationtotheotherfeatures.Ifyouhavestudiedcarefullytheproportionsofthefaceyouhavesolvedatleasthalftheproblemofconstructingarealisticface.Theeyeishousedintheskullinasomewhatrectangularsocket.Likethehead

itself,theeyehasadefinitesystemofplanes.Theplaneofthesocketinwhichtheeyesitsisretreating.Thebrowsitsontheupperpartofthesocket,andmeetstheplaneof the forehead.Thefrontandsideplanesof the lidsareslight; theyfollowthecontouroftheeyeball.Whenyoubegintoconstructtheeyes,constructthemtogether,notseparately.There isaneye’swidthbetween theeyes. In thestudyof theblockmethod,

youlearnedthatthecenterhorizontal,oreyeline,isusedasaguideinplacingtheeyesintheirproperposition.Let’susethislineagainasaguideindrawingtheeyesthemselves.Youwillrememberthatthisismerelyaguidelineandmaybechangedtomeetparticularfacialcharacteristics.Youcannowadjustthislineto the individual face you are drawing. Note whether the eyes are level orwhethertheoutercornerishigherorlowerthantheinnercorner.Theupperlidmayassumevaryingshapes:ontopitmaybeeithertriangular,

square, or arched.Watch the angle of the lid and locate the point or points atwhichtheanglechanges.

Theeyebrowisanessentialcharacteristicoftheindividual.Ifyoutreatitjustasamereroundedline,astheEgyptiansoncedid,youwillhaveaconventionaleyebrowwhichwillneverfitanindividual’scharacterorpersonality.Noticethatthehairsoftheeyebrowfollowthreeseparatedirections.Startingfromthenose,theslantincreasesasitgoesoutwardinthreeseparatesteps.Ifyoufollowtheirdirectionandnotice the individualway theeyebrowisconstructedyouwillbecapturingoneoftheessentialcharacteristicsofyoursubject.Notethattheupperlidthrowsashadowovertheeye.Thisshadowshouldbe

defined so as not to give the effect that the eyes are cut out of the face. Theentire eye socket is caughtwithin anoverall shadow, lightordark as the casemaybe.Indicatethisoverallshadowanduseaveryslighttoneoverthewhitesof the eyes.As the eyes are almost always seen in shadow, the artist can takeadvantageofthisandlendsubtletytohisdrawing.There is no limit to the number of positions and expressions the eye can

assume. On these pages there are a few examples that should be carefullystudied. Draw them as many times as you think necessary; that is, until youbelieve that you can attain a good likeness. Then turn to your sketchesmadeundertheblockmethod.Comparetheeyesthatyouarenowdrawingwiththosethatyoudrewpreviously.Theiris,whenviewedfromthefront,formsaperfectcircle.Usingthecenter

of the iris foraguide, locate itsproperpositionbeneath theupper lid.The iriswillvaryinsizeaccordingtotheindividual.Thepupilwillalsovaryinsize,asyou have probably noticed in your own eyes. The lower lid, which remainsstable,showsonlyitsedge.Theeyelasheson theupper lid areheavier than thoseon the lower, andget

thickertowardtheouteredge.Everyeyehasacreaseintheupperlid.

THENOSE

Inourpreviousdiscussionofthebonesthatmakeupthehumanskullyouhadalookatthenasalbones.Thesebones,oneoneachside,formthebridgeofthenosebyjoininginthecenter.Theyextendalittlelessthanhalfthelengthofthenose.Cartilages takeoverwhere thebonesend to formastiff, though flexibleframework for the surface of the nose. The nose is divided into four planes;bridge,tip,wingsofnostrils,andsideslopes.Thatpartofthenosewhichisboneforms a clear wedge. Below the bone, the nose narrows and the ridge sinksslightly.Indrawingthenose,donotestablishaharddefinitelineonthelightside,nor

indicate the nostrils too heavily. In fact, as a general rule, treat the nosedelicately, except where you are trying to establish a definite character.Whenever you draw a girl’s face, keep the lines of the nose a little on thestraighter side.Never treat the feminine nose too heavily; it should always be

donedelicately.

THEMOUTH

Indrawingthemouth,weconsidernotonlytheupperandlowerlips,butthewholeareabetween thenoseand thechinaswell.Theshapeof the jawhasadirect bearing on the shape of the mouth and lips. The mouth has a generalbackwardslantwith the lower lipslightlyover-hanging.Theupper liphasonehigh mound in the center with a forward projection. The lower lip has twomoundswithaslightcreasebetween themintowhich the forwardpointof theupper lip fits. The lips follow the contour of the teeth: the more curved theplacementoftheteeth,themorecurvedthelips.The mouth is one of the important factors of facial expression. Notice

particularlytheeffectofthemusclesattheendofthemouth.

THEEARS

Probablythemostoverlookedfeatureofthefaceistheear.Thisseemsnaturalbecauseofitslocationonthehead,butifyouaretoreproduceafaceaccuratelyyoucannotslightanyofthefeatures.Theearisdividedintothreeparts:thebowl,therimandthelobe.Therimand

the lobe standout from thehead.Like theother features, theearsvary in sizeandtypes.Keepyourdrawingoftheearsimpleandavoidthetendencytooverdraw.A common fault in drawing the ear is to place it too far forward. It was

pointedout intheblockmethodthat theearsets justbehindthemiddlelineoftheskull.Itisplacedbetweenthecenterhorizontallineandthelinejustbelowit,inotherwords,betweentheeyelineandthelinedenotingthebaseofthenose.Indicating the position of the ear in relation to the line of the eyes is very

important. Having established the position of the ear, draw the tendon of thenecktothecollarboneandthatwillhelpestablishthecorrectpositionandslantof thehead.Thepositionof theearwillalsoestablish the lineof the jaw.Therelationshipof theear to jaw,neck tendon,andeye line isvery important andhelpstosetupproperproportioninyourdrawingofthehead.

BASICPLANES

Astudyofplanesishelpfulinunderstandingtheeffectoftheunderlyingformof the head. The surface of the face you are drawing is the product of theseunderlyingforms:bones,muscles,cartilageandfat.Theforeheadisrectangular,withthefrontplaneextendingtotheeyesockets

andturningabruptlyintotheplaneofthetemple.Thefrontplaneisdividedintolesserplanes, running from the topof the forehead to theeyebrows.Thesearethe irregularities in themodelingof the foreheadcausedby thehighspotsandtheflatareabetweenthem.Itisontheforeheadthatthestrongestlightisusuallyfound.Thecheekbonesareas important to the faceasanyof the features for they

determinethecontouroftheface.Theyreflect thelightandthusconstitutethetwomainhighlightsoftheface.From thecheekbone to theear runsa ridge thatmarks thechangeofplane

betweenthejawandthetemple.Thejawprojectsunderneaththecheekbone.Eachindividualfeaturehasitsownsystemofplanes.

Havingestablishedthepositionoftheear,drawinthetendonsofthenecktothecollarbone.This relationshipwillestablish thecorrectpositionandslantofthehead.

DRAWINGCHILDREN

Theheadandfaceofchildrenareentirelydifferentfromthoseofadults.Thesizeof the facial features in relation to the skulldiffersasdo the locationandgeneral characteristics of the features. The primary difference is one ofproportion.Thechild’sskulliswidestjustabovetheears;thegreatestlengthisfromtheforeheadtothebackofthehead.Theforeheadisfullerandprotrudesmoreabovetheeyes.Asthechildgrowsolder,changestakeplaceinthefacialcharacteristics.The

greatestchangeisintheupperpartoftheheadandface.Theface,fromhairlinetochin, lengthensand thenoseandcheekbonesbecomemoreprominent.Thegrowth of teeth adds width and depth to the lower part of the face. Theroundness and softness of the child’s face,which hides the bone construction,disappears.

RECAPITULATION

Stop for just amoment and lookoverwhat youhave alreadydone.You’vestudiedtheblockmethod,bothfrontandside.You’veseenhowtheblockwastransformed intoa cube inorder that theheadcouldbe studied from itsmanypositions.Fromthatpointyouwent into thedetailsof the featuresof theface,with all theirmany types andpositions.Younowhave thematerial tobuild aface—any face that you desire. It will take practice, of course, to gainproficiency in theuseof thismaterial.Youare thebest judgeas tohowmuchpractice isnecessary.Againwecautionyounot to throwawayyourprops toosoon.

Theremainderofthispartwilldealwithfinishedheadsandthedevelopmentof portraits. With the illustrations that follow as reference, you will have achance todevelopyourownstyleof finishing. It hasoftenbeen said that it ismuch easier to learn where to begin than it is to learn when to stop. A verycommonmistakeistooverdraw.Youmayfindthatyouhavethistendencyuntilyourhandbecomesfreeandyourstrokebecomeseasy.For the student thepageswhich followcontainmodels that canbeused for

practice,andtheprofessionalartistwillfindthesepagesahelpfulsourceinhisnever-endingquestfortypesoffaces.Don’tstopwiththesemodels,though,fortherewillbemanyopportunitiesin

yourdailyroutineforyoutoobservefacesfromeverywalkoflife.Youwillfindthatintimeyourhandwillfollowyoureye;thatyouwillhaveagoodcommandofthematerialatyourdisposal.Asyouproceedinyourstudyofart,buildonwhatyoualreadyknow.Ifyou

have learned the importance of proportions in this study of heads then you’llknowhowimportantitwillbeineveryphaseofart.Develop good practice habits at the start and they will carry through your

entirestudyofart.

THEPORTRAIT

Construction plays the leading role in portraiture. To achieve the likenessnecessaryforagoodportrait,youmustmaintain theproperrelationofeachofthepartsoftheheadtooneanother.It’sacommonfaultamongstudentstogivetoomuchattentiontothemouthoreyesandthentolosesightofthewhole.Itisquiteoftentruethatthepositionofthefeatureismoreimportantthanthedetailsofthefeatureitself.Thisisparticularlytrueoftheeyes.To portray facial expression is the most difficult task in portraiture. The

modelingoftheeyesandmouthisofutmostimportance,forthisiswherefacialexpressionisdetermined.Inthetermmouthweincludethewholelowerpartoftheface—thechin,thejawandtheupperandlowerlips.Construction has been stressed throughout this study of heads, because in

portraitureitisofprimeimportance.Remember,therearenotwoheadsalike.Aportraitisthestudyofoneface,anditwouldbemostembarrassingtofindthatyour portrait resembled another. Though an artist will express his ownpersonalitythroughhismedium,hemustaccentuatethecharacterofhissubjecttogainsuccessasaportraitartist.Pages 62 to 65 show the several steps in drawing a portrait frommodel to

finishedpicture.

The strong light on the lower heads, coming from only one direction, clearlydefines theseparateplanesof theheads.Beginnersshould lightasubject fromonedirectiononly.

Thestrongest lighton thecenterheadcomesfromsideandback,andhelps todefinethemodelandgiveitform.

The lighting on both these heads comes almost directly from the front andslightlyfromabove.

Anexampleofsmudgingwiththefingersandoflayingonthecharcoaldirectly.Thehighlightsareachievedbytheuseofkneadedrubber.

The lighting on the top and left heads is head-on—directly in front of thesubject. Also there is high key lighting, as contrasted with low key on theoppositepage.Highkeymeansthatthegeneraltoneofthevaluesishigh—thatis,light.

Thelightcomessolelyfromoneside.Theonlylightontheleftsideofthefaceisreflectedlight.

The teetharemerely indicated insteadofbeingdrawn.Thishelps tomake thesmilethecenterofinterest.

Herewe see how the head is put to definite commercial use.The light comesfrombelow.This isdonedeliberately inorder to create aweirdormysteriouseffect, and is standard practice in drawingmagicians and others skilled in theoccultarts.

Forthepresentweareconcernedonlywiththeheadandface.Youhavenoticedthatmanyofthesedrawingsshowthehand,butdisregardthisnow,becauseinPartTwo there is a comprehensive studyofhands.Whenyouhavecompletedthisstudy,itmaybewelltoreturntotheseportraitsandusethehandsasmodelsforadditionalpractice.Thesethreefacesmakeaninterestingstudyofcontrastsinexpression.

Veryeffectiveuseofbacklighting—thelightcomesfromthebackandsideofthesubjectoneachofthesepagesandhelpstoprojectthefeelingoftheoutdooratmosphere.

Thesweepofthehat, thehatitself, theeyes,eyebrow,themouth—allpointinthegeneraldirectionoftheglassofbeer,whichistheeffectdesired.

Expression can set the mood of a drawing. The greatest effect in obtainingexpressioncanbeachievedbyskillfulportrayalof theeyesandthemouthandthehands.

Inthefirststage,wearelayingouttheplanoftheface.Don’texpecttobeabletodrawafaceasdirectlyandaccuratelyasthisforsometime.Youwillprobablyhave to feelaround foryour lines.Whenyouare satisfied that theproportionsarecorrect,proceedtothesecondstagewhichconsistsofmassinginvalues.Inthethirdstageweputinoutdarkestaccents.Atthispointweconcernourselveswith the character and the likeness of the subject, having already solved theproblemsofproportionandform.

Inagroupdrawingtheartistmustbecarefultoseethatallthefiguresreflectthesamesourceoflight.Notehowthelighthits thewomanandthemanfromtheside,andtheboymoreformtheback,becauseofthedifferenceinpositions.

COOLPALETTE

Thepredominantfeatureofthispaintingistheivoryflesh.Thecolorsaresubdued and subtle, which makes them refreshing. This painting is anexcellentexampleofacoolpalette.Thelightingisfrombehindthefigure;thisshowsinthesunlighteffectonthehairandback.Thelongsmoothlineofthelegestablishesthecompositionandrhythm.

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PARTTWO

HANDSANDFEET

MTHEHANDS

OST versatile implement known to man is the hand, and the artistshould, therefore, givemuch care to its drawing. The character of the

hand expresses emotion and action. It has great flexibility and is capable ofassuming many positions. When drawing the hand the artist should considerthesepoints:Whatarethehandsdoing?Aretheyrelaxed?Arethefingersflexedor extendedand towhatdegree? If there is action,whatkindof action and towhatdegree?Andwhichoftheinfinitevarietyoftypesdoesthehandfit?

There are certain distinguishing features found among different races ofpeople, not only in color but in size and shape. Occupation is perhaps thegreatestsingleinfluenceinthedevelopmentofhands.Race,sexandagearealsoinfluencingfactors.Thefemalehandisproportionatelysmallerthanthatofthemaleandis,asa

rule, easily distinguished. After adolescence the hand begins to developcharacter,aprocess thatcontinuesasapersonages.Fromthesmooth,unlinedhandof the infant, to the gnarled,wrinkled hand of the aged, the changes areeasilyseen.Yearsofstudyandpracticehavegivenstrengthandagilitytothehandofthe

musician.Practicallyeverynuanceofthemusicisinterpretedbytheconductorthroughtheactionofhishands.Theartistcanaddgreatlytohisknowledgebyobserving the smooth flowing movements of the hands of the conductor andmusiciansatasymphonyconcert.A surgeon also develops strength and agility in his hands. The popular

conceptionofamusicianorsurgeon’shandisthatthefingersarelongandslim.Shouldtheartistbecalledontocreatethesehandsforanillustrationheshouldfollow this popular conception. When, however, he portrays a particularmusicianorsurgeon,theartistmustdrawthehandasitis,whetherlongorshort,slimorstubby.Insharpcontrasttothistypeofhandsarethoseofthelaborer.Hardworkand

continualexposuretotheelementshavegiventhelaboreramuscular,calloused

hand. Such laborers as longshoremen, lumberjacks and farmers are easilydistinguished by theweatherbeaten, scarred appearance of their hands.Greaseanddirtoftenworksofarintotheporesthattheybecomeapartofthehands.Itisalwaysadvisabletousealivemodelwhendrawingthehands,butwhen

nomodelisavailablewewouldsuggestasmallmirroronyourdrawingtabletoreflect any pose of your own hand. Since the hand is not symmetrical, everypositionbecomesanewconstructionproblem.It is the artist’s job toportray in thehandsofhis subjecthisoccupation, as

well as race, sex and age. The artist’s approach to the drawing of hands isbasically a problem of anatomy, because through anatomy he can get a betterconceptionofthemovementsofthehand.Thehandismadeupofthreesetsofbones:thecarpals(orwrist)bones, the

metacarpals(thebonesthatcomprisethehandproper),andthephalanges(whichformthefingersandthumb).Thehandcontainstwenty-sevenbonesandsixteenmovable joints which give it great flexibility. Because of this flexibility theplanesof thehandmayarrange themselves invaryingways.Thisdiffers fromtheheadwheretheplanesarefundamentallyfixed.Thereareeightcarpalbonesthroughwhichpassagroupoftendonsfromthe

musclesoftheforearm.Thesecontroltheflexingofthewristandfingers.Therearefivemetacarpals,oneforeachfingerandoneforthethumb.Theseformthebodyofthehand.Theendsofthemetacarpalsareexposedwhenafistismade,andthephalangesfitoverthem,formingwhatareknownastheknuckles.The thumb carpal and its metacarpal are joined in such a way as to give

maximummovementtothethumb.Thismobilityofthethumbhasbeenastrongfactorinhumandevelopmentforithasgivenmanthegreatestpossibleuseofhishands.Wherethecarpaljoinsthemetacarpals,onthebackofthehand,thereisamarkedprominence.Thearchofthewristisformedwheretheseplaneschange.

Eachfinger,withtheexceptionofthethumb,hasthreephalanges.Thethumbhasonlytwo.Thephalangestaperdowntowardthelowerend,andattheendofeach segment there is a groove into which fits the next segment. The lastsegmenttakesontheformofanarrowheadwhichprovidesforthenail.Thelasttwojointshaveonlyahingemotion,but theknuckle jointprovidesbothhingeandlateralaction.Consider the hand as being in three parts: fingers, palm andwrist. It is the

jointatthewristwhichpermitsustoturnourhandsinalldirections.Thiswristaction accounts for the graceful appearance of the hand, no matter what theposition.

Themusclesthatflexandextendthefingersandthethumbarelodgedintheforearm but there are a number of smaller muscles that permit movementbetweenthefingers.Thesemusclesarefoundprimarilyonthepalmandbetweenthemetacarpalbonesofthefingers.Asyoucansee,theconstructionofthehanddepends greatly on the bone structure, especially from the back view.On thepalmside, themusclesandskinpads tend toconceal thebones.Artistsshouldbecomefamiliarwiththeactionofeachofthepartsofthehand,thoughitisnotnecessarytogotoofarintothetechnicaldetails.

It isnecessary tosimplify themassesof thehandasmuchaspossiblewhenblocking it in. After it has been blocked in, we concern ourselves with theseparatefingers,knuckles,fingernailsandothersmallparts.

This model of shaking hands is an excellent rendering of one of the mostdifficultdrawingassignments.Itwillservemanytimesasareadymodel.

It isnecessary topose thehandwell and toview it from theproperangle, foreventhebestdrawnhand,viewedfromapoorangle,willlookbadly.Sometimes the importance of the position of the hands is overlooked. The

handsplayanimportantpartintheover-allattitudeofthefigure;forinstance,anintensefacialexpressioncombinedwithrelaxedhandswouldbeunconvincing.Conversely, a relaxed and complacent facial expression cannot be combinedwithtensehands.Handsareextremelyimportantinconveyingthestory.Manyagooddrawinghasbeen ruinedbypoorhands.Handsaredifficult todraw,butpersevere,forgoodhandsarethehallmarkofthegooddraftsman.

THEFOOT

THEFOOT

Althoughtheartistisseldomcalledupontodrawtheunshodfoot,heshouldhave a knowledge of basic construction. The foot supports the weight of thebodybyanarchstartingattheheelandendingatthepadbehindthetoes.Thearch isprominentwhenviewed from the inside,but the footappears flat fromtheoutside.Thefemalefootisproportionatelysmallerandmorearchedthanthatofthemale.For better understanding, we shall consider the foot as detached from the

figure, but it is usually drawn in relation to it. The bone structure should becarefully studied for it is of primary importance to understand this structurethoroughly.The skeleton of the foot, like that of the hand, ismade up of three sets of

bones: tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges. There are seven tarsals, commonlyreferredtoastheanklebones,whichcomprisethebackhalfofthelengthofthefoot.Thefivemetatarsalsconnectthebonesofthetoestothetarsals.Eachofthetoeshasthreephalanges,withtheexceptionofthebigtoewhichhasonlytwo.Thebonesattheanklearesojoinedastopermitfreeactionandsupport.The

talus,oranklebone, isprovidedwithacurvedsurfacewhichfits intothenotchbetweentheinnerandoutermalleoli.Undertheankleboneprojectstheheelbonewhichsupportstheweightofthebodyatthebackandformsoneofthepillarsofthearchofthefoot.Infrontofthetalusaregroupedtheothertarsals.Thetarsalsjointhefivemetatarsalsandformthearchofthefoot.Thephalangesarenotasimportant to the foot as theyare to thehands, for theycomprisehalf the totallengthofthehandsbutmuchlessinthefoot.Thetarsalsbeartheweightofthebody.Inanormalpositionthefootisatrightanglestotheaxisoftheankle.Goodfigurescanberuinedbybadfeet.Toooftenthefeetdonotappeartobe

planted on the ground, but instead, the body seems to be suspended from theceiling and to have no substantial connection with the ground. The mostimportantpartofdrawinggoodfeetistogettheperspectivecorrect.

Attopleftisapairofwoman’sshoesasoneactuallyseesthem;attoprightisshown themodified footwhich is generally drawnwhendaintiness is desired.Belowaresuccessfulexamplesofdifferentiatingbetweentherightandleftfoot.Acommonfaultistoputtwoleftortworightfeetonaperson.

PARTTHREE

FIGUREDRAWING

TFIGUREDRAWING

HERE aremany opportunities for the artist adept at drawing the humanfigure, and figure drawing is one of the most interesting fields of art

becauseitofferssuchgreatvarietyofsubjectsandaction.Asaknowledgeofthenudebodyisfundamentalinthestudyofbothdrapedandundrapedfigures,theartistwhocannotproperlyconstructthehumanfigureislimitedtoanarrowfieldintheworldofcommercialandfinearts.

Thehumanbody ismadeofmaterialswhicharesoftandpliable,elasticyetsturdyanddurable,and it iscapableofperformingmyriadandcomplex tasks.Theartistmaybecalledontodrawthebodyinanypositionandperforminganyofacountlessnumberoftasks.Whenyouconsider thehundredsof separatepartswhichcomprise thebody

yourealizejusthowcomplicatedastructureitis.Althoughitisn’tnecessaryfortheartisttohaveathoroughknowledgeofalltheseparts,itisimportantforhimtounderstand the effect of theseparts on thewhole.There aremore than fivehundred muscles in the body, but many of them are hidden and have noparticular effect on the surface ; hence the artist need familiarizehimselfwithonlyasmallnumberofthem.Thebonestructure,however,mustbethoroughlyunderstood,althoughtheartistcansimplifythisstudybydividingthesometwohundredbonesintogroups.Correctproportions,rhythmandbalancearethekeystogoodfiguredrawing.

Useverylightguidelinestoestablishthegeneralproportions.Nextoutlinetheheadbyusinganoval.Itisimportanttotracethelinesofthehairforitisalmostimpossible to use the oval effectively without the hair outline as a guide forover-allproportions.Havingdrawnthehead,youhaveoneunitforcomparison.Thepopularbeliefthattheadultmalefigureiseightheadshighistrueonlyof

theaveragefigure.Althoughthisstandardofmeasurementisusefulforpracticepurposes,youwill findwhendrawinganactualmodel that the figuremayrunanywhere from six and one-half to eight and one-half heads high.Hence youshouldnotconsidertheeight-headfigureasanunvaryingstandardbutmerelyas

a guide. In fashion illustrating the figure is usually drawn one-half to three-fourthsheadstallerthantheeight-headstandard.Tolearntorecognizegoodproportionswilltakeagreatdealofpractice,but

in time you will develop a sense of proportion which will enable you to tellunerringlywhenyourfigureiscorrect.An importantproblem inproportionarises from thedifferencesbetween the

male and female body. The breasts and hair are the most noticeable outwarddistinguishingfeaturesbuttherearemanyotherbasicdifferences.Theskeletonof themale has a larger rib cage and the female has a proportionately largerpelvis.Thesedifferencesaccount for thewidershouldersandnarrowerhipsofthemale,andthelowerbuttocks,longerwaistandwiderhipsofthefemale.Thefemalefigureisproportionatelysmallerthanthemale,withtheexceptionofthethighsandbuttocks.Herethefemaleislargerandstronger,adaptedbynaturetotheburdensofchildbirth.Thebonesofthemalearelargerandhenceaffectthecontourofthebodymorethaninthefemale.Thejawofthefemaleislessdevelopedandtheneckmoreslender;thehands

smallerandmoredelicate; themuscles, ingeneral, lessprominent.The femalehas smaller ankles and wrists and proportionately a smaller and more archedfoot.Keep these differences in mind as you study figure drawing, for the

commercial art markets demand that the men be very masculine figures. Thefemale figure,on thecontrary, isusuallydrawn ina slightlydistortedmanner,wideningtheshouldersandlengtheningthelegstoattaintheeffectofslimness.Balance is especially importantwhen the figure is in action.Balance is the

result of correct distribution of weight when the figure is not supported byvisiblemeans. In themoving figure thecenterofbalance is inmotionand theartistmust be careful in distributing theweight, because an unbalanced figuremakesaverydisturbingpicture.Itshouldalwaysberememberedthatthehumanfigure issymmetrical, regardlessof theposition itassumes inaction,andfromanyview.Equallyimportantistherhythmofthehumanfigureinmotion,forthisisthe

artist’swayofexpressingfeelingwithouttheuseofwords.Insportsyouoftenmakereferencetofollowthroughwhichisthecontinuationofastrokeorswingto its final position. The artist must express this follow through by giving afigurethesweepthat leaves theobserverwith thefeelingofcontinuedmotion.Thisisrhythm.Youcan,whendrawing the figure,obtainagoodknowledgeofanatomyby

followingasimplerule.Whenyoudrawalinewhichchangesdirectionyouare,unconsciouslyperhaps,followingastructureofmuscle,tendonorbone.Evenif

youdonotknowthenameof thismuscle, tendonorbone,carefulobservationwill help you to acquire a bitmore of anatomical knowledge. Sometimes youwillwishtominimizetheeffectsoftheinnerstructureandsometimesyouwillwanttoemphasizethem.Whenlayingoutthefiguredonotallowalargeareatoremain undefined. In other words, if you are drawing the torso it is well toindicatethebreastorpectoralmuscleatonce.Ifyouaredrawingtheabdomen,markthepositionofthenavel.Alargeareaoralonglineishardertodefinethanasmallareaorashortline.Whendrawinganypartofthebody,keepinminditsrelationtothewholeortoitsadjoiningparts.Acommonfaultistobecomesointerested in anatomy thatwhen indicating the inner structureof thebodyyouwill give the impression that the bones protrude through the skin. Anatomyshouldbeobservedandonlyemphasizedwhenthereisajustificationforit.Whenyou areworking on your drawingput your pencil downoccasionally

and take time to study themodel. Invariably, by taking time to compare yourdrawingwith themodel, youwill be able to find yourmistakes.Don’t try tocomplete thewholefigureand thenendeavor tocorrectyourmistakes.Bear inmind that an artist’s skill is in direct ratio to his insistence on observing anddrawing as accurately as possible. The amount of time which you use inobservationwill prove to have beenwell spentwhen you take your pencil inhandandstarttowork.Constructthehumanfigureasaccuratelyasanengineerwouldconstructabridge.After youhave acquired reasonable skill in outline, proportion and shading,

youwill find thatyouwillmake rapidprogressbyconcentratingononesmallpartofthebody,suchasthetorso,theshoulder,thearmorleg,anddrawingthispartrepeatedlyuntilyoureallycandothisasaprofessionaldoes.Thiswillgiveyouamasteryofthebasicprinciplesandtechniqueswhichyouwillbesurprisedtodiscoverwillenableyoutodrawequallywellanyotherpartofthebodywithonlyalittlepractice.Whendrawing inblackandwhiteyou shouldnot confuse colorwithvalue.

Colorishue—thatparticularpartofthespectrumwhichincludesred,blue,greenand others. This is an example: a man’s lips have a different color than thesurroundingskin,butthevalueofeachisthesame.Your ability to draw good likenesses depends primarily on your powers of

observationandonyourabilitytomakeyourhandputdownonpaperwhatyouhave observed. Many people believe that they have no talent for drawing.Actually,however,nearlyeveryone’shandiscapableofputtingdownaccuratedetail. It is theartist’s trainedvisionandpowersofobservationwhichmake itpossibleforhishandtodevelophisdrawingtotheprofessionalstandard.

Illustratedaboveare thethreeprincipalbonemassesof thebody; theskull, ribcage, and the pelvis. As there are no bone masses between the rib cage andpelvis,withtheexceptionofthespinalcolumn,powerfulmusclesarenecessaryto sustain the body. You can observe, from these drawings, how the skeletalformaffectsthesurfaceofthebody.Noteinthethirdfigurethattheunderlyingmuscle and bone are indicated lightly in order not to give the impression thattheyarecomingthroughtheskin.Everylinechangeontheoutersurfacedenotesachangeindirectionofbone,muscle,orcartilage.

Averygoodknowledgeof anatomycanbeobtainedwhiledrawing the figurewithoutactuallyhavinglearnedthenamesof themuscles, tendonsorbones. Ifyouobservewhatishappeningandnoticethechangeinthedirectionoftheline,youwill be observing the action of anatomy. Each change of line indicates adifferentmuscle,boneortendon.

Acomprehensivestudyofthemusclesisnotnecessaryforanartist.Themusclesconnect themainpartsof thebodyandopposeoneanother fromfront tobackand from top to bottom. Between the two bone masses, the rib cage and thepelvis,arepowerfulmuscles thatareneeded tohold thebodyerect.Theyalsocontrol the bending of the spinal column. In front of the body is a band ofmusclewhichformsthecenterplane.Whenthesemusclescontract, theyacttobend the trunkforward.Justbelowandbordering thesideof thismassare theobliquemuscles.Indrawingthefigurethesemusclesformawelldefinedridge.Therearetwolargemusclesoriginatingonthetrunkwhichconnectwiththe

armbone. These are the dominant muscles of the back and chest. The wingshapedmuscleswhichoccupy theupper part of the back, neck, and shouldersandspreadoutovertheback,arethetrapezii.Theirstreamlinedesigngivestheimpressionofmovement.Someofthemuscles,startingfromthetrunk,haveanindirectactiononthearmsthroughtheirconnectiontotheshouldergirdle,whileothershave adirect actionon themovementof the arms.The important thingfromtheartist’sviewpoint, is theeffect themuscleshaveontheoutersurface.Quite often the artist will become too interested in the anatomy and over-accentuatethemuscles.Musclesshouldbetreatedwithalighttouch;emphasize

themusclesonlywhenreallynecessary.

Alwaysobservetheslantfromtheelbowsinbothdirections.Thisslantfromtheelbowtotheshoulderandfromtheelbowtothehandisvitallyimportant.Note,too, the slant from the knee in both directions. It is a common mistake indrawingthearmsandlegstolosetheirproportionsinrelationtotherestofthefigure.

Here are shown the bones which comprise the framework of the arm. Thetriangularshapedbone,orscapula,fitsoverthecurveoftheribcageandallowsforfreemovementoftheupperarm.Thehumerus,orarmbone,fitslooselyintothe scapula and forms the jointof the shoulder. It is a strong influenceon theshapeofthearm.Theforearmismadeupoftwobones,theulnaandtheradius.Theulnaandthehumerusformthehingeattheelbowjoint.Theradiushaslittleto dowith the bending of the elbow but has great effect on the action of thewrist. It connects with the carpal bones in such a way as to give freedom ofmovementtothewrist.

Thelongestandstrongestboneinthebodyisthethighbone.Theforwardcurvedeterminesthearchofthethigh.Theheadofthethighbonejoinsthepelvis.Thelegiscomprisedoftwobones,thetibiaandthefibula.Thetibia,orshinbone,joinsthethighboneattheknee.Thefibularunsalongtheoutersideofthetibia.Thereare ridges runningdown theboneonwhich themuscles firmlyconnect.Thekneecap,technicallycalledthepatella,isacupshapedboneconnectingthethighmusclesandthetibia.

Ontheoutersideofthethightowardthefrontarethemuscleswhoseactionstraightens the leg.Themuscles thatflex the legare locatedin thebackof thethigh. They are among themuscles called the flexors. There are a number ofother muscles in the leg but it is not necessary to name them. Observe thelocationofthemusclesandtheirrelationtothebonestructure.Takenoteoftheireffectontheoutersurface.Noneofthebonesinthehumanbodyisperfectlystraight.Iftheboneisdrawn

perfectly straight itwill appear rigid and stiff. It is the curvature of the boneswhichmakethefigurelookalive,lendingitrhythmandaction.

Amannikinishandybutnotabsolutelynecessary.Thebestmodels,ofcourse,arelivingfigures.

Viewedfromabove.

BLONDE

Color, in itself abstract, isusedhere incomplementary shadings tobringouttheessentialbeautyoftheblondetype.Thevariousshadingsofblueinthe background suggest the blue in flesh tones which is so typical ofblondes. Cross lighting of equal power was used to achieve the desiredeffect. Color is not to be used for color’s sake, but only to establish themoodandlifelikeprojectionofthemodel.

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Blocking in the figure.Anatomy treated as geometric shapes.Note ellipses atnipples.

Ontheleftisdrawnthebasiclineofaction.Notehowthewholefigurefollowsthegeneralflowofthisline.Notethattheeyesandthenoseappeartobeonthesamelevelonaccountoftheunusualperspective.Notealsothatallthelinesofthefigureareinrhythmwiththisbasicline.

Someoftheimportantconstructionlinesareshowntotheleftofthefigure.Thefigure itselfhasa twistofunusualdegree,showingthegreatextent towhichahumanbodycanbeturnedortwisted.

Theanatomyof the figure is sharplydefined in thisdrawingbya strong lightfromtwosides.

Thehighkeylightingilluminatesthefiguresobrightlythattherearealmostnoshadows. Hence this is almost pure outline drawing. It requires great skill toshowformsoclearlywiththistypeoflightingandofdrawing.

Thesetwofiguresareinthesamehighkeyasthoseonpage156.

Hereweseehowmucheasieritistoshowtheformwiththistypeoflight.

Themediumonthispageispenandinkandontheoppositepagepenandinksupplementedbywash.Thesearethemostdifficult techniquesforthedrawingofnudes.

Thisisacombinationoftransparentandopaquewash.

SPORTSANDGAMES

Athleticactivitiesplayanincreasingroleinourdailylife,andtheartistmustbepreparedtodrawpeopleparticipatinginthevarioussports.Thefollowingpagesshow the male and female figure in some of the poses so common to thesesports.Noteparticularlytheplayofmusclesandthebodypositions.Manyoftheseposesareexamplesofunusualpositions.Theaverageobserver

associates certain stereotypedposeswith thepositions and stances common tohisfavoritesport.Thisshouldstimulate theartist tostriveforsomethingnoveland unusual. It is recommended that the artist be prepared to make roughsketches when he attends sporting events. He should complete these frommemory in his studio.Try to capture the action andmovement of the athleteswithafewquicklines.Allofthedrawingsinthisgroupareinpencilandmostofthemareroughlyorlightlysketched.

Thisisagoodexampleofblockinginmasses.

PARTFOUR

THEDRAPEDFIGURE

KTHEDRAPEDFIGURE

NOWLEDGE of the nude human form is fundamental in the study ofdraped figures.Drapery is so closely related to the figure that it can be

considered a part of your study of anatomy. The primary problem is still thedrawingof the figure regardlessofhowtheartist isasked toclothe the figure.Thedrawingoftheclothedfigureismerelyanelaborationofdrawingthenude,andthetwoshouldbedonesimultaneously.

Anyclothingthatyoumaywearisconsidereddrapery,butdraperyapartfromthedrapedfigureisastudyinitself.Alldraperyhasonethingincommon;itisheld at some point and follows the form that is supporting it. Wherever thisdrapery comes in contact with its point of support, the folds will changedirectionsandradiatefromthispoint.Thedirectionofthesefoldsisinfluencedbyeverymovementofthebody;itiscontinuallychanging.Drapery,unlesshangingfree,fallsintofoldsandwrinkles.Foldsstartatsome

point of support such as the shoulder and hip and drop to the next point ofsupport,orifnoobjectinterferes,fallstraightdown.Points of stress canbe causedby a bent elbowor knee.Take, for example,

bendingtheelbow;thiscausesastresswherethematerial is tightlydrawn.Onthe opposite side of this point of stress thematerial forms a series of folds invaryingpatterns.Thedetailatstresspointsvarieswitheachindividualandeachmaterial.Certain lighter weight and crisper materials wrinkle instead of falling into

folds.Theywillradiatefromapointofstress,asinthebuttonsofashirtorcoat,depending on thematerial. Theywill form long lineswhen stretched betweentwopointsofstress.Carefulattentionshouldbegiventothedrawingofwrinklesandfoldsfortheygivenaturalnesstodrapery.Thickwoolenswillfallintofullroundfolds.Satinsandbrocadesarestiffand

break more sharply at the folds but are not likely to have fine wrinkles.Unstarched cottons andmany of the newer fabrics are obviouslymore pliableandsofterandclingmorecloselytothebody.Thewrinklesthatforminstarched

materials, suchasmen’s shirtsorcottondresses, areeasilydefinable,while incontrast silkwill fall intomany elusivewrinkles. It is important to rememberthateachmaterialhasitsownqualitiesandcharacter,andmustbedrawnsothatitretainsthischaracter.Indrawingdrapery,firstselecttheessential—theimportant—folds,noticing

wherethesefoldsstart.Asarule,trytoeliminateeverysmallfoldthatyoucan.Putinonlythosethatarenecessarytocreatetheeffectofthematerial’stexture.Folds are usually drawn quickly and carelessly, but actually folds have asdefinite adrawingconstructionas themusclesof thebody.On the sideof thefold reflecting the light we have a soft rounded effect. This light side isdevelopedintoadeep,well-definedshadowontheoppositeside.Theshadowedsideis,ofcourse,awayfromthelight.Eachshadowaffectsthenextlightplane.To obtain themost realistic results in reproducing the variousmaterials the

artistmustchoosehismediumcarefully.Charcoalisverygoodforreproducingmaterials thathavefull, roundfolds. Insatinsandbrocades theartistmaybestuse pen and ink orwash drawing, giving particular attention to the fine lightsandshadowswhichwillgivethesheeneffectofthefabric.Justafriendlywordofadvicewhendealingwithdrapery.Neverputsomuch

attentiononthedraperythatyoulosesightoftheunderlyingform.Simplicityinyourhandlingofdraperyisthebestguide.

On this and the following pages are illustrations of those stress points mostfrequentlyencountered.Inyourstudyofdraperyyoucanuseyourselfasamodeltoobservetheeffectsofthesestresspointswhenvariouspositionsandattitudesareassumed.Do not attempt to draw every fold and wrinkle which you see, but give

particular attention to the points of stress and their effect on the drape. Eachpointofstressiscomplementarytothedrapeontheoppositeside.Theshapeofthefigureismostprominentatthepointsofstress.

WARMKEY

Unusual placementof thehead adds interest to this reclining figure.Theupraisedlegcomplementstheheadandaddsmateriallytothecompositionof the painting. The lighting was directly overhead in order to hold theshadowstoaminimum.Thepillowsarecenteredtoavoidleadingtheeyeawayfromthecentral figureof thenude.Theentirepainting isdone inawarmkeywhichestablishesitsmood.

(Seecolorinsertafterpage208.)

Thedrawingof this lady,dressedinsuchexcellent taste, isreproducedhere toshowhowtoattainanumberofresults.Noteparticularlythevarietyoftextilesincluding a filmyveil, felt (the hat), camel’s hair cloth (the coat), leather (thehandbag),kid(thegloves),silk(thecuffs).Alsoshowninfinishedformarethesupportandstresspointsandthefoldsandwrinklescreatedbythem.

PARTFIVE

PERSPECTIVE

PPERSPECTIVE

ICTURE an artist standing on a railroad track looking at endless lines ofrails.Therails runparallelbutappear tobeconverging towardapointon

thehorizon.Ifhedrawsthisscenehewillshowwhathesees,notwhatheknowsistrue.Thisisperspective!Twomen,bothsixfeettall,standfiftyfeetapart.Theartistknows thesemenare thesameheight,yet themanstandingfartherawayfromtheartistappearsshortertohim.Asthisishowheseesthem,thisishowhemustdrawthem.Thisisperspective.

Perspective is thepresentationon a flat surfaceof objects as they appear atspecifieddistancesfromtheeye.Parallel lines converge to a vanishing point on the horizon. Very often the

artist will portray two or more sets of parallel lines running in differentdirections.Everysetofparallellineshasitsownvanishingpoint,andthelinesmustconverge,howeverslightly,towardit.Thedegreeofconvergencedependsonthedistancetheartistisattemptingtodepict.As you increase the distance of an object from the eye the object seems to

growsmaller.Onlywhenanobject is seen inanuprightpositiondo itsheightandwidthappearintrueproportion.If,forexample,youtiltorturnabookawayfrom an upright position the relationship of height and width changes. Thisapparentchangeiscalledforeshortening.Thehorizonis the linewhereearthandskymeet.Thischangesaswemove

towardorawayfromagivenplace.Atmosphericconditionsplayagreatpartinlocatingthehorizon.Viewedfromagivenpoint, thehorizonmightbethreeorfour miles away on a clear day, but only a mile away on a cloudy day. Thehorizonwillalsobeaffectedbytheheightatwhichtheobserverisstanding.Alookoutpostedonthetopmostpartofashipcouldpossiblyseeanobjectonthehorizontwentymilesaway,whereasthisobjectcouldnotbeseenfromalowerposition. Itmustbe remembered that theeye level linedictates thepositionofthehorizon.Theartistmustestablishhispictureplaneandbuildhisperspectivearoundit.

Thepictureplane is theverticalplane imaginedby theartistasbeingbetweenhimandhisobject.Thisplanerunsparalleltothehorizonandperpendiculartothe earth’s surface. Accurately depicting objects on the picture plane as theyappeartotheartistenableshimtoachieveproperperspective.Your best example of a good picture plane would be to stand behind a

window.Use thewindow as a frame for your picture. If you are close to thewindow, one object may be primary, with the others blending into thebackgroundintheirproperperspective.Movebackfromthewindow,andyourprimaryobject ismorepredominant,whilemuchofyourbackgroundhasbeenlost.Notethechangeinperspective.Theartistmustestablishastationarypointfrom which to observe his object. Any change in this stationary point cancompletelyalterthesizeandshapeofhisprincipaltheme,whichwill,ofcourse,change his perspective. Most objects will necessitate the use of two or morevanishing points. Each vanishing point will be measured from the stationarypoint.Togetabetterideaofperspective,placesomeobject,suchasabookorbox,

ateyelevelaboutfivefeetaway.Holdapencilatarm’slengthandmeasuretheheightandwidthoftheobject,turningthepencilfromverticaltohorizontalforthewidthmeasurement.Nowtiltorturnthebookslightly,andmeasureitagainwith the pencil. Note the differences in height and width. If the book wasoriginallyplacedwiththefrontsurfacetowardyou,afterturningitwillappeartobeonlyabouttwo-thirdsaswide.Thispencilmeasurementis invaluabletotheartistandshouldbepracticed. Itwillbemucheasier toobtain trueperspectivebyusingthissimplemethod.

Thecurvatureoftheearthdeterminesthedistancewecansee.

Accuracy ismost important in perspective drawing, as small errors will bemagnifiedsomuchthatthecompletedpicturewillhaveadistortedappearance.Softpencilorcharcoalshouldbeusedtoestablishyourvanishingpointsforallparallellines,andiferasuresareneededtheywillnotmarthepaper.Theartistshould set up a perspective plan on his first rough sketch and project hismeasuringandvanishingpointscarefully.Thiswillpreventdistortionandgiveamorelifelikeaspecttothedrawing.Withtimeandpracticeperspectivewillbecomesecondnature.Asinstudying

proportions,youwilldowelltodevelopasixthsensethatwilltellyouwhenyouhaveachievedinyourpicturetheeffectofgoodperspective.

An example of one point perspective. The vanishing point is directly in thecenter.Whentheartistchangeshisstationpoint,thevanishingpointwillchange.Heshouldfindthemostadvantageouspointofviewwiththecompositionofhispictureinmind.

After locating the vanishing points, place a pin or thumb tack on each point.Usingthemaspivots,placetheteesquareorstraightedgeonavanishingpoint.Thissimplemethodwillfacilitateyourhandlingofperspective.

Onepointperspective.

Hereisapictorialexampleofthepictureplane.Thisimaginarysurface,paralleltothehorizonandperpendiculartothesurfaceoftheearth,showstheobjectsastheyappeartotheobserverfromhisstationpoint.

Hereisshowntheapplicationoftheellipse.Thefurtheraboveortheeyelevel,thewidertheellipse.

Inthelowerdrawingthehorizonisbelowthegroundlevel.

Projectingfromplan(upper).Projectingfrommeasuringpoint(lower).

Thebasicpurposeofperspectiveistogivetheillusionofdepth.Objectsappearsmaller as they recede from the eye.All parallel lines converge to a commonpointonthehorizonline,referredtoasthevanishingpoint.Inordertofindthehalf-waypointinaplanethatrecedesfromtheeye,draw

diagonallinesfromeachcorner.Theselinesintersectatthevisualcenteroftheplane.

Acircle,whenseeninperspective,becomesanellipse.Theshapeofanellipsechangesaccordingtothepositionfromwhichitisviewed.

Thetableatthetopisapoorchoicefromthedisplaystandpointasitdoesn’ttakefulladvantageoftheobjectsonthetable.Fromthiseyelevelthetableseemstotowerabovetheviewer.Below,theobjectsonthetableareproperlydisplayed.Agoodgeneral rule is toplace theeye levelwhere itwouldnormallybeforapersonofaverageheight.

Anexampleofthreepointperspective.Theangleatwhichthepictureisviewedplaces two of the vanishing points outside the limits of the picture. The linesdescending from the telegraphpoles gradually convergebeyond thebottomofthedrawing.

Threepointperspective.

Onepointperspectiveappliedtoaninterior.Thisisadiagrammaticdrawinginwhichalllinesareparallel.Inreality,itisdoubtfulifaroomwouldhavesuchanarrangement.Usually,multiplevanishingpointswouldoccur.

Anexcellentexampleoftheuseofonevanishingpoint.Eventhoughtherearenostraightlinesinthepicture,alltheelementspointtoonevanishingpoint.

Apracticalapplicationofloweye-levelperspectiveinwhichasinglevanishingpointisused.

An application of one point perspective in a city scene. Note that all parallellinesconvergetowardonecommonvanishingpoint.

Hereistheapplicationofperspectivetoobjectswhicharenotordinarilythoughtofasbeingaffectedbyperspective.The rulesofperspectivearewithusat alltimes,regardlessofwhatwedraw.

Agoodexampleoftwopointperspective.Actually,weseeonlyonevanishingpoint; the second vanishing point comes at the convergence of the rails andtelephone wires. All parallel lines meet at a common vanishing point on thehorizon.

Hereareshownthecubeandcylinderinone,twoandthreepointperspectives.Although not specifically labeled in the drawings of the cylinder, VanishingPoints1,2and3inthetwoandthreepointperspectivesareinthesamerelativepositions as in the drawings of the cube. The heavy line at the top in eachdrawingrepresentstheeyelevel.

Hereweseehowapicturemightinvolveaninfinitenumberofvanishingpointshavingmorethanonehorizon.Allparallellinesconvergetowardtheirparticularvanishingpoint.

Themajoraxisoftheellipseisalways90degreesfromtheshaftaroundwhichitrevolves,regardlessofthestationpoint.Averyhandytoolforquicklydrawingellipsesisasetofcelluloidpatternswhichmaybeobtainedinmanyartsupplystores.

PARTSIX

COMPOSITION

CCOMPOSITION

OMPOSITIONisderivedfromtwoLatinwordsmeaningtoputtogether.But it is more than that; it is the selection, planning and systematic

arrangementoftheelementsofapicture.Composition,however,isneveraddedto a picture. Composition is the picture. When the artist first conceives thecentral theme in his mind, he begins to plan his supporting elements. Hearranges them in such a way as to attract rather than distract the observer’sattentionfromhiscentral theme. It iseasy toseefromthis thatcomposition isnotjustanotheringredient.

There are several good principles of composition that can be followed.Regardlessofthenumberofelementscontainedinthecomposition,oneshouldsodominatethescenethatitstopstheeyeatasingleglance.Toomanyelementsin the composition will confuse the observer and will take away from theeffectiveness of the theme. The composition should be so balanced that allelementsradiatetowardorfromthecentralattraction.Thepreliminary sketch is themost important in composition, for it supplies

theframework.Compositionwillput intopracticeall theartist’sknowledgeoflines and tones. The lines divide a given space into shapes, and these shapesmustbeinaccordwithoneanothersothatbalancecanbeestablished.Tonesaidintheharmonizingofthecompositionthroughtheuseoflightsandshadows.The composition of an illustration must be done in good taste. The artist

attemptsdaringcomposition—daring in the sense that it isnewandoriginal—buthemustalwaysrememberthatheislimitedtothespaceallottedhimandtothesubjectmatterthatheisillustrating.Greatstressisputoncompositioninthefieldofillustration.Theillustration

serves two basic purposes; to attract the eye, and to convey the story itillustrates. Primarily, though, it must attract attention. Take for example theillustrationonamagazinecover. Itmustattract theprospectivepurchaser.Thebookjacketservesinthesameway.Theartofeveryperiodhasbeenexploitedfor the elements that will attract the eye. The art director and the editor arealwaysonthelookoutforanewandfreshapproachthatwilladdnoveltytotheirpages.Morethananyonefactor,themotionpicturehasbroughtaboutanewerain

illustration.Through theeyesof its camera,Hollywoodhasgiven thepublicawholenewworldofpictorialpresentations,and thepublichascome toexpect

thesamequalityandfreshnessinitsmagazinesandbookillustration.Thescreenartdirector,indesigningthesets,planshiscompositioncarefully.

He must plan the set so that it is in balance from every angle. The lightingtechnicians are directed to produce the lights and shadows necessary to createthe desired illusion. He must also keep in mind the precepts of goodcomposition, for toomuch lightor shadowwilldestroy thebalanceof the set.Thecamera follows theactionof the script,whichmaynecessitate shots fromeveryangle—closeup,longshot,bird’s-eyeorfloorlevel.Regardlessofwhichshotismade,goodcompositionismaintained.Withitsinfinitevarietyofscenesand lighting effects, the motion picture has given the illustrator an easilyaccessiblesourceofmaterial.An artist, for example, can make quick sketches of particularly interesting

scenes while attending a movie. These should be completed from memoryshortlyafterheleavesthetheaterandbefiledforfuturereference.Themotionpictureswillgiveyousomenewslantsonthehandlingoftypicalsituations.Bystudying your problem as itwould be seen by the eye of the camera you canvisualizeitfromeveryangle.Byaddingtheingenuityofhundredsoftechnicianstoyourowncreativeability,yourproblemsofcomposition,lightsandshadowswillhavebeensimplified.

Thesedrawingsemphasizetheimportanceofproperbalanceofthefigure.Thisisdoneinpartbyshowingthatfigureswhichareoffbalancedisturbtheeyeandshouldbeusedonlyifweareseekingtocreateakineticeffect.Allthreeofthesefigures are apparently at rest. The improved position of the middle figure ascontrastedwiththeupperoneisreadilyapparent.

The two drawings at the top of the opposite page contain the same basicelements but the one at the left shows bad composition because all the solidelementsarecrowdedtotherightandthebottomandleavealargeemptyspaceabovewhichlookslikeahole.Inthepictureattherighttheseobjectshavebeendistributedmuchbetterandthereforecreateafarmorepleasingappearance.Theoutlinepictureontherightatthebottomoftheoppositepageanalyzestheanglesof the finished picture on the left. The lines opposed to each other meet atpleasingangles.The picture at the top of this page on the left has two obvious faults: the

directionoftheroadwaytakestheeyeofftotheupperleftcornertoadeadendandoutofthepicture;thehorizontallinesarepoorlyspacedbecausetheydividethecompositionintofourequalsegments,tendingtobecomemonotonous.Thesefaultshavebeeneffectivelycorrectedinthepictureattheright.The lower picture on this page is difficult to composebecauseof its shape.

Note how the lack of balance in the twomasses of trees is overcome by theattractionofthelinesoftheriverandthedeepervalueoftreesontheleftwhichcompensatesforthelackofactualmass.

Theleftpictureatthetopshowslineswhichopposeeachotherinapatternthatcreatesconfusion.Thereisgreaterclarityinthedrawingattherightonaccountof the clean silhouette of the face. Always avoid placing lines in a way thatcreatesconfusionanddeparts from themain subject.Thebetterperspectiveofthewindowgivesamoreinterestingpattern.The lineof thebarn in the lower left picturedivides thedrawingexactly in

half.Suchevendivisionshouldbeavoided.Thefaultiscorrectedinthedrawingattheright.

Thefault intheupperpictureisobvious—thefiguresareall leaningoutof thepictureratherthaninit.Inthelowerpicturethisfaulthasbeencorrected.

Thisisanexampleofbadcomposition,becausethegirlisdirectingoureyeoffthepagebypointingherfingerinthatdirection.Furthermore,oneofhereyesislookingatusandonelookstheotherway.

Inthepictureontheoppositepagenotehowtheeyeisdirectedfromthefaceoftheboyat the leftdownto the lathe(bythepositionof theboy’seyesandthehammer); then across the lathe and up to the other boy’s face and (by theposition of the second boy’s head and the direction in which his eyes arelooking)backagaintothefirstboy.

Thecomposition inboth thesepictures isobviously successful indirecting theeyetowardsthecenterofinterest.

Heregooduseismadeofvaluestokeepthecenterofattentionwhereitshouldbe—ontheboy’sfaceandontheinkbottle.In drawing figures the artist must keep in mind the importance of the

silhouette and draw the figures in such a way that if they were completelyblacked in, theywould still tellmost of the story. This is particularly true ofoutdoorposters.

Thecomposition isbadbecause theapparentpurpose is tocallattention to thebox the girl is holding, but, in fact, the emphasis is all on the girl’s face.Althoughthefaceiswelldrawn,thepictureasawholefailstotelltheintendedstory.

Thisisaninterestingcompositioninwhichattentionisdirectedtoapamphletbymeansof the attitudesof themanandwoman.Note that the readingmatter iskeptoutintheopeninordertopreserveasilhouetteofthewholecomposition.

PARTSEVEN

ADVERTISINGLAYOUT

AADVERTISINGLAYOUT

DVERTISINGLAYOUTis, in reality,apartofsalespromotion.Wordsmay lead the public to buy a product, but today, with thousands of

competingadvertisersfillingthemagazines,newspapersandbillboardswiththeprintedwordabouttheirproducts,itrequiressomeingeniousdevicetogainthepublic’sattention to thepointof investigating the sellingcopy.This is the jobthatconfrontsthelayoutman,andIbelievethereisn’tamorefascinatingjobintheworld.

The layout man is usually an illustrator; his layouts must meet therequirementsofagoodillustration—toattract theeyeandconveyanidea.Theworldofadvertisingdemandsthemostdynamicillustrations,anditisthelayoutmanwho creates the plan to bring the advertiser’s product to the public eye.Hencethelayoutmanismorethananillustrator;hecreatesthedesignwhichtheillustratorfollows.Like the blueprints of a building, the layout is the basic plan of an

advertisement.Thelayoutmandoesnotstrivefordrawingperfection,butrathertocreatetheframeworktowhichthecopywriter,typographerandthefinishingartistcanaddtheirindividualtalents.Althoughthelayoutmanshouldbecapableofturningoutfinishedartwork,hemustnotignorehismajorfunction—creatingtheidea.Before thelayoutmanisreadytobeginworkhemustconsideranumberof

elementswhich control the finished advertisement.The space allotted controlsthesizeandamountoffiguresandcopy.Itisnecessarythatheknowtheproductand theadvertisingpolicyof thecompany, andhow toadapt the layout to thepublicationinwhichitistoappear.In daily andweeklypublications having large circulation, the advertisement

must appeal to all types of readers, but in a publicationwhich reaches only alimited group with specialized interests, it must be modified to appealspecificallytotheinterestsofthisgroup.Readersofatradejournalwillrespondbesttocopywhichstickstofacts,eventhoughtechnicalorcomplex,andomits

extravagantandgeneralizedpraise.The layout man’s task in acquiring a knowledge of his products may be

simplified by dividing the more commonly advertised products into threeclasses.Thefirstclassincludesconsumablecommoditiessuchasfood,clothing,candy,cigarettes, liquors, softdrinks, soap,cosmetics, stationeryandhundredsof similar articles. In this first class may also be included services andentertainment, because these are necessarily ever recurring or consumable.Examplesaretheservicesfurnishedbyhotelsandrestaurants,publicutilitiesandtransportationcompanies,laundriesandcleaners,theaters,motionpictures,radioandtelevisionbroadcasting,professionalsports.Thesecondclassincludesarticlesofintrinsicandrelativelypermanentvalue

such as automobiles, jewelry, silverware, furniture,musical instruments, radioandtelevisionsets,leathergoods,books,paintings,drawingsandetchings.Thethirdclassincludesintangiblessuchasinsurance,stocks,bondsandother

investments,creditinstrumentsandservices.Alsointhethirdclassareincludedinstitutional advertising and other forms of goodwill building and publicrelations.The use of this classification enables the layout man to do his work more

easilyandeffectively.Hecomestoassociatecertainkindsoflayoutswitheachofthethreeclasses.Byimmediatelyrecallinginwhichclassaproductbelongsheavoids losingtimeinpreliminaryconsiderationsandcanproceedatonce toworkonthepresenttask.Hemustnot,however,makethemistakeofassumingthatproductsindifferentclasseshavenocharacteristicsincommon.Thefactisthatthesamegeneralapproachmayfrequentlyproveeffectiveforarticlesinthefirsttwoclasses.Ingeneral,however,advertisementsaboutconsumableproductswillrequirea

relativelysmallamountofcopy,while thoseaboutarticlesofpermanentvaluecan be made most effective by using a picture which shows clearly the bestfeaturesandthedistinctivecharacteristicsofthearticleandaccompanyingcopywhichdescribesinsomedetailtheiradvantagesandattractiveness.Illustrations, then, are required or at least very desirable in advertisements

aboutbothconsumableandnon-consumablearticles,butinmanyadvertisementsabout intangibles and inmuch institutional advertising all the allotted space isgiventocopy.Thelayoutman,therefore,findshimselfconcernedonlywiththemakingofanattractivearrangementoftypesinanefforttosecuretheinterestofthe reader and hold it until he has read the entiremessage.Other institutionaladvertising makes use of elaborate, sometimes resplendent and beautifulpictures.Thesemayhave some relevancy to the business of the institution, orthey may merely afford aesthetic pleasure to the reader and thereby gain his

goodwilltowardtheadvertisinginstitution.Anaccurategeneralizationis thatagoodillustrationwillarousethereader’s

curiosityaboutthestorybehindittothepointthathemustreadthecopy.Highreader interest can be obtained by many kinds of pictures such as those ofchildren, animals, seductive girls, fine scenery, enlargements of commonplaceflowers or insects. Unusual perspective is excellent. The short story type ofadvertisement generally gets high reader interest if the illustration shows aninteresting situation.Cartoons are usuallywell received, because they promiselaughterandentertainment,andtherhythmofthelayoutleadsdirectlyintothesellingstory.Therearecertainelementsthatarecommontoeveryadvertisinglayout.The

layoutmusthaveeyeappeal,andanillustrationisthemaineyecatchingdeviceofanadvertisement.Then,ofcourse,thereisthecopy,ortext,thattellsthestoryoftheproduct.Mostadvertisementsmakeuseofaheadlinewhichinitselfisaneyecatcher.Quiteoftenthecompanysloganisalsoappropriateasaheading.Ofparamountimportanceisthenameoftheadvertiser.Hissignatureisreferredtoprofessionally as the logotype. This gives us the four elements: illustration,headline,copyandlogotype.Alayout,however,isnotnecessarilylimitedtooneof each of these four elements, for there may be several of each, except thelogotype,inoneadvertisement.Good composition is most important in advertising layout. Balance is, of

course,agreatpartofcomposition.Thereareactuallynoformalrulestoguidetheartist increatinggoodbalance.It isnecessary todevelopasixthsense thatwill tell youwhetheryour composition is soundandwill appeal to the reader.Symmetrical balance is considered formal. It is used quite often inadvertisementsthatrequireacertainamountofdignityandsolidity.Bankingandfinancial houses use this type of balance in their institutional advertising.Symmetricalbalancelendsitselfwelltoconservativeadvertisements.In advertisements of more dynamic character, an informal or asymmetrical

balance is used. The subtlety of this type of balance ismore eyecatching andhenceanillustrationmaybebetteremphasizedbyuseofthisbalance.Thereisacertainexcitementproducedbyinformalbalancewhichwillcatchandholdthereader’s interest. The unevenness of this type of balance lends charm to thelayout.Rhythm is the consistency ofmovement that enables the eye to follow the

details of a layout smoothly.As the eye is accustomed to reading from left toright and from top to bottomof the page, the layoutman should establish therhythm of his layout in the same direction. He must also keep the reader’sattentionwithin the advertising space, and as the reader’s eyewill follow the

directionof thefigures thesemust face into the layout.This is theprincipleofrhythm, and a good layoutmanwill strive for harmony between balance andrhythm;otherwisehemaylosethereader’sinterest.Alltheelementsofalayoutshouldbetiedtogether.Alayoutshouldneverbe

overcrowded to thepoint of confusion. It shouldpoint toone thought, conveyoneidea.Itshouldarresttheeyeatonefocalpoint.Inotherwords,don’tsplitanadvertisement because this split may be just enough to divert the reader’sattention.

Thesefiftyelementsofthelayoutartmaybecalledthetoolsofthetrade.

The layout man is often confronted with an advertiser who has a number ofdifferent products to present in the same advertisement. Thismay be done invariousways.Let’stake,forexample,ajeweler.Thelayoutonthispageshowshowthelayoutmansetupanattractive,eye-appealinglayoutwhichincludesallthearticlestheadvertiserwantsbroughtbeforethepublic.

Stockelementswhichareusedinmanyillustrationstodayincludetornclippings,stand-up card, the pinned effect, the ribbon, and the cartouche which is adecorative abstract shape. These are handy designswhich are used to containcertainportionsoftheadvertisement.Thevarietyofthesedesignsislimitedonlybytheimaginationofthelayoutman.

Agoodtime-saverforthelayoutmanistheroughingoutoffiveorsixminiaturelayouts, with the final layout space in mind. By this method he can quicklydeterminethelayoutbestsuitedfortheproductandmedium.Inthesesixroughsthe same elements are used. The layout man attempts to find the bestarrangementtoemphasizethepointwhichheconsidersmostimportant.Eachoftheseroughsshouldfollowtheprinciplesofgoodlayout.Fromtheseminiatureshemustchoosetheonewhichbestfitsthespaceallotedhim.

Thissetofthreeroughsshowstheusualroutinefollowedbythelayoutmanafterhe has received his first general instructions from the account executive, thecopywritingdepartmentortheartdirector.Inthefirstroughlayoutthelayoutmandetermineshowthevariouselements

canbearrangedinordertoattracttheeye.Thetwosketchesorunderlaysarethepreliminary stages which help to develop by experiment the semi-finishedproductwhichisshownabove.Thisisthesketchwhichwillbepresentedtotheclient for approval. It is still in the rough stage and only after it has beenapprovedbytheclientwill itgototheartistforthepreparationofthefinishedartwork.

Anexampleofinformalbalance.Here,auniversallyeyeappealingsubject, therose, is used as the central attraction. There is, perhaps, no better way ofattractingtheeyethanusingapopularappealingsubject.

RHYTHM

Recliningposesofferexcellentopportunitiesforeffectivecompositionandforeshortening.Thiscompletelyrelaxedpose,throughitshighkeylighting,hasastrongrhythmicalflowwhichgivesthepaintingaglamorousappeal.Theoutstretchedarmraisesthebreasttonormalroundnessandprovidesthediagonally straight line from elbow to hip which establishes thecomposition. The warm flesh tones, with the purplish shadows, areenhancedbytheoff-whitedraperiesandbackground.

(Seecolorinsertafterpage208.)

Thelayoutmanisoftencalledupontocreateatwopagelayoutonfacingpages.Theproblemthenistobridgethebreakbetweenthepages,oftenreferredtoasthe gutter. There are several ways of bridging the gutter, some of which areshown above.Another goodmethod is to spread the headline across the two-pagespace,althoughitisimportantnottohideanyoftheletters.Abandofcolormaybecarriedacrosstheentirespace.Themainobjectisnottoloseunityandrhythmbetweenthetwopages.

The layout above showing heavymachinery, scores through the use of heavylettering and the black background. The effect of the blocked single-wordheadlineimpressesthereaderwiththemassivenessoftheadvertisedunit.Thelayoutmanmaywishtoconveytheideaofruggednessanddurabilityin

anadvertisementonladies’stockings,buthisapproachshouldbemoredelicate.Hemustbearinmindthekindofreaderaswellasthenatureoftheproduct.

An example ofmood selling.Most of the Paris in Spring space is devoted tocreating an atmosphere of romance, and sophistication. Setting amoodwhichdominates theadvertisement is excellent for luxury items.Theeleganceof theletteringsuggeststhecharacteroftheproduct.

Thesetwopagespresentthecontrastbetweenpurelyinstitutionaladvertisingtogaingoodwillandproductadvertisingofmanyitemsbeingcurrentlyoffered.

Clothingisinourfirstclass.Youwillnote,however,incontrasttothewhiskeyadvertisement,thattheproductisthecenterofattractionhere,althoughthetradenameandsloganarealsoemphasized.Thislayoutisdevotedtowomenreadersand is planned to appeal to them by stressing the light feminine touch. Theillustrationontheoppositepagerightlyhasthemoreuniversalappealbecauseitisdirectedtoallreaders.

This is a good example of the first classification. The layout man hasemphasizedthewhiskey’snameandslogan,hasusedonlyasmallpictureofthebottleandhasgiventhemajorspaceandpositiontoapictureofthebartenderinthepleasanttaskofservingthiswhiskeytothepublic.Inthemanycasesinwhichitisnotpossibletoportraytheproductitselfthe

layoutmanmustrelyonassociation.Inadvertisinggasolinewewanttosuggestpower,smoothnessandreliability.Thelayoutmanhasthereforeshownalioninaction,withtheheading“SmoothPower.”Theassociationofideasbetweenthemovinglionandthegasolineisapparent.

Nearlyeveryonewillstoptolookatapictureifitpromisestobeamusing.Theuseofcartoonsasthecentralthemeinalayoutprovidesacertainfascinationformany people.Very often theywill readmessages in cartoon formwhich theywouldordinarilyoverlook.

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Inthegeneralschemeoffreeenterprisebothmajorfactors—laborandindustry—sharethesamebenefits,andconversely,thesameproblems.Inawaveofprosperitybothlaborandindustryprosper...intimeofinflationbothhavethecommonproblemofhighcosts...inaneraofdepressioneachisadverselyaffected.Inshort,it’shardtotellwhoiswhoorwhichiswhich—whenlaborandindustryareviewedabstractly!Onethingiscertain—laborandindustry,sincetheyhaveacommonequityineithersuccessorthethreatoffailure,canunifytheireffortstokeepbothAmericanenterpriseandtheAmericanworkerfree...fortheeconomichealthofthenation.

Thislayoutisaverygoodexampleofinformalbalance.Noticetheuniquewayinwhichtheeyeisdirectedthroughthesuccessiveelements,fromtoptobottom.Theunusualtypographydrawstheeyedowntothelogotype.

HANDLETTTERING

Hand lettering is an excellent eyecatching device. The style of lettering isdeterminedby thecharacterof theproduct and thenatureof themessage.Forinstance, in advertising steam shovels it would be out of character to use adelicatescript letter; ratheraheavyblock lettersuchas isusedonpage268isappropriate.If thethemeofthemessageisspeedthelettererwouldnotchooseanupright,stable-lookingletter,butonthecontrarywouldcreatethecharacterswhich in themselves suggest speed and motion. Slanting letters meet thisrequirement.The character of hand letters is limited in variety only by the artist’s

imagination.Sometimesaverydramaticandattractiveeffectmaybecreatedbytheuseofexaggerated letters,but thenecessity for readabilitymustalwaysbekeptinmind.Readabilityisabsolutelyessentialonoutdoorpostersbecausetheymustbereadinaflash.Hencechoiceoflettersforpostersisdefinitelylimited;manyserifsandtoomuchcondensationmustbeavoided.Sometimesletteringcanbeusedasthemainelementinadesign.

PARTEIGHT

CREATINGILLUSTRATIONS

OCREATINGILLUSTRATIONS

RIGINALpaintingshaveperhapsnotbeenseenby thegreatmajorityofAmericans,buttheyarefamiliarwithillustrationsinadvertisements,short

stories, books and posters. Creating an illustration is more than just knowinghowtodraw.Youmaybeproficientintheuseofmediumsandhaveknowledgeof composition and perspective, but these are only tools. Your picture must,above all, have the qualities which move other people; without these yourillustrationcannotbesuccessful.

Anillustration,forthemostpart,isbasedonfacts.Everyconceivablekindoffact.Factsabouttreesandclouds,humananatomyandhumannature,shipsandbuildings;wecouldlistthemendlessly.Itiswelltorememberthattheillustratormustconstantlybeonthealertfornewideas.Hiscreativeabilitywilloftenbeput to the test, and he should build up a backlog of material and ideas fromwhich towork. For this we recommend a system of files. These files are thecollection of clippings which the illustrator must compile, and to which heshouldcontinuallyadd.Clippingsfromnewspapers,magazines,circulars,everypossible source and concerning every variety of subject. Each student shouldbegin compiling his own file.Although there aremany convenient systemsoffiling, we suggest filing alphabetically by subject. The professional usuallycollects only thematerial in which he specializes, but the student will find itadvisabletofileeverythingwhichmaybeofanyvalue.Therewillbeplentyoftime toweedout later; in fact, it is a good idea todo this periodically asyouprogressinthefieldofillustration.Booksareanothergreatsourceofinformation.Alibraryofbooksonsubjects

relatingtoartisveryimportant,andthestudentcanbuildhisownlibraryashegoes along. The nucleus of this library should consist of technical booksconcerninganatomy,letteringandotherpracticalsubjects.Buildingalibrarycanbe expensive, but there are many inexpensive reprints available and a vastnumberofcatalogueswhichcanbeobtainedat thecostofonlya fewpostagestamps.Youcan,ofcourse,limitthesizeofyourownlibraryifthereisapublic

library accessible.For thosewho live in the larger cities there aremanyotherfree services available such as those offered bymuseums, historical societies,and numerous commercial organizations which provide material concerningtheirindustries.Books and clippings are valuable in many ways to the illustrator, but they

furnish only a small amount of thematerial that goes into a picture. The restmust come fromdailyobservations, studyandpractice.Theartist shouldhavesuperior powers of observation, for everything he does, feels and thinks istransmittedfromhismindtohishand.Thepictureisborninthemind;thericherthemind,thericherthepicture.Inorder that theartistmaycreateastriking illustration,hemustanalyzehis

situation. What is the time of day, the season, the year? What clothing isappropriate to the period? Will a particular facial expression help to set themood?Althoughtheillustratormustseektobecreative,heshouldalsoconsulthis files or study actual locations in order best to represent the situation he isportraying.Therearemanytimeandmoneysavingaidsfortheillustrator.Chiefofthese

isthecamera.Indaysgonebytheillustratorusedmodelswhoposedforhours,but therewasnocertainty that theresultwouldprovethat themodelwasrightfor the job.Today the illustrator can selecthismodels froma largegroup, setthem in the desired pose, take a photograph, and use this as a guide. Theillustratorwillusehiscreativeabilitytoobtaintheeffectforwhichheisstrivinginthefacialexpression,butthegeneralcompositionwillhavebeencapturedonthe photograph. However, if too much reliance is put on the photograph theillustratorwillfindhimselflosinghiscreativeability.Goodillustrationsshouldreflect the personality, training and individual character of the artist. Manyillustrations can be identified by the individuality of the artist’s technique andpersonality,whereas the camera showsonly thatwhichhas been set before it.Thecamera ismerely an aid; the artist’s ability toposehis subject effectivelyandtogivehisowntouchtotheillustrationistheprimefactor.Althoughthecamerahasmadeinroadsinthefieldofadvertisingitisdoubtful

that itwilleverencroachonthe illustratingoffiction inmagazinesandbooks.Theillustratorreadsthestoryandthenselectsthesituationandcharactersthathewill draw as they have been described for him by the author in the text. Hisassignmentisthereforelaidoutforhim.Thereislittlechancethattheillustratorandhisindividualitywilleverbereplacedinthisfieldbythephotographer.Whenillustratingfictiontheartistmusttrytoavoidstereotypedsituations,but

frequently,inthemagazinefield,hewillbehardputtoittoavoidthetriteboy-and-girl type of picture. Sometimes he is aided in doing this by a secondary

element or an unusual story background. Sometimes he may establish adominantmood through theuseofdarkand lightvaluesandmake the figuressubordinate. It is here that all the artist’s creative abilitymust be brought intoplay.The illustrator must also learn to use discrimination in selecting articles of

furniture and other physical items in the setting of his picture. Thesematerialarticles must be in harmony with the characters, their period and their socialstatus.Anachronismsmustnotbetoleratedbyacompetentillustrator.Hisfilingsystemshouldaidhimgreatlyinthispartofhiswork.Unlesshandedadefiniteassignmentinwhichhischaractersandcomposition

areclearlydescribed,theillustratorusuallycreateshisownideasforthepicture.When faced with a problem, he should be prepared to make quickly severalpencilsketches,anyofwhichcanbesubmittedforeditorialapproval.Uponapprovaloftheideasketch,ahelpfulmethodincreatingillustrationsis

tomakeaseriesoffoursketches.Thefirstpencilsketchestablishestheposeandcomposition.Next,charcoalisusedtobringoutthelightanddarkvalues.Iftheillustration is to be in color, the colors are established in the next sketch, andthenthethreearecombinedtomakethefinalillustration.Thefirstroughsketchcan bemade on tracing paper, and a second sheet laid over the first tomakemodificationsandrefinementswhichthenappeardesirable.Agood illustration should have structural unity, fine character development

andeyecatchingappeal,allofwhichwillservetogivethedrawingthequalityoflife.

J

ANILLUSTRATIONISCREATEDBYJACKCOWAN

ACKCOWANdefinesan illustratorasonewhopaints thingshehasneverseenasthoughhehadbeenthere.Tobeabletodothisanillustratorhasto

have a plan, a systematic procedure by which he approaches this imaginarysceneandmakes itappearasaclearlydefinedworld.Herewillbeshownandexplainedhowoneillustratorapproachesaproblemandhowhetranslatesintoapicture an advertising idea given to him by the board planning an advertisingcampaign.Hereistheidea.

Thefundamentalplanisforaseriesofinstitutionaladvertisementsforamajormanufacturer of oil-well drilling equipment. The artist is to depict in eachillustrationanadventureofKentMorgan,a legendaryheroof theoil industry.KentMorganwaschosenasthecentralfigurebothbecausehetypifiestheearlyoil pioneers and also because he offers tremendous picture possibilities. Theartistcancapitalizeonthesepossibilitiesandreadilygainattentionofthereadersbyshowinginfantasticscaleandactionrealisticmaterialwithwhichthereadersarefamiliar.TheadventureshownhereoccurredinawesternoilfieldwhichKentMorgan

drilledsinglehanded.Allofthewellsaresaidtohavecomeinatthesametimeand sooncreatedahuge lakeofoil.Tokeep this lake from floodinganearbytownwithoil,KentMorganflungupaleveeofdirttoholdbackthelake.That’sthe story told to the artist, onwhichhewas asked topreparepreliminary ideadoodles.Afterhehaddonethisitwasdecidedthatheshouldcreateapanoramicview

showing the lakeof oil, thederricks, thegiantKentMorgan, the townand itsfleeinginhabitants.Thisideaisdevelopedinthelastthreedoodlesketches.Thepanoramabeing approved, the artist’s next step is to prepare a comprehensivestudy in full color of the completed advertisement including display and texttype, headlines and company signature, as well as the picture—a completelayout. The illustration is to fill about two thirds of the page. With minor

changes, this comprehensivewas approved by the agency art director and theagency’splanningboard,andthemanufacturer’sadvertisingmanager.Theartistwasthereforeauthorizedtostartthefinishedpicture.Hisfirststepistotakephotographsofmodelsinimprovisedcostumesandin

positionsduplicatingascloselyaspossibletheactionandthestanceindicatedinthe comprehensive. This artist always directs the poses and lighting in thesephotographs. He seeks by the timing of the exposures and the control of thestudio lights to approximate as closely as possible the lighting planned in thecomprehensive.The background is the first of the basic line drawings to beworked out in

detail on theWhatman board. It ismade the full size of the original drawingwhich, in this case, is scaled for a fiftyper cent reduction. It isworkedout inperspective directly on the board. Photographs of buildings of the periodrepresentedprovidethenecessaryarchitecturaldetails.Thenextstepistostudythephotographsofthemainfigures,todrawthemin

lineontracingpaper,andthentorefinethemonasecondtracingpaper.Changestoimprovetheactionandtocorrectthedistortioninthephotographsaremadeinthissecondtracing-paperdrawing.Thesizeofthegiant’shandsisincreasedandtheheadsizegreatlydecreasedtogiveanillusionofhugestature.Itwasfoundwhentakingthephotographsofthemodelsthattheactionofthe

giantcouldbe improvedby turninghiminto thepicture insteadofhavinghimfaceaway.Byhavinghimstoophe tookup less space in thecompositionandthusleftmorespacefortheviolentactionintheforegroundwhichisplayedupinthefinishedpicture.The line drawings of these figures are superimposed over the background

drawinglikepuppetsonastage.AbalopticonorprojectionmachineisusedtoprojectthesetissuelinedrawingsofthefiguresontotheWhatmanboardbecausethis method enables the artist to see exactly where they are located in thebackgroundandalsobecauseitisafastermethodthantransferringwithcarbonpaper.Nowthatthestudyinpencillineisfinished,asheetoftissueislaidoverthe

entire drawing and a study of all light and dark areas is worked out. This iscalledthepatternstudyandisveryimportantbecauseitservesasaplantokeepallvalueareasofthedrawinglinkedtogetherinkey,andisinsuranceagainstthelightsanddarksbecomingscatteredandvibrant.With all these steps closely attended to, the final painting of the picture

remains as merely a technical performance. Nearly all the creative thoughtneededhasbeenexpendedontheplanningandthepreliminarystudies.Theartiststartswiththemostdistantobjectsinthepictureandpaintsinthese

areasinatransparentwashinordertoletthelinedrawingshowthroughfaintlyfor later attention. As the picture progresses the water-color tempera paint isappliedmore thickly inorder toopaqueout theno longerwantedearlier lines.Thelastareastobefinishedarethedetails intheforeground,suchastheriderandtherunningmanwiththecarpetbag.Nearly all of the stages described above, from the first preliminary idea

doodles to the finished picture, are shown in the pages which follow. Otherartistsmayvary their procedures in someof the stages, but JackCowan’s arepresentedhereastypifyinggenerallyacceptedtechniques.

GYPSY

Dramaistheoutstandingfeatureofthispainting.Thevividcoloringofthefigure,theflashingeyes,theredlipsandblackhair,setagainstthestrikinggreen of the background, lend haughtiness and pride to the painting.Thelowsourceoflightwasusedtobringouttherich,warmfleshtonesandthehighcoloringofthemodel.

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SCRATCHBOARD

Scratchboard requires very detailed preliminary planning. The spotting of theblackandwhitemustfirstbeworkedoutontracingpaper,andthentransferredto the board. The drawing is then rendered in india ink on the scratchboard,blacking in theshadowareas insolidblack.Next theshadowsaremodifiedorlightenedbyuseofasharptool(apenknifewillserve).Thisispossiblebecausethe scratchboardhasachalk surface, andwhen the surface is scratchedwithasharpinstrument,someofthechalkisremoved, leavingapurewhitelinewithverysharpedges;thisphotographs(reproduces)beautifully.Intheupperpicturealmostallthedrawingwasdonewiththescratchinginstrumentaftertheareaofthedrawinghadbeenpreparedwithacoatofblackindiaink.Thisisalsotrueofthetwopicturesonpage301.

ThisglobewasdonebytheuseofFrenchcurvesandothermechanicaldrawinginstrumentssuchasrulingpens,compassandthelike.

1.RoughSketchofSubjectonTissue

2.ComprehensiveTissue

3.UseofPhotographforActionandShadows

4.TransfertoIllustrationBoard

5.CarefulPencilDrawingonIllustrationBoard

6.ReadyforWash

7.FinishedRough

FigureGrouping

TheUseofModels

ActioninFigures

DramatizedFigures

Inthelargepicturethesilhouetteisbad,becausetheoutlineofthefigureintheforeground is almost completely submerged in the figure in the background.Notethecontrastinthesmallerpicture.

PARTNINE

ANIMALS

WANIMALS

EALL love animals and animal pictures therefore have great popularappeal. Hence every artist, particularly if in the field of commercial

illustration, should know how to draw animalswell. Each animal has its owncharacteristics—bestcapturedbyquickactionsketches.Whenmakingthesedonotattempttoomuchdetailbuttrytodrawtherhythmofmovementthroughtheactionofthelegsandbodyandthepositionofthehead.

Becausehewillnotoftenhavetheopportunitytomaketheseactionsketchesand because it is almost impossible to remember the structural details of thevariousanimals,theartistshouldassembleacollectionofclippings,photographsandaction sketches for reference.Healsoneeds toknowsomethingabout theattitudes andcharacteristicsof the animalhe isdrawing.Detail sketchesmadefromphotographsandclippingsorpreferablyfromactionsketchesfromlifeareessentialinplanningyourcomposition.The artist must realize that animals, like human beings, have individual

characteristics which set them apart from others of their species. Thesedifferencesmaybeseenintheshapeofthenose,thesizeandcoloroftheeyes,thelengthandpositionoftheears,themuzzleandtheoverallweight.Therearealso differences between the sexes; the male usually has a fuller head and alargerbodythanthefemale.Veryyoungcarnivorousanimals,suchaslionsandtigers,havearoundedappearance;theybecomeleggyinadolescenceandreachthemore familiarproportions in theirprime.Animalsgenerally loseweight inoldage.Nature has designed each animal so that it may best survive in its

environment.Animals grow heavier coats in thewinter and lose them for thesummer.They lookalmostmoth-eatenwhenshedding theircoats in thespringandthereforeshouldnotbedrawninthatseason.Thenatureof theanimal,whether fierceor timid,shouldbeportrayed in its

expressions. The expression to be used should be one that coincideswith thepopularconceptionoftheanimalandofitsnaturalenvironment.Alionesswhich

would appear fierce when protecting her cubs would display none of thisfiercenesswhenfeedingthem.Correcthandlingofeyeswillgiveyourdrawingalife-likeappearance.There

is very little difference in the shape of animal eyes, but they do vary in size,color and position. Attention should be given to the tear-pit when it is adistinguishing feature. The eyes of carnivorous animals look straight aheadwhileanimalssuchasrabbitsandsquirrelshavetheireyesonthesidenearthetopof thehead.Thisenables them to look inalldirections todetect themanylargeranimalswhichpreyuponthem.Theanimalalsoexpressesitsfeelingandemotionbythefluctuatingactionof

its ears. Take the horse for example. The ears are generally erect but hewilldrawthembackandclosetohisheadwhenfrightenedorangered.Mostanimalswillprickup theirearsatastrangesound.Usuallyananimal’searscome toapoint,butthedegreeofroundnessleadingtothispointvaries.Observethatthehornsdonotinterferewiththeactionoftheearsinhornedanimals.Thereare two importantpoints to remember indrawing themouth:how far

back themouthextendswhenopen, and thecorrectpositionof the teeth.Thislast point is exceptionally important in the drawing of dogs and cats. Takecareful notice of the opening of the mouth, because in some animals it willextendbackbeyondtheeyeswhileinothersitismuchsmaller.

Most animals are graceful in their movements. Their muscles are perfectlycoordinatedanditistheartist’sjobtorecordthisrhythmicmotion.Itispossibletodrawananimalwhichismechanicallyperfectandyetthelikenessmaybelost

iftheimpressionofconcealedpowerandrhythmicmotionisnotpresent.Asimportantasdrawingtheanimal,isplacinghiminhisproperhabitat.Here

againpopularconceptionplaysanimportantpart.Wethinkofthewildanimalashavingajungleorforestbackgroundorbeingconfinedbehindbarsatacircusorzoo,whiledomesticatedanimalsarethoughtofasaroundthefarmandhome.Itis best to keep the background simple if the animal is to be the dominatingtheme.Iftheanimalistobeusedasasupportingelementitshouldbesoplacedas to draw the observer’s attention toward the central theme.Because animalshave such universal appeal the commercial artist will use them wheneverpossibleinhiswork.

DOGANATOMY

Everybreedofdogisrecognizedbothbyits featuresanditscolorandcoat.The ears, mouth, nose, the shape of the head and body—all must be drawnaccuratelytogiveatruepictureofabreed.Thegreatnumberofbreedsandtheimpossibility of showing even a moderate number of them has caused us topresentheresketchesofgeneralizedcharacters.Unlikethehorsewhichisfairlystandard in construction, various types of construction are called for by theseveralgroupsofdogbreeds.Forinstance,thepupsandbulldogsfitthecircularconstruction;thepointers,huntersandcolliesfitthesquareandangularbaseofconstruction; the long low dachshunds and the tall greyhound conform to theoblongconstruction.Thepups,likebabies,seemtohavelargeroundeyesandachunkyfatbodyconstruction.Thesedetailedanatomysketchesareofferednotforaccuracybuttoenablethe

student to learnhow toobserve and study thedog’s construction. In studying,visualizetheboneandmuscleactionsaswellasthedog’soutline.Boneconstructionisabasicnecessitytogetproperactionandbalance,butthe

bone sketch need not be completely accurate. Draw the body bones with theirregular ellipse, add the legs, neck and head. The value of the stick bonedrawingisthatitenablesyoutoseeatoncewhetherthedogappearsnaturalandcorrectinaction.Noticethateveninthesimpleformsshownheretherecanbelittledoubtastotheactionsshown.

RELAXATION

Whenpaintingarecliningfigure,anunlimitedvarietyofposesispossible.Here is a position of complete relaxation.The arms are completely limp.Thefigure,surroundedbypillows,hasarestfulquality.Noteespeciallytheforeshortening of the right leg. The torso is brightly lit, creating slightshadowsonthelegs.Warmfleshtonesareaccentuatedbythedeeperfleshcolorofthepillow.

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Inthetopsketchesthelinesofequalcharacterareofequallength.Theseareusedmerelyasguidesinsketchingthehorse.Inotherwords,don’tdrawaheadwithadividerorruler.Thelinesaremerelytofamiliaraizeonewiththevariousproportionstobekeptinmindwhensketchingahorse.Theothersketchesshowfeaturesofthehead.

Upperrowshowshoofsofheavyandlighthorses.Lowerrow.

TheKnee:A—Therightkneefront.B—TherightKneeoutside.C—Theinsideview.D—Therightkneeoutside.E—Therightkneeinside.

Toprow—facingpage.TheHock:A—Therighthockoutside.

B—Therighthockinside.C—Therighthock,rearview.

Thehorse’sbodyisasquareofapproximatelytwoandahalfheads.Thebodyis a head wide. Notice the difference in height of knee and hock. Othermeasurements are self-explanatory. When drawing a horse in action, keep inmind the body rectangle. Stick figures for bone construction simplify bodydrawing.Anirregularellipse,enclosingthetrunkbonesticks,givesaverygoodbasefor thebody.Followingoroutlining thestickbonesof the legsandneck,gives action to the horse. In drawing a horse in perspective, the drawing, inperspective, of a rectangle enclosing the body helps to visualize the correctfigure.

These sketches carry the construction shown on the previous pages a littlefurther. Notice that for the heavy horses, such as the same, but the horse isheavier boned and heavier muscled. In drawing some poses, a small roughsketchinprofileoftenaidsinvisualizingtheperspectiveaction.

Notice the legactionof the trotter (left); theoppposite legswork inunison;withheadswingingtowardtheextendedfrontfoot.Thepacer(center)movestherightlegsinunisonandtheleft legsinunison.Inthisgait theheadalsoswingtowardtheextendedfrontfoot.Thetrotandpacearetrainedactions,seldomorneverseeninthefreerunninghorse(right).

SUNLIGHT

Excitingandfreshcoloringcharacterizesthispainting.Thestrongoverheadlighting makes strong shadows and gives a sunlight effect. This isespecially noticeable in the hair. To enhance this effect further thebackgroundispaintedinvaryingshadesfrombluetorose.Thesubtletiesofthefleshtonesandthebasicfigureconstructionaredevelopedthroughtheuseofshadows.

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PARTTEN

CASHINGIN

FCASHINGIN

ORTHOSEwhoseekthepleasuresaffordedbydrawing,wesincerelyhopethat this book has helped to increase their enjoyment of art. For those

hopefulsworkingtowardacareerincommercialart,weaddafewsuggestionsthatmaymake thegoinga little easier.Commercial art hasbecomeabig andcompetitivebusinesswhichutilizeschieflyaccomplishedprofessionalartists.Itisstudyandpracticethatseparatetheinexperiencedamateurfromthesuccessfulprofessional.

Theartistshouldnotbediscouragedwhenhelooksaboutandseesthousandsofpictures and illustrations all aroundhim. “What chancedo Ihave,”hemayask.Itistruethatartisacrowdedfield,butlikeanyotherfield,thereisalwaysroomforonemoreatthetopifhe’sgood.Tenartists,usingthesamemodel,willdraw tendifferentpictures.Eachartistwill addhisown touches to thepicturewhichwillshowhisownpersonality,trainingandcharacter.Thesegivetheartisthisstyle.Veryoftenyoucanlookatanillustrationandidentifytheartistbyhiswell known individual style. With study and practice and experience yourtechniquecanbedevelopedtothepointthatyourstylemaybeeasilyrecognized.

Manyartistsareruinedbyearlypraise.Friendsandrelativeswilltellhimthateachpieceofworkheturnsoutiswonderful.Everyface,accordingtothem,isa

perfectlikeness,buttheartistmustbecriticalofhisdrawings.Often,uponcloseexamination, hewill find that certain drawings lack the professional touch sonecessaryinthefieldofcommercialart.Today art is regarded as a profession. It is seldom, indeed, that the untried

artistbreaksinto the“bigtime.”Hemustbecontent,ashewouldinanyotherprofession,tostartatthebottomandworkhiswayup.Otherprofessionssuchasengineering and medicine require years of training and experience before theindividualcanberegardedasafinishedprofessionalman.Thisisalsotrueinart.Veryoftenyouhaveheardtheexpression,“artdoesnotpay.”Thisisnottrue

today.The artist has come intohis own, and can earn amodest living and, insomecases,anexcellentone.Youwill find that thoughyourprimarybusiness isdrawingand illustrating,

youmust alsobe a salesmanandbusinessman.Youmust learn toplace a fairvalueonyourworkandtoconvinceprospectiveclientsthatyouhavetheabilitytomeettheirstandards.Itmaybenecessaryforyoutorelinquishsomeoftheso-called artistic standards in order to satisfy a prospective buyer, but rememberthatyouarenolongerdrawingforyourownamusementorfortheentertainmentofyourfriends.Youaredrawingtoappealtolargegroupsofpeople,andhenceit is necessary to take an openminded attitude.Without this cooperation youcannotsucceed;withityouwillgoontobiggerandbetterassignments.Theartistmostcertainlymustbedependable.Formostassignmentsyouwill

begivenadefinitedeliverydate.Thismaybeasfaroffasthreeorfourweeks,or youmay have to complete the drawing in a few hours.Regardless of howhard you must work to complete your drawing in time, deliver it before thedeadline.Theclient,whetherhebeaprivateclientoranartdirectorforalargeorganization,willnevergiveanotherassignmenttotheartistwhoturnshisworkinlate.Ifyouwereasalesman,amechanicorastenographer,lookingforajob,you

wouldbeexpectedtohavereferences,recommendationsfromformeremployers.Theartistcarriesalltheseinoneneatpackage—hisportfolio.Whatshouldbecarriedwhenyou’relookingforajob?Don’tcarrytoomuch.

Eightortensamplesareenough—anymorewillwastetime.Carryonlythebestsamplesofyourwork; twoor threegooddrawingsareagreatdealbetter thantwentymediocre ones.Save someof your goodwork to showon a secondorthirdvisit.Includeinyourportfolioatleastonedrawingwithunusualtechniquewhichthepersoninterviewingyouis likelytoremember.Oneofyoursamplesshouldfeaturelettering.Intheseletteringsamplesusecompletewordsinvaryingstyles. It usually is advisable to show how you handle several mediums, butemphasize the onewith which you aremost skilled. It is important that your

drawingsbeclean.Smudgescanbeeasilyerasedwithakneadederaser,andthedrawingshouldbecarefullymattedandcoveredwithcellophaneoraprotectiveflap.Astheartdirectorcangenerallygiveyouonlyafewminutes,showhimagood cross-section of your work with as few samples as possible. Do a littleresearch before you make up your portfolio. If you are calling on an agencywhichspecializes in fashionaccounts, selectchieflyyour fashiondrawings forshowing.Aboveall,havepatience.Itmaybesometimebeforeyoucansellanyofyour

work.Ifyouareeasilydiscouraged,commercialartisnotyourfield,butifyouhaveabilityandpatiencetherewillbeaspotforyousomewhere.An artist may either seek a salaried position with a department store,

newspaperoradvertisingagency,ortakehischanceswithfreelancework.Thefirst gives some economic security; the second is more speculative but therewardsmaybegreaterandwoninlesstime.A free lance artist has no salaried job, no set hours and no immediate

supervisor.Hecanworktwohoursadayortwenty-four.Hemaydohisworkinhishomeorinaseparatestudio.However,heisobligedtobecontinuouslyonthelookoutforwork.Artisabuyer’s,notaseller’smarket.Unlessyouhaveawell established reputation, buyers do not look for you, you look for them.Afreelanceartist’sworkmustbegoodenoughtobringhimrepeatorders.

Anewartistshouldnotcallonthelargeadvertisingagencies,untilhehashadtwoorthreeyears’work.Youaskonwhomyoushouldcall.Lookaroundyourneighborhood.Therearerestaurantsthatmayneedwindowposters,adressshopwhichcanusefashionpictures,abeautyshopcandisplayheadstudies.Althoughyou will not earn much from such orders, you will be developing thisneighborhoodmarketandwhenyourfirstcustomersneedadditionalworktheywillcallonyou.Then,too,alltheworkyoudowillproducemoresamplesforyour portfolio. Every piece of art which you sell for reproduction not only

benefitsyoufinancially,butalsoadvertisesyourwork.Illustration is a highly competitive field, and the rewards can be great.

Thousandsofdollarsarespenteachdayforillustrations;everywherewelookweseesamplesoftheillustrator’sart.Youmaythinkthatyourfieldisrestrictedtomagazinestoryillustrationsandtheadvertisingagencies,butalthoughthesearethegiantsinthefield,therearemanyotherusersofillustration.In most cases you will work through advertising agencies. They represent

manyofthebusinessconcernsofthecountrywhosemessagereachesthepublicthrough many media; magazine advertising, newspapers, brochures, folders,catalogues,billboards,posters,streetcarandbuscards,anddesignsforallsizesandtypesofcontainers.Importantarethefictionmagazines.Fromcovertocovertheyareillustrated

to encourage the reader to stop and buy. Besides the popular weeklies andmonthlies, there are many others such as fraternal, church and children’smagazines. There are also house and trade journals reaching groups withspecializedinterests.There is also the book field. Many books have pictorial jackets, but no

picturesinthebook;othershaveboth.Children’sbooksandschoolbooksfortheearliergradeshavemanyillustrations.Pricespaidbybookpublishersare,withonly rare exceptions, much lower than can be obtained from magazines andadvertisingagencies.Iftheartistisinterestedinagencyworkheshouldconcentrateatfirstonthe

smalleradvertisingagencies.Naturallyhewouldliketodrawacoverforabigmagazine or design advertising layouts for a company with a nation-widereputation,buthemust firstbuilduphisownreputation.Thesmalleragenciescannotaffordthehigh-priced,establishedartistandare,therefore,willingtogivethe untried artist a chance. This doesn’t mean that they will buy amateurishwork; no matter how small the account, the demand is still for art of aprofessional standard. On such orders you may not earn much, but theexperienceisinvaluable.Theartistshouldbewillingtotakeanyjob,nomatterhow small. If he cooperateswith his clients on small jobs theywill give himbetter ones when their budget permits. He must also be willing to submitpreliminaryideasketchesforapprovalwithoutcharge,asisexplainedmorefullyunderthediscussionofpricinganartist’swork.Whenyoucallatanadvertisingagencyyouwillprobablybereferred to the

artdirector.Artdirectorshaveagreatdealofworktodoandverylittletimeforinterviews. Generally they set aside one morning a week for interviews withartists.Findout from theagencywhen theartdirectorwill seeyou;otherwiseyouwillwasteyourtime.Theartdirectorgivestheartisthisassignment,buthe

doesnotnecessarilyhave the finalwordonwhatwillorwillnotappear inanillustration. Very often the agency’s client insists on specifying just what hewantsinthedrawing.Don’tcarryinyourportfoliolargecolorsamples.Theartdirectorisnotlikely

to take a chanceon anunknown for large illustrations, but quite oftenhewillconsideryour spotdrawings.Spotdrawings are those secondaryor supportingpictorial elements used in advertising. Magazines use spots to highlight themoodorthemeofastoryorarticle,tofillinblanksonashorttextpage,andtoenlivenfulltextpages.Furthermorecolorisstillusedmuchlessfrequentlythanblackandwhite inadvertising,andtheartdirectormustkeepinmindwhathehimselfcansell.

The art director acts as the middleman. The artist can avoid unnecessarychangesinhisworkbyaskingquestionsof theartdirectorbeforehebegins todraw. Creative ability is, of course, important but the artist must knowapproximately what is expected of him. Generally the art director will givedetailedinstructionswiththeorder.Iftheseinstructionsarenotclear,thetimetoaskquestionsiswhenyoureceivetheorder.Whenthedrawingiscompletedputasheetoftracingpaperoveritandwrapit

neatly. You should preferably deliver it yourself. If it is sent by messenger,alwayscalltheartdirectortoaskifthedrawinghasbeendelivered.There is,perhaps,nobetterprovingground for thebeginningartist than the

departmentstore.Herehemaybecalledupontodrawanythingfromfashionstofurniture,fromfeatherdusterstoflowers.Hewillalsohavemanyopportunitiestopracticehislettering.Aboveall,hewilllearntoworkunderpressure,forthedepartment store with its daily newspaper advertising is continually workingagainstadeadline.Sometimestherearelastminutechangesinmerchandiseandtheartistmustmakeanotherdrawinginaveryshort time.Butinadepartmentstoreorelsewhereavoidgettinginarut.Oftenanartistwillbegintodoletteringorretouchingandseveralyearslaterwillfindhimselfstilldoingthesamethingandnothingelse.Anartistwillgoonlyasfarashisambitiontakeshim.

One of the most interesting markets is that offered by the greeting cardmanufacturer.Itisherethatoriginalityandcreativeabilityaregivenalmostfreerein. Your knowledge of lettering will also prove very valuable in this field.Here,againbesuretoselectappropriatesamplessuchasdogs,kittens,childrenordrawingswithahumoroustwist.

Theartservicebureauisoftenveryhelpful toartistsnewto thecommercialworld.Thesebureaushandle theart for the largegroupsof small retailers andwholesalers who cannot afford an art department of their own. The servicebureaubuysart,letteringandlayoutsfromwhichplatesaremade.Hundredsofmatscanbemadefromoneplate,andmatsofhundredsofitemsarestockedandofferedatlowpricestothesmalladvertisers.Inthiswaythesmalladvertisercanhaveanattractiveadforafractionofwhatitwouldordinarilycosthim.Anewartistwillusuallystartasanapprentice,andhisworkwillconsistofretouchingorlettering.Hemaythenworkuptolayoutsandillustrations.Thisisexcellenttrainingforanyartist.Americahasbecomethecenterofthefashionworld.Millionsofgarmentsare

designed,manufacturedandsoldeachyear.Thishasopenedalargefieldfortheartist.Merchandisemustbeadvertisedanditistheartist’sjobtoillustratetheseadvertisements. The many fashion magazines use drawings of all the lateststyles. Dressmakers use artists’ sketches and patterns. Department stores,syndicated fashion services, advertising agencies, specialty shops,manufacturers,tradejournals,newspapers,magazines,mailorderhouses,areallprospectiveclientsfortheartist.Weshallnotconsiderfashiondesigningasthisisahighlyspecializedfieldin

which the designer creates new styles. You will be primarily concerned withdrawingfashionsfor reproduction. Inmostcasesyouwilluse themerchandiseas the model. Great accuracy is required in fashion illustrations, becausemisrepresentingdetailsofthedressdesignwillmisleadthecustomer.Theartistusuallysees thegarments tobedrawn in factoryorstoreand thenworks from

photographs,butsometimeshemayhavethegarmentinhisstudiomerelytobeable to observe the texture and character of the fabric. Fancy techniques areseldom used in fashion illustrations. The artist’s job is to make an accuratedrawingandnottoaddtoomanyartistictouchesfromhisownimagination.Howtovalue—and,moreimportant,howtoprice—hisworkisprobablythe

young artist’smost difficult business problem.Hewill suffer no injury to hisself-respect,however,ifhisapproachisfair,open-mindedandrealistic.Hemayjustlybelievethathisworkisfullyasgoodasthatofatoprankingartist,butheshouldalsoadmittohimselfthatheisnotentitledtothesamepaythattheoldermanreceives.Whenthemannowatthetopwasabeginnerwhoseworkeventhenhadmuch

ofthequalityandfinishofthetopmenofhisyouthfuldays,hedidnotget—andlater realized thatheshouldnothaveexpected toget—theirprices.He learnedthat thebuyerofhispictureshad to invest substantial sums in reproducinghisworkandverymuchmoreinbuyingthespaceinnewspapersandmagazinesinwhichitappeared.Therefore,eventhoughthesamplesoftheyoungartist’sworkwereexcellent,theartdirectoracceptedaheavyresponsibilityingivinghimtheassignmentbecausetherewasamuchgreaterchancethat,whenconfrontedwitha deadline and the consequent necessity of working under high pressure, theinexperiencedartistmightnotcomethroughwithworkoftherequiredstandard.Herealizedalsothatthesuccessfulartistreceivedtopprices,notonlybecause

hisworkwould alwaysbeup to the expectedhigh standard, but perhaps evenmore because he had achieved a name and reputationwhich lent prestige thathadanactualmoneyvaluetotheadvertiser.Inshort,theheadlinerinillustrationandotherfieldsofcommercialartispaidquiteasmuchforhisstandingwiththepublicasfor theintrinsicmeritofhiswork, justas themotionpictureorstagestarispaidprimarilyforbeinggoodboxoffice.Anotherdiscoverywhichtoday’sheadlinermadeonhiswayuptheladderthat

gavehimretrospectivecomfortforthepangscausedbytheinjusticefromwhichhethoughthehadsufferedinhisearlyyearsasanartist,wasthis.Hefoundthatwriters who had become one of the small group of largest earners had beenobligedtoworktheirwaygraduallyupthescaleofprices,eventhoughsomeoftheir earlier stories, novels or articles hadbeen superior tomuchof their laterwork.Healsolearnedthatthemagazinesoflargestcirculationpaidonlyaboutaquarterorathirdoftheirstandardtoppriceforthefirstarticleorstorypurchasedfrom an author, and increased the price according to a fixed scale for eachsucceedingpurchaseuntilthetophadbeenreached.Finallywhenhelearnedthatthese magazines had followed this same practice in their art departments formanyyears,herealizedthathewouldhavebeensparedtheheart-burningsofhis

youthhadallthisknowledgebeenhisatthattime.

Once the newcomer acquires the philosophical viewpoint which should becreatedbythefactsjustsetforth,hewillunderstandalsothatanartistisinmuchthe same position as a lawyer or a doctor who, presumably, fixes his fees inaccordance with what the traffic will bear. Obviously the small advertiser,agencyormagazinesimplycannotaffordtopaylayoutman,writerorartistasmuchastheirlargerandmoresolidlyestablishedconfreres.Theselargeragenciesandmagazineshaveestablishedstandardpricescalesof

whichitwouldbewell that thenewcomer learn.Evenmore important is it forhimtolearnfromfellowartistsinhiscommunitytherangeofpricesforvarioustypesofdrawings.Withthesetwoscalesasaguide,hemaythensetupascaleforhisownwork.Thisscaleshouldcontainarangeofpricesforeach typeofworkhehopes tobeasked todo,but thebeginner should lookuponeven thisrangeasaveryflexibleonewhichheiswillingtomodifywhenhefindshemustdosotogettheorder.Some artists try to set prices on the time or hour basis. This may prove

satisfactorytosomebuyers,butmoreoftenthebeginnerwillfindthattheclientwants a definite price. He will also discover that he will be asked ratherfrequently to submit preliminary designs or idea sketches in order to let theprospectivepurchaserknowquitespecificallywhatheisabouttobuy.Thewellestablishedartistmayrefusetosubmitsuchsketchesunlessheisassuredeitherthat he will get the order or that, if he does not, he will be paid for thispreliminary work. It is not, however, good selling psychology for the youngartist to impose such terms. Far more tactful and more likely to win theassignment will be his willing compliance with a request for preliminarysketchesorideaswithoutraisinganyquestionaboutpayment.Artists’agents,likeliteraryagents,arethemiddlemenbetweentheartistand

prospectivebuyersofhiswork.Aconscientiousagentwillquiteoftenbeableto

getordersforhisclientmorepromptly,morefrequentlyandathigherpricesthanthe artist who does this work for himself. The reasons for this are two. Theestablishedagenthasmanyfriendsamongbuyersofcommercialart invariousfields.Thesebuyershavecometohaveconfidenceintheagentaftermanyyearsof honest and efficient service from him, and the agent, consequently, hasaccurate knowledge of their requirements and of their scale of prices. Thisknowledgeenableshimtogodirectlytothemorelikelypurchasers,togivethemconfidenceinhisartistclients,andtogetmaximumpricesforanyordersgiven.Despite these real advantageswhichgoodagentsoffer,manyartistsprefer thelongerandmorearduoustaskofwinningtheirownfriendsamongawidecircleoffuturecustomersandmaintainingdirectcontactwiththemthereafter.Agentsarepaidbycommissionsontheorderstheyobtainfortheirclients.Many young artists who have reached at least the early grade of the

professional in the quality of their work, find themselves suddenly seized bystage fright when confronted with the problem of making their drawingsconformto rigidspecificationsas tospace.Somehaveactuallybeenunable todrawatall. It isawiseplan, therefore, topracticedrawingof thiskind,whichcontrastssogreatlytothefreeandunrestrictedworkofstudenttrainingdays,inorder tobe able tomeetyour first assignmentswith calmness andconfidence.Don’t seek assignments until you feel sure that you are ready for thempsychologicallyaswellasartistically.Althoughtheartistshouldhaveawellroundedknowledgeofmanydifferent

kindsofdrawing,hemayprefertospecializeinthefewfieldsinwhichhefindsheismosttalentedandinwhichhecanexpresshisindividualitymosteffectivelyandwithgreatestsatisfactiontohimself.It may not be possible, however, for him to become a specialist for some

years,because thedemand forwork inhispreferred fieldmaybesmallor thenumber of artists seeking thework unduly large.The newcomer has no readymeansoflearningquicklyinwhichofhispreferredfieldsprogressislikelytobemost rapid for him, but, as in other professions, the man of ability andpersonalitywillfindhisdesirednicheinreasonabletime.

INDEX

AdvertisingLayout,Part7,255–288association,useof,273bridgingthegutter,267cartoons,275,283classificationofproducts,256–57feminineappeal,261,269,272,279,284,288fiftyelementsoflayout,258informalbalance,264,278institutionaladvertising,276–77masculineappeal,264,268,273,278,283moodselling,269productadvertising,271stockelements,259three-stageroughs,262–63triallayoutroughs,260

Animals,Part9,323–392;seeentriesfordogsbybreed;othersbycommonnamesArchery,183

Baseball,175,181–82BasicPlanes,34Beagle,347Bear,387Beaver,386Bighorn,383BlockMethod,13–15BlockMethod—Profile,16–17BlocktoCube,18–22Bones—arm,123dog,328–30foot,human,105–6hand,71horse,354,359leg,horse,359leg,human,124–25principalhumanbonemasses,116–18skull,cow,377skull,human,23,36–7

Boxer(dog),338Buffalo,382Bulldog,346

CashingIn,Part10,393–399advertisingagencies,396

agents,399artdirectors,396artistassalesman,394freelancing,395individualstyle,394markets,395portfolioofsamples,395preliminaryideasketches,396pricingscale,397specialization,399“stagefright,”howtoavoid,399

Cats,350–53Cattle,377–80Charcoaltechnique,7Chickens,390–91Chihuahua,342Children,howtodraw,36Chipmunk,389ChowChow,340CockerSpaniel,344Collie,339Composition,Part6,241–254bad,249,252balancein,243correctingbad,245,247crowdingofelements,244–45good,248,250–51,253–54monotony,245overcominglackofbalance,245

CreatingIllustrations,Part8,289–322Cowan,Jack,CreatesanIllustration,292–98KentMorgan’sLakeofOil,292–98oilpainting,outdoorscene,fivestages,A.D.Greer,318–19oilpainting,Western,threestages,320–22

Dachshund,340Deerfamily,384Distancerunning,184Diving,176Doganatomy,326–31Dogcartoons,335–37DrapedFigure,The,Part4,187–208clothing,men’s,189–92,194–97clothing,women’s,191,193,198,201–4,208drapery,205–7folds,stresspoints,wrinkles,189–98,201–8

Ducks,391

Ear—dog,326–27,331horse,356–57human,32–3

Elbow,122Eye—dog,327,331horse,356–57human,26–8

Excessweight,effectonface,25

Figure,TheHuman,111–186female,dancing,146,153,175female,frontandback,115female,kneeling,131,136–37,151–53(construction);170(finished)female,reclining,153(construction);9,67,158–9,172–73,199,265,333(finished)female,sitting,131–32,144,150,154–55(construction);133,139,142,156–57,160,169,171,174,299,367(finished)female,standing,129,135,138,140–41,143,145,147–49(construction);161–68(finished)male,frontandback,114

male,sportsandgames,175–86Fist,80,88Foot—dog,330duck,390feline,349human,bones,105–6human,shod,107–10human,unshod,106–7

Golf,180Gulls,390

Handlettering,286–87Hand,69–104bones,71–2clapping,75constructionstages,73–8,80–2,84–89feminine,87,91,94,95,100–3feminine,with—beerbottle,102jar,103nailfile,91pencil,100,103scissors,101string,95teaspoon,100

feminine,knitting,94feminine,threadingneedle,91fist,80,88importanceinconveyingstory,86importanceofproperposing,86masculine,with—beerbottle,93,98,102beerglass,93coin,90,104dentalinstrument,96glasses,79nail,92

paintbrush,92pencil,99playingcards,90razor,84reins,88ruler,99

playingpiano,90pointingforefinger,89,97pointingthumb,96,104pouringbeer,93,98roughandfinished,86–7shakinghands,83

Highjumping,184Hogs,381Hoof—cattle,378horse,354,358

Horses,354–376anatomy,354–61draft,362–63,376jumpers,366pacer,365runner,365trotter,365Western,369–75

Hurdling,184

Knee,122

Mannikins,126–28Mexicanscenes,250Moose,382Mouth—dog,326–27,331horse,355,357human,30–1

Muscles—arm,123hand,72head,human,24leg,human,124–25shoulder,horse,354torso,117–18,120–21

Neck,human,tendons,35Nose—cat,349dog,326–27,329,331horse,357human,29

Otter,386

PenandInktechnique,8Penciltechnique,7Perspective,Part5,209–240

circle,222circle-ellipse,222cityscene,231cube,234curvatureofearth,211cylinders,218,235draftingroom,238ellipse,218,237errors,common,223interior,226,230,238–39livingroom,239low-eye-levelhorizon,219,229onepoint,212,214,217,226,232outdoor,227–29,231–32,239–40pictureplane,215projectingfrommeasuringpointandplan,220railroadtracks,212,214–15,224–25,233suspensionbridge,239threepoint,224–25,234–35twopoint,233unusualscenes,228–29,232vanishingpoints,multiple,236Westernscenes240

Polevaulting,185Poodle,341Portraits—boys,248,251,285breakdowns,62–5children,48familygroup,66,253girls,46,52,276men,39–45,49–51,53–59,61,64–5,254,277,281men,smiling,39–40,42–45,49–51,53–55,57,59,61,281women,47,52–53,208,249,252,274,280,282,284,288women,smiling,47,53

Rabbits,388

St.Bernard,348Scratchboardtechnique,301–3Setters,325,342–43Sheep,381Shooting,177SportsandGames,175–86Sprinting,185Squirrels,389

Tennis,186Torso—bones,116–18female,119–20muscles,117–21

Trackathletics,176,178–79

Turkey,392

Washtechnique,8Westernscenes,240,320–22,369–75Wolf,385Wolfhound,345